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DOI: 10.2240/azojono0115
Topics Covered
Abstract
Keywords
Introduction
Mass Sensitive Detection by Microcantilevers
Microcantilever Deflection Detection Methods
The Piezoresistive Deflection Detection Method
The Optical Deflection Detection Method
The Capacitive Deflection Detection Method
The Interferometry Deflection Detection Method
The Optical Diffraction Grating Deflection Detection Method
The Charge Coupled Device (CCD) Detection Method
Mechanical Properties of Cantilever
Bending Behavior of Cantilever Beams
Microcantilever Sensors
Materials Used in Commercial Cantilevers
Cantilevers Use in Non-Contact Modes
Advantages of Microcantilever-Based Sensors
Types of Sensors Based on Micro and Nanocantilevers
Sensing Applications of Microcantilevers in Physics and Chemistry
Humidity Sensors
Herbicide Sensors
Metal Ion Sensors
Temperature Sensors / Heat Sensors
Viscosity Sensors
Calorimetry Sensors
Sensor Detecting Magnetic Beads
Cantilever Based Telemetry Sensors
Microsensors to Monitor Missile Storage and Maintenance Needs
Remote Infrared Radiation Detection Sensors
Explosives Detection Devices
Sensing Applications of Microcantilevers in the Field of Disease Diagnosis
Cancer Detecting Microchips
Myoglobin Detection Sensors
Biosensor for Coronary Heart Disease
Cantilever Based Sensors to Detect Single-Nucleotide Polymorphisms
Biochips
Nanocantilevers: A Major Breakthrough in Sensors
Conclusions
References
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Abstract
Microelectromechanical Systems (MEMS) [1,2] have come into existence only in the last
decade. Microcantilevers are the most simplified MEMS based devices. Diverse applications of
microcantilevers in the field of sensors have been explored by many researchers. Several
groups have also shown the possibility of using microcantilevers for the diagnosis of prostate
cancer [3], myocardial infarction [4] and glucose monitoring [5]. Scientists are chasing the
vision of making miniaturized biochips based on an array of microcantilevers, which can detect
several routinely diagnosed diseases simultaneously in the clinical laboratory. Recently the
development of nanocantilevers have scaled down the technology further with the capability of
ultra sensitive detection of analytes combined with high throughput.
Keywords
Microcantilevers, sensors, diagnostics, MEMS
Introduction
Molecular diagnostic devices are getting smaller with the advancement of miniaturization
technologies. There is increasing interest in the field of biosensor research on miniaturized
platforms. Miniaturization is essential for in vivo physiological monitoring, multiple specificity
sensor arrays, sensor portability and minimized sample volumes. Conventional biosensors
need extensive packaging, complex electronic interfacing and regular maintenance. These
drawbacks could be reduced by the use of MEMS devices that integrate electronics and
micromechanical structures on chips.
Microcantilevers have been employed for physical, chemical and biological sensing. They have
also have wide applications in the field of medicine, specifically for the screening of diseases,
detection of point mutations, blood glucose monitoring and detection of chemical and biological
warfare agents. These sensors have several advantages over the conventional analytical
techniques in terms of high sensitivity, low cost, simple procedure, low analyte requirement (in
µl), non-hazardous procedures and quick response. Moreover, the technology has been
developed in the last few years for the fabrication and use of nanocantilevers for sensing
applications, thereby giving rise to nanoelectromechanical systems (NEMS). This development
has increased the sensitivity limit up to the extent that researchers can now visualize the
counting of molecules. With the ability of high throughput analysis of analytes and ultra
sensitive detection, this technology holds tremendous promise for the next generation of
miniaturized and highly sensitive sensors.
Figure 1. Different types of microcantilevers (top view) (a) Rectangular (b) Double-legged (c)
Triangular.
Molecules adsorbed on a microcantilever cause vibrational frequency changes and deflection of
the microcantilever. Viscosity, density, and flow rate can be measured by detecting changes in
the vibrational frequency.
Another way of detecting molecular adsorption is by measuring deflection of the cantilever due
to adsorption stress on just one side of the cantilever. Depending on the nature of chemical
bonding of the molecule, the deflection can be up or down. Biochips with mechanical detection
systems commonly use microcantilever bi-material (e.g. Au–Si) beams as sensing elements.
The Au side is usually coated with a certain receptor. Upon the binding of the analyte (e.g.
biological molecules, such as proteins or biological agents) with the receptor, the receptor
surface is either tensioned or relieved. This causes the microcantilever to deflect, usually in
nanometers, which can be measured using optical techniques. The deflection is proportional to
the analyte concentration. The concept has been employed in screening certain diseases such
as cancer and detecting specific chemical and biological warfare agents.
Figure 2. The Wheatstone Bridge Circuit used for the piezoresistive microcantilever.
The resistance of the variable resistance arm ( R0 + ΔR ) in the above figure can be determined
by using the common Voltage divider formula and is shown as below:
0.162 E. h 3 . W
f res =
ρ .l 2
where ρ is the mass density, h and w denotes the height and the width of the cantilever
respectively. The moment of inertia for a rectangular cantilever can be written as
w. h 3
I= 3
l
A simpler expression for the resonance frequency can be written as a function of the spring
constant as
0.32 k
f res =
m
where mass, m=ρ.h.l.w. The relation shows that the resonance frequency increases as a
function of increasing spring constant and of decreasing cantilever mass.
The use of microcantilevers has been understood worldwide but the biomechanics [14] and the
underlying mechanism of microcantilever deflection is not yet fully established.
bh 3
I=
12
The change in the surface stress at one side of the beam will cause static bending, and the
bending moment can be calculated as:
Δσ bh
M=
2
Δσ = σ1 – σ2 is the differential surface stress with σ1 and σ2 as surface stress at the upper and
lower side of the cantilever respectively (figure 5). Inserting these values of I and M in the first
equation yields Stoney’s formula [15]:
6(1 - υ ) Δσ
1/R =
Eh 2
Figure 4. Bending of a cantilever beam in response to compressive and tensile stresses. (a)
Compressive surface stress due to repulsion between the biomolecules leads to
downward/negative deflection of the cantilever beam. (b) Tensile surface stress due to
attraction between molecules leads to upward/positive deflection of the cantilever beam.
3L2 (1 - υ ) Δσ
s=
Eh 2
Changes in surface stress can be the result of adsorption process or electrostatic interactions
between charged molecules on the surface as well as changes in the surface hydrophobicity
and conformational changes of the adsorbed molecules.
In addition to surface stress-induced bending, the volume expansion of bimaterial cantilevers
can result in a static bending. A bimaterial cantilever undergoes bending due to gas adsorption
if the volume expansion coefficients of the two materials are different.
Microcantilever Sensors
Biosensing applications demand fast, easy-to-use, cheap and highly sensitive methods for
detecting analytes along with the capability for high-throughput screening. All these points can
be fulfilled by micromachined cantilever sensors, which are therefore ideal candidates for
biosensing applications. The various applications of microcantilever based sensors are
summarized in Figure 6.
hazardous procedure with fewer steps, quick response and low power requirement. Substances
at trace levels are currently detected by various techniques like high performance liquid
chromatography (HPLC), thin layer chromatography (TLC), gas chromatography (GC), gas
liquid chromatography (GLC) etc. However, these techniques are complex, time consuming,
costly and require bulky instrumentation. Also sample preparation is a prolonged complex
procedure and requires skilled personnel. But the microcantilever-based sensors can detect
trace amounts of substances in parts-per-billion (ppb) and parts-per-trillion (ppt). They
translate biomolecular recognition into nanomechanical bending of the microcantilever [17].
Intermolecular forces arising from the adsorption of analyte molecules onto the microcantilever
induce surface stress, directly resulting in nanomechanical bending of the microcantilever.
Humidity Sensors
The humidity in the environment can be measured if one side of microcantilever is coated with
gelatin [18]. Gelatin binds to the water vapors present in the atmosphere, thereby causing the
bending of the cantilever. Researchers at Oak Ridge National Laboratory (ORNL), USA showed
that cantilevers coated with hygroscopic materials such as phosphoric acid can be used as a
sensor for detecting water vapour with picogram mass resolution [19]. When water vapors are
adsorbed on the coated surface of the cantilever, there is change in the resonance frequency
of microcantilevers and cantilever deflection. Sensitivity of microcantilevers can be increased
by coating its surface with materials having a high affinity for the analyte.
Herbicide Sensors
Microcantilevers have been used to detect the concentration of herbicides in the liquid
environment by Roberto Raiteri and co-workers [20]. The herbicide 2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic
acid (2,4-D) was coated on the upper surface of the cantilever. The monoclonal antibody
against 2,4-D was then provided to the cantilever. The specific interaction between the
monoclonal antibody and the herbicide caused the bending of the cantilever. A lot of research
is going on to develop antibody coated cantilever immunobiosensors for the detection of
organochlorine and organophosphorous pesticides and herbicides present at ng/l concentration
in aqueous media. Alvarez and Co-workers demonstrated the use of microcantilevers for the
detection of pesticide dichloro dipheny trichloroethane (DDT) [21].
perform photothermal spectroscopy [23] with a sensitivity of 150 fJ and a sub-millisecond time
resolution. They can detect heat changes with attojoule sensitivity.
Viscosity Sensors
Changes in the medium viscoelasticity shift the cantilever resonance frequency. A highly
viscous medium surrounding the cantilever as well as an added mass will damp the cantilever
oscillation lowering its fundamental resonance frequency. Cantilevers can therefore be vibrated
by piezoelectric actuators to resonate and used as viscosity meters [24].
Calorimetry Sensors
In these sensors, only the temperature changes are to be measured [25,26]. Most of the
chemical reactions are associated with a change in heat. So, calorimetry has got tremendous
potential to identify a wide range of compounds. Enzymes like glucose oxidase can be
immobilized and coated on the surface of the microcantilever, which will react specifically with
glucose in the solution producing a recognizable calorimetric signal. Due to the tiny thermal
mass and sensitivity of the cantilever, calorimetry sensors employing cantilevers will be next
generation of sensors for detecting temperature changes.
bending of the microcantilever. Two dimensional cantilever arrays can be used for IR imaging
as they are simple, highly sensitive and fast responding.
Biochips
Recent advances in biochips [41,42] have shown that sensors based on the bending of
microfabricated cantilevers have potential advantages over previously used detection methods.
Biochips with mechanical detection systems use microcantilever bimaterial (e.g. Au–Si) beams
as sensing elements. The Au side is usually coated with a certain receptor. Upon the binding of
the analyte (e.g. biological molecules, such as proteins or biological agents) with the receptor,
the receptor surface is either tensioned or relieved. This causes the microcantilever to deflect
and the deflection was found to be proportional to the analyte concentration. Examples of
bindings in biomolecular (receptor/analyte) applications are: antibody–antigen bindings or DNA
hybridization of a pair of DNA strands (receptor/analyte) having complementary sequences
[42]. Biochips having microcantilevers as sensing elements do not require external power,
labelling, external electronics or fluorescent molecules or signal transduction for their
operation. These types of biochips can be used in screening certain diseases such as cancer
and detecting specific chemical and biological warfare agents such as botulinum toxin, anthrax,
Volume 3 | June 2007 Page 12 of 15 DOI: 10.2240/azojono0115
A Review of Microcantilevers for Sensing Applications
and aflatoxin. A chemical sensor based on a micromechanical cantilever array has been
demonstrated by Battison and co-workers [37].
Conclusions
Microcantilevers have got potential applications in every field of science ranging from physical
and chemical sensing to biological disease diagnosis. The major advantages of employing
microcantilevers as sensing mechanisms over the conventional sensors include their high
sensitivity, low cost, low analyte requirement (in µl), non-hazardous procedure with fewer
steps (obviating the need for labels), quick response and low power requirement. Most
important is the fact that an array of microcantilevers can be employed for the diagnosis of
large numbers of analytes such as various disease biomarkers of a single disease in a single go
thus having tremendous high throughput analysis capabilities. The technology holds the key to
the next generation of highly sensitive sensors. With the development of the technology for
nanocantilevers, sensors have achieved attogram sensitivity, which has until recently only
been a dream for researchers. Further increases in sensitivity will allow researchers the ability
to count the numbers of molecules.
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