Power Cable Failure Modes and Fault Location Methods, Practices and Strategies
Earle C. (Rusty) Bascom, III, Martin J. von Herrmann
Senior Member Member
Electrical Consulting Engineers, P.C. The VON Corporation
Schenectady, New York Birmingham, Alabama
Abstract  During the last 140 years, insulated cables have
been applied for power transmission and distribution, as well as
signaling and other purposes. While the basic functions of power
cables remain unchanged – providing a conductor to carry
current and a dielectric insulation to support the line-to-ground
voltage – the materials and characteristics used in power cables
have evolved. Cables experience faults, and some methods to find
those faults have changed as technologies have developed.
Classical bridge techniques are still used, often with improved
null detectors, but modern methods such as time domain
reflectometry and faulted circuit indicators provide novel
methods for better accuracy and faster location. This paper
summarizes recent work in both areas and provides background
on cable failure modes and typical fault location methods.
I. INTRODUCTION
Dating back to Thomas Edison’s first cable installations in
the 1870s in New York City, power cable fault location has
been a necessary part of operating and maintaining
underground cable systems as failures do occur, and owners
and operators of cable systems are continually looking for
improved methods – either in terms of accuracy or speed – to
perform fault location. Many times, the most successful fault
location efforts are achieved with a mix of classical fault
location methods and new technologies, and the most
knowledgeable technicians keep as many options available as
possible. Fortunately, there has been much progress in fault
location technology from the early “cut and try” and “re-
fusing” methods that resulted in multiple splices and additional
cable damage.
As with many skills, attrition of personnel has meant that
much of this expert knowledge has left the industry.
Organizations have put together detailed references to assist
the utility industry in retaining this knowledge, and suppliers
of fault location equipment incorporate novel features in their
equipment to aid field technicians in locating cable faults. This
paper summarizes methods, practices and strategies commonly
applied to fault location efforts [1,2,3,4].
II. CABLE SYSTEM CHARACTERISTICS
A. Fundamental Cable Functions
The two main components of power cables are the
conductor and insulation, with other cable features (sheath,
jacket, pipe, armor, etc.) serving to maintain the functions of
these basic components. The conductors (at the core, or
concentric in the metallic shield, sheath or neutral) carry
current and generally have a resistance that is consistent and
proportional along the length of the circuit unless there is an
unintended interruption (break).
The cable insulation (dielectric insulator) supports the
nominal line-to-ground voltage (and phase-to-phase voltage in
multi-core cables) and should withstand transients, impulses or
surges that may be experienced by the cable during normal
operation.
978-1-4799-3656-4/14/$31.00 ©2014 IEEE
Dr. Tiebin (Tom) Zhao
Senior Member
Electric Power Research Institute
Charlotte, North Carolina
Figure 1: Illustration of major cable components (conductor, insulation)
Joints (splices) join sections of cable together and must
restore the cable conducting path(s) and insulating
characteristics, and terminations must transition the cable to
other equipment by maintaining conducting path(s) and
transition insulating properties to other equipment.
When either the conductor or insulation is disrupted in its
basic function, the cable system is understood to have
experienced a fault that must be located.
B. Cable System Installation Characteristics
Cable circuit characteristics must be well understood to
evaluate applicable fault location methods. Some fault
location methods benefit from comparing faulted to unfaulted
cables or require a return conductor. Therefore, the number of
cables installed (1, 2 or 3 phases, presence of separate neutral,
etc) must be understood. The circuit length must be known as
equipment may be limited by the length that may be tested.
Sometimes tests applied from both ends may be helpful.
Cable splices have different impedance characteristics than
the cable itself so these may affect fault location test results,
either by displaying a variation in the cable characteristic,
blocking a portion of a test signal, or indicating that multiple
cable types or constructions are connected in series, possibly
from a previous cable repair. Variations in cable construction
affect resistance, capacitance and propagation velocity for test
signals that may be applied to the cable. Consulting utility or
owner records may help in evaluating these conditions.
Cable construction can have an impact on fault location. A
concentric shield is helpful for some methods (e.g., TDR) but
may block others (tone or tracer sets), though a jacket fault can
be located on cables with a metallic shield, sheath or
concentric neutral. The metallic shield may also be used as a
return conductor for some fault location methods. Inconsistent
characteristics (corroded, different cable types, etc.) can also
affect fault location.
Pinpointing a fault on cables in conduits or cable pipes can
be more difficult because the conduit/pipe blocks some of the
signal or effectively creates higher impedance for some fault
location methods. Acoustic or earth gradient methods can be
more difficult to interpret because the apparent source (sound
or signal) is translated to the ends of a conduit segment which
may be some distance away from the actual fault location.
Direct buried cables may provide better results for tracer
methods. Increased burial depth affects successful application
of tracer methods.
 Pipe lines, other cables or any other metallic system could
disperse measured signals that may complicate fault locating
efforts.
Terminal fault location methods have generally equal
effectiveness on direct buried, cables in conduit or pipe,
submarine or aerial cables, particularly if the cables have a
concentric metallic shield.
Documentation of plan and profile information, including
route maps, are often much more comprehensive for
transmission versus distribution cable systems, so simply
locating the cable and route may be easier for transmission
although circuit lengths may be substantially longer.
Transmission circuits are often networked so while a failure on
these system types may affect system load flows, individual
customers are less likely to be affected as compared to
distribution circuit outages. Restoration time for transmission
cables is usually measured in days to weeks while distribution
cable outages are often completed in hours to days.
C. Cable System Bonding Considerations
Sheath bonding on cable systems can affect the application
of fault location methods. Fully bonded (multiple-point
bonded) cables have the cable concentric neutral/shield/sheath
grounded at the terminals and usually at intermediate splice
points. This means that the neutral, shield and sheath are
continuous and remain concentric to the phase conductor(s).
Transmission cables have cross-bonding or single-point
bonding connections that often must be reconfigured to
perform fault location, or the fault location effort must be
focused on individual sections rather than the entire circuit.
III. FAULT TYPES
A. Shunt Fault
This fault type occurs when there is a breakdown in the
insulation between the conductor and the concentric shield or
between the concentric shield, neutral or sheath and ground.
Shunt faults may be either “high” or “low” impedance, which
is usually determined if the fault impedance is, respectively,
greater than or less than the surge impedance. Bolted or short
circuited faults have resistances less than 5 Ohms. Other faults
may be characterized by varying impedance levels as a
function of voltage and classified as “non-linear” faults; some
faults (usually at transmission voltages) may require in excess
of 30kV to create an arc, exceeding most commercially
available fault locators.
B. Series Fault
A series fault is a break or discontinuity (cut cables or open
conductors) in the phase conductor (as shown) or the
concentric metallic shield, sheath or neutral. A series fault that
results from neutral corrosion, a deteriorated splice or
termination, a burned conductor or a fault where water has
saturated the fault, the fault may display “non-linear”
characteristics in that the impedance may change depending on
the applied test voltage. In some cases, a shunt fault may
convert to a series fault as a result of excessive fault current.
Figure 2: Shunt (through resistance) and series (conductor break) faults
IV. FAILURE MODES
Cable circuit failures, including splices and terminations,
can result from one or more causes that may be categorized
based on the mode in which the failure occurs.
A. Manufacturing Failure Modes
Manufacturing defects occur in the factory when the cable
or major accessories are made. Factory acceptance tests are
intended to detect these defects before the cable is shipped and
installed. However, the cable may pass these tests and still
experience an in-service failure that must be located. Most of
the manufacturing defects relate to the insulation system on the
cable and are summarized here:
 Voids – Locations in the extruded insulation that are not
completely filled with extrudate. Ionization occurs at the
voids that can lead to electrical trees and failure.
 Contaminants – Impurities or particles in the extrudate
create sites for ionization that weakens the dielectric
strength of the insulating layer.
 Protrusions – These are locations where the conductor
shield or insulation shield protrude into the insulation,
resulting in areas of high electrical stress.
 Eccentricity – If the conductor is not coaxial to the
insulation, portions of the insulation wall thickness are
reduced potentially causing higher electrical stress. The
main concern with high eccentricity is successfully
interfacing the cable to accessories (splices, terminations).
 Dry Cable – Paper-insulated cables are taped with dry
kraft paper or laminated paper-polypropylene tapes that are
then saturated with dielectric liquid for varying durations
in large impregnation tanks. If the impregnation time is
insufficient or pressures are not adequately controlled,
incomplete saturation may occur that leaves dry spots.
Cables may also develop dry spots due to a combination of
long transit times, high ambient temperatures or failure to
rotate and maintain the reels while in storage. Dry cable
experiences waxing when exposed to voltage that can
eventually lead to dendrites, tracking and failure.
 Taping Defects – If cable butt gaps align between
successive taping layers creating a “registration”, these
may form voids in the insulation where higher electrical
stress can develop. Also, taping tensions may be outside
specifications such that wrinkles can develop when the
cables are bent during handling, installation or thermal-
mechanical bending while in service.
B. Construction and Installation Failure Modes
Commissioning tests should detect most installation related
cable and accessory failures, but some tests are completed
successfully and still result in in-service failures.
Additionally, some cables are not tested prior to being placed
in service. Various factors can affect cable system installations
that result in construction or installation related failures as
summarized here:
 Poor Installation Environment – For all cable types but
particularly transmission cables, assembling major
accessories (joints/splices, terminations) where the
environment is not adequately controlled can result in
cable circuit failures. Moisture, including high humidity,
 or airborne contaminants can affect the successful
installation.
 Duct (Conduit) or Pipe Integrity – In some cases, the
conduits or pipes in which the cables are installed may be
in poor condition, either from factors related to the initial
installation or due to deterioration over time. Passing a
mandrel through the conduit or pipe before pulling cable
normally detects problems. A jacket test on transmission
or distribution cable may pass even though the jacket has
been damaged because the conduit essentially provides
additional insulation to local ground.
 Defective Seal or Improper Assembly – Heat shrink
materials on splices may not be uniformly heated so there
is inadequate or incomplete sealing to the cable jacket to
prevent increases of moisture or contaminants. General
problems with assembly being done inappropriately can
lead to failures.
 Other External Damage – Damage to the cable may
occur from handling of reels, improperly applied or
installed backfills, directional drilling that hits a cable, etc.,
all of which may fail a cable.
C. Mechanical Failure Modes
Mechanical failure modes are those that generally result
from external factors or movement that somehow disrupts the
cable system and results in a failure. Mechanical failure
modes include:
 Thermal-Mechanical Bending (TMB) – This results from
chronic movement of cables due to load or other induced
(solar, ambient air) factor that causes the thermal
expansion and contraction of the cable system with
associated cable movement. Forces from cables in
conduits or pipes are translated to joints where mechanical
restraints (clamps, anchors, etc.) are insufficient. Some
cable sheath materials (e.g., lead) are susceptible to metal
fatigue that either disrupts the electrical path or permits
moisture ingress to the cable.
 Vibration – This generally affects cables suspended on or
under bridges where the cable sustains damage from
fatigue or the support system fails in some manner
resulting in adverse bending. Sources of vibration vary but
can include wind, vehicle traffic or precipitation.
 Physical Damage – This type of damage can result from
various sources including “dig-ins”, particularly for direct-
buried cables, vandalism, varmints, moisture ingress from
improper or insufficient seals or poor handling during
storage, transportation or installation.
D. Operational Failure Modes
Operational failures are those that occur after
commissioning or commissioning tests that may ultimately be
attributed to one of the failure mechanisms previously
discussed.
 Excessive Heating – Exceeding cable temperature limits
can cause cable insulation damage or result in excessive
radial (shield/sheath damage) or longitudinal expansion
(thermal mechanical bending-induced damage).
 Corrosion –Corrosion of the concentric neutral or metallic
shield sheath or the cable pipe can affect the ongoing
operation of the cable system. Reduction in the cross-
sectional area of the shield may result in excessive heating
as the cross-sectional area is reduced. The pipe on pipe-
type cable or metallic sheath on self-contained or paper-
lead cable contain the dielectric liquid that would
deteriorate in the presence of moisture or loss of pressure.
 Fluid Migration – Cable systems using impregnated paper
insulation may experience migration of the dielectric fluid
resulting in dry cable as discussed earlier.
 Treeing – Electrical trees, sometimes started as water
trees, form in insulation and bridge the dielectric gap
between the conductor and surrounding shield/neutral.
 Hydraulic Pressure – Extreme dielectric liquid pressure
can damage pipe-type and self-contained cables. High
pressure may cause mechanical failure of components,
while low pressure can allow ionization and eventual
tracking in the insulation.
V. FAULT LOCATION STRATEGIES
Fault location involves contact with potentially energized
equipment or using test equipment that may produce a voltage
or current, either of which may be sufficient to injure
personnel. As with any activity, safety should be a priority.
The fundamental consideration for fault location is to first
verify that a failure has occurred in the cable itself. This can
be indicated by the presence of blown fuses at either or both
ends of a cable section or directional relays indicating the
failure is within the cable; faulted circuit indicators may also
point to an issue within the cable. Basic verification may
include a resistance test to show an open or short in the
insulation or a simple voltage withstand test with AC (VLF,
50/60Hz) or DC voltage.
A. Terminal Methods and Pre-Location
As the name implies, terminal methods attempt to locate a
cable failure from the end connections of a cable either
through terminations, elbows or other types of disconnects that
provide access to the cable conductor and/or the concentric
metallic shield, neutral or sheath. When successful, the
methods only locate the cable fault approximately, so they are
often considered “pre-location” techniques. Common terminal
methods and their applications are listed in Table I.
TABLE I
METHODS FOR CABLE FAULT PRE-LOCATION (TERMINAL TECHNIQUES)
Method Applicable Fault Type
Bridge Measurement Low- or High-Resistance Shunt Faults
Burner Techniques High Resistance, Very High Voltage Flashover Faults
Arc Reflection High Resistance Faults
Current Impulse Method High Resistance Faults
Voltage Decay Method Very High Voltage Flashover Faults
B. Tracer Methods and Pinpointing (Precision Locating)
After pre-locating the cable fault, the need for more
accurate fault location must be assessed. For example, if the
fault location is localized to an area between manholes in a
duct bank, no further fault location may be required since the
entire manhole-to-manhole section could be replaced.
However, if additional accuracy or confirmation is needed, say
for a direct buried cable or for a longer cable circuit, a
precision fault location method must be applied to pinpoint the
location. Tracer methods are applied for pinpointing and most
commonly include the following:
 Modulated Direct Current can be difficult. This can be addressed by using a “burner” to
 Modulated Alternating Current lower the fault impedance (particularly on paper-insulated
 Audio Frequency cables, but at a cost of severe cable damage) or by coupling a
 Impulse (Capacitive Discharge or “Thumping”) TDR to a surge generator/thumper. The latter method
 Earth Gradient temporarily creates a lower impedance fault during which the
TDR can obtain a low impedance reflection (e.g., the “arc
C. Specific Fault Location Strategies reflection method”). Modern digital equipment will store this
Depending on the type of cable system, certain fault “faulted” trace, and allow comparison to the normal TDR
location strategies may be applied. These are summarized in trace. State-of-the-art commercially-available equipment
Table II. incorporates computer algorithms that aid the user by
TABLE II - FAULT LOCATION STRATEGIES automatically comparing the traces and indicating the
Cable Pre-Location Pinpointing approximate distance to the fault.
System Type
Distribution ● Arc Reflection ● Capacitive Discharge
(Isolated) (“Thumping”) with acoustic or
magnetic aids
Distribution ● Fusing (repeated
(Sectionalizing) application of fault current)
● Faulted Circuit Indicators -- Not Applicable --
● Arc Reflection
Network1 ● Arc Reflection may be ● Tone Tracing
used to exclude sections of ● Impulse Methods
network containing a fault ● Modulated A.C.
(testing from multiple ● Modulated D.C.
connections points ● Magnetic Detection
enhances effectiveness) ● Acoustic Detection
Transmission or● Bridge Methods ● Capacitive Discharge
Submarine ● Arc Reflection3 (“Thumping”) with acoustic or
● Voltage Decay (high flash- magnetic aids
over voltage) ● Impulse2
● Submarine pinpointing is very Figure 3: TDR test set coupled to a thumper (arc reflection)
difficult Current Impulse Method – The “current impulse
1
Historical local practices tend to dominate. Pre-location tends to be limited method” evaluates the traveling wave generated in the cable
due to complexity of applying methods to the system (presences of “T’s” or (instead of an external pulse) when the impulse generator
taps, transformers, etc.)
2
Consideration needed for capacitance of cable versus impulse generator size.
temporarily breaks down the cable fault. This technique has
3
May be limited due to long cable length or presence of cross-bonding
the advantage that more energy is used to create the traveling
shield/sheath connections. waves so longer cables may be tested, although interpreting
results is much more difficult, making this a seldom-used
VI. DESCRIPTION OF FAULT LOCATION METHODS method.
The following sections summarize the basic characteristics, Electrical Bridges – Bridge methods use an electrical
theories and application of various terminal (pre-locating) and bridge with known resistances and a null detector
tracer (pinpointing) fault location methods and equipment. (galvanometer) to determine the unknown distance to a fault
by using auxiliary cable (an un-faulted parallel cable works
A. Descriptions of Terminal (Pre-locating) Methods
well); see Fig. 4. With the known resistances, RA and RB
TDR - Time domain reflectometry (TDR, pulse-reflection (shown in Fig. 4), the distance to the fault, X, can be
method, pulse-echo method or cable radar) works well on determined.
short circuit faults (<150 Ohms) or series faults. After a pulse
is applied to the cable, reflections return to the test equipment
that characterizes the variations in impedance along the cable
which is viewed on an oscilloscope. Major deflections (cable
end, splices, faults) can be detected; upward deflections X
RA
 L  D
indicate increased impedances while downward deflections R A  RB
indicate decreased impedances to ground. TDR may be used Figure 4: Murray Bridge method for fault location.
to locate a fault by comparing the distance to the “end” of the Several other bridge techniques have been developed over
cable, possibly using an undamaged parallel phase, to the the years and consider the availability of other faulted or un-
faulted cable. The indicated distance may be different or a faulted cables, or where the cables may be of dis-similar types
deviation in the faulted trace as compared to a good phase may or per-unit resistances; detailed descriptions are available in
show the distance to the fault. A “three stake” or literature [1, 2].
“comparative” method can be used to stake the distance
indicated from TDR tests from both cable ends (two stakes); B. Descriptions of Tracer (Pinpointing) Methods
pinpointing to find the fault location (third stake) can be done Moduled AC/DC – Modulated direct current (DC) or
between the first two stakes. alternating current (AC) can be used to trace the portions of
Arc Reflection Method – The output voltage of a TDR is cable that have continuity to the location where the source is
no more than 50V typically, so locating high-impedance faults applied. The modulation makes the signal unique for the
technician to locate the fault by either checking the current to
ground or by finding a voltage drop along the conductor
(usually limited to the cable sheath). The method is limited to
low-resistance faults, possibly requiring a burner to condition
the fault, and large power output of the test equipment that
potentially could further damage the cable.
Tone Tracing – Similar to modulated AC or DC, tone
tracing applies a tone frequency to the cable’s metallic
shield/neutral/sheath that can be detected up to the point of the
fault but not beyond. The method is limited to situations with
low fault resistance and requires access to the cable to check
for the tone; this may be limited to intermediate manholes or
splice boxes.
Capacitor Discharge (“Thumping”) – In
this technique, a D.C. power source charges a
capacitor until a mechanical spark gap or
electronic trigger discharges the stored
capacitive energy into the cable causing a
momentary breakdown at the cable fault which
may be detected acoustically with (Fig. 5) or
without amplification or sometimes with a
radiofrequency or magnetic detector. This
method is simple to operate and easy to
understand, but there is a tendency to use
excessive voltage to increase the audible
“thump”. Prolonged application can damage Fig. 5 – Acoustic
the cable in the vicinity of the failure or amplifier
elsewhere due to the repeated impulse. Thumping is probably
the most common fault location technique applied and for
some situations is the only method applied. Effective pre-
locating is the best way to avoid damage from prolonged
applications of thumping.
Earth Gradient – When there is a fault to ground (most
common with a jacket fault or unshielded distribution cable), a
thumper or D.C. voltage source applies a voltage gradient into
the soil. A zero center volt meter with two probes spaced ~1m
(3ft) apart will provide a directional indication towards the
fault with greater deflections indicating closer proximity to the
fault until directly above it (see Fig. 6). Interpreting the
measurements is complicated by other cables, pipes or types of
underground conductors in the vicinity.
Figure 6: Earth gradient method and simulated readings
VII. CONCLUSIONS
Many approaches can be considered to locate failures in
underground power cable systems. Through the careful
selection and application of appropriate methods both new and
old, fault location can successfully be performed.
VIII. REFERENCES
[1] IEEE 1234-2007, “Guide for Fault-Locating Techniques on
Shielded Power Cable Systems”.
[2] E.C. Bascom, III, D.W. Von Dollen, H.W. Ng,
“Computerized Underground Cable Fault Location
Expertise”, Transactions of the IEEE Transmission &
Distribution Conferences, location, 1994.
[3] R.L. Amonte, “URD Cable Fault Locations for the 1990s”,
presented at 42nd Annual Power Distribution Conference,
Austin, TX, October 24, 1989.
[4] Underground Cable Fault Location Reference and
Application Guide, EPRI Report 1023060, Palo Alto, CA.
[5] IEEE 1511-2004, “Guide for Investigating and Analyzing
Shielded Power Cable Failures on Systems Rated 5kV
Through 46kV”.
[6] Underground Systems Reference Book, Edison Electric
Institute, Transmission and Distribution Committee, 1957.
IX. BIOGRAPHIES
Earle C. (Rusty) Bascom, III (M’1989-SM’) holds B.S. and
M.E. degrees in Electric Power Engineering from Rensselaer
Polytechnic Institute and an M.B.A. from the University of
New York at Albany. Mr. Bascom began his career in 1990
working with underground cable systems at Power
Technologies, Inc. and, later, Power Delivery Consultants, Inc.
before founding Electrical Consulting Engineers, P.C. in 2010
where as a Principal Engineer he continues to provide
engineering services in the analysis, design, specification,
installation oversight and operational characteristics of
underground and submarine transmission and distribution
cable systems. He is a Senior Member of the IEEE, Power &
Energy Society, a Voting Member of the Insulated Conductors
Committee and Standards Association, a member of CIGRÉ,
and a registered professional engineer in NY, FL and TX. He
can be contacted at r.bascom@ec-engineers.com.
Martin J. von Herrmann (M'1996) holds a BSEE from the
Georgia Institute of Technology. In his 19 years with The
VON Corporation, Martin has gained extensive experience
with high voltage electrical test and underground cable fault
location equipment. He has been involved in development,
manufacturing, sales and support of equipment used by electric
utilities around the world to locate underground cable faults,
and to electrically test shielded power cables and systems,
generators, insulated aerial lift devices, and electrical
protective equipment. He is a member of the IEEE, Power &
Energy Society, Dielectrics & Electrical Insulation Society,
and the Standards Association. He currently serves on the
Adcom of the Insulated Conductor's Committee. He can be
contacted at mvh@voncorp.com.
Dr. Tiebin (Tom) Zhao (SM’) holds B.S. and M.S. degrees
both in Electrical Engineering from Tsinghua University,
China, and a PhD in Power Systems and High Voltage
Engineering from the Ohio State University in Columbus. Dr.
Zhao is Program Manager of EPRI Underground
Transmission. His current research activities focus on
underground transmission technology, design, construction,
inspection, and assessment for both extruded and laminar
dielectric cable systems. Before joining EPRI, Dr. Zhao
worked for FirstEnergy Corporation and Hubbell Power
Systems. Dr. Zhao is a Senior Member of IEEE, a Voting
Member of IEEE Insulated Conductors Committee, and a
Member of CIGRÉ. He can be contacted at tzhao@epri.com