6.salinan Terjemahan 2014JE004755

PUBLIKA
SI
Jurnal Penelitian Geofisika: Planet-
planet
disipasi
PENELITIAN
James G. Williams1 dan Dale. H.
ARTIKEL 10.1002 / Boggs1
2014JE004755
Jet Propulsion Laboratory, Institut Teknologi California, Pasadena,
1
Poin-Poin
Utama: California, AS.
• Jumlah cinta pasang surut dan faktor
kualitas Q tergantung pada periode
• Pembuangan pasang surut 1 /Q
puncak pada periode beberapa bulan
Abstrak Gelombang pasang tubuh yang padat di Bulan bervariasi sekitar ± 0,1m setiap bulan.
dan berkurang di luar Selain perubahan bentuk, medan gravitasi Bulan dan orientasi dalam ruang dipengaruhi oleh pasang
• Pita absorpsi dan model waktu surut. Ekspresi pasang surut untuk bola elastis kompak, tetapi disipasi memperkenalkan modifikasi
relaksasi yang sempit fit disunasi
pasang surut bulan
yang bergantung pada periode pemaksaan. Akibatnya, representasi Fourier dari potensi peningkatan
pasang surut diperlukan. Model matematika untuk potensi pasang surut yang disebabkan oleh
distorsi dapat digunakan untuk analisis data pelacakan pesawat ruang angkasa yang tepat. Karena
pasang surut mempengaruhi torsi gravitasi di Bulan dari daya tarik Bumi, orientasi bulan juga
Korespondensi ke: JG
terpengaruh. Ekspresi untuk lima gangguan orientasi periodik disajikan. Sifat reologis dari bahan
Williams,
James.G.Williams@jpl.nasa.g bulan menentukan bagaimana Bulan merespons periode pasang surut yang berbeda. Solusi baru
ov mulai laser bulan untuk istilah orientasi pasut disajikan. Faktor kualitas Q adalah 38 ± 4 pada 1
bulan, 41 ± 9 pada 1 tahun, ≥74 pada 3 tahun, dan ≥58 pada 6 tahun. Hasil rentang dapat
Kutipan: Williams, JG, dan DH Boggs dicocokkan dengan model pita serapan yang memuncak pada ~ 120 hari dan model waktu relaksasi
(2015), Tides on the Moon: Teori dan tunggal yang memuncak pada ~ 100 hari. Model gabungan adalah kemungkinan. Pembuangan
tekad disipasi, J. Geophys. Res. Planet,
dapat mengubah solusi rentang laser; inti yang dilaporkan sebelumnya terlalu tidak pasti untuk
120, 689-724, doi: 10.1002 /
2014JE004755. berguna. Disipasi pasang surut yang kuat, dimodelkan muncul di mantel panas yang dalam,
tampaknya berasal dari daerah dengan radius ≥535 km. Disipasi tipe Maxwell klasik terlalu lemah
Diterima 8 NOVA 2014 Diterima 23 untuk dideteksi pada periode 3 dan 6 tahun.
FEB 2015 Artikel diterima online 26
FEB 2015 Diterbitkan online 15 April
2015
1.
ulan: Teori dan penentuan
Pendahuluan
Daya tarik gravitasi Bumi dan Matahari meningkatkan pasang surut di benda padat Bulan. Angka cinta mengga
k2 untuk perubahan potensial, h2 untuk perpindahan vertikal, dan l2 untukhorisontal perpindahan. Data pela
diperoleh oleh misi Gravity Recovery and Interior Laboratory (GRAIL) [Zuber et al., 2013]. Dua analisis dari dat
Lemoine et al., 2013] memberikan angka Cinta rata-rata k2 yaitu 0,02416 ± 0,00022 [Williams et al., 2014a].
disertai dengan disipasi; distorsi yang merespons tertinggal dari gaya pasang surut. Untuk Bulan, analisis data
menunjukkan bahwa pasang surut bulananBumi sekitar 0,1 hari [Williams et almelampaui tekanan., 2001, 2013
bulanan ini sesuai dengan faktor kualitas Q sekitar 38; bagian 6 memberikan informasi lebih lanjut.
Kami berkonsentrasi pada pasang surut yang ditimbulkan oleh Bumi, yang jauh lebih besar daripada yang ditim
Orbit Bulan eksentrik dan cenderung. Karena rotasi Bulan selaras dengan orbitnya, tonjolan pasang surut bero
dan utara ke selatan selama setiap bulan. Karena disipasi, tonjolan ini mengikuti gerakan titik sub-Bumi di Bul
orbit bulan menyebabkan variasi besar pada periode 2 minggu, 1 bulan, 7 bulan, dan 1 tahun. Argumen preses
6,0 tahun dan node presesi dalam 18,6 tahun. Akibatnya, kekuatan pasang surut dapat dinyatakan sebagai jum
minggu ke tahun. Untuk rentang periode yang begitu luas, kita harus mempertimbangkan distorsi pasut, angka
bergantung pada periode. Makalah ini meneliti ketergantungan nomor Cinta k2 dan komponen disipatif k2/Q pa
Distorsi pasang surut, termasuk yang dari disipasi, mempengaruhi orientasi Bulan, yang dipantau oleh LLR. Dis
terdeteksi pada periode pasang surut bulanan dan tahunan oleh Williams et al. [2001]. Makalah itu memberikan
istilah terkait disipasi pasang surut lainnya dan juga melaporkan disipasi pada batas inti-mantel bulan (CMB). M
diperkirakan meningkat dengan periode pasang surut, makalah itu menemukan penurunan. Makalah tahun 200
sumber disipasi kuat adalah lapisan pelemahan kecepatan rendah yang dalam yang ditemukan oleh seismolog
1974]. Lapisan ini mungkin meleleh sebagian. Studi terbaru terus fokus pada sumber mantel dalam suhu tinggi
parsial [Efroimsky, 2012a; Harada et al., 2014; Khan et al., 2014] atau tidak [Nimmo et al., 2012; Karato, 2013]
disipasi pasang surut yang kuat tampaknya terhubung dengan sifat-sifat interior bulan dalam dan yang membu
lebih lanjut.
WILLIAM DAN BOGGS © 2015. American Geophysical Union. Seluruh hak cipta. 689
Jurnal Penelitian Geofisika: Planet 10.1002 / 2014JE004755
Perhitungan pasang elastis sempurna untuk benda bulat dipahami dengan baik. Contohnya adalah Sutton et a
Cheng dan Toksöz [1978], dan Ooe dan Hanada [1992]. Makalah ini menyajikan modifikasi yang diperlukan un
menghitung potensi pasut yang akan mempengaruhi pesawat ruang angkasa yang mengorbit di bagian 2, dan
di bagian 3. Bagian 4 memperbarui perhitungan efek pasut pada orientasi bulan, yang memengaruhi laser bula
yang berbeda dipertimbangkan dalam bagian 5. Bagian 6 menyajikan hasil dari data fit untuk laser mulai bulan
hasil tersebut dengan berbagai model reologi. Diskusi literatur dan mekanisme diberikan di bagian 7, kemungk
dibahas di bagian 8, dan ringkasan diberikan di bagian 9. Daftar notasi mengikuti tiga lampiran.
2. Potensi Pasang Surut

Di sepanjang diameter Bulan, tarikan gravitasi Bumi dan Matahari tidak konstan. Potensi yang sesuai dapat din
dari potensi di pusat Bulan dan potensi pasang surut noncentral istilah W2, W3,dll meningkatkan derajat. Pas
menyebabkan Bulan untuk mendistorsi dan orang-orang distorsi menghasilkan tambahan hal potensial V2, V
dideteksi dari pelacakan dari orbit pesawat ruang angkasa. Pada bagian ini kami berkonsentrasi pada istilah p
pasang surut terbesar, derajat 2W2, dan potensi V2 yang timbul dari distorsi derajat 2.
Potensi peningkatan pasang surut tingkat kedua dari Bumi atau Matahari pada titik di jari-jari r dari pusat Bulan
À 3cos2 Á
θÀ1 (1) di
W2 ð r, θ Þ 1⁄4
GM 2r′ ′r3 2
mana G adalah konstanta gravitasi, M′ adalah massa badan yang menaikkan pasang surut, θ adalah sudut ber
eksternal dan titik yang dipilih untuk potensial, r′ adalah jarak dari pusat Bulan ke pusat tubuh, dan r <r′. Fungsi
derajat 2 Legendre polinomial, P2(cos θ). Untuk pasang naik oleh Bumi, pasang naik derajat ketiga dan leb
2 orde magnitudo (R/r′ ≈ 0,005) per derajat. Untuk potensi dalam makalah ini, massa berlebih memberikan pot
yang lebih kuat, yang merupakan konvensi tanda umum dalam geodesi dan astronomi.
Untuk r sama dengan radius referensi R ke permukaan, bentuk paling sederhana untuk potensi pada permuka
surut elastis dari benda simetris berbentuk bola adalah
V2 ð R, θ Þ 1⁄4 k2W2 ð R, θ Þ, (2) di mana k2 adalah angka 2 angka Cinta yang tergantung p
kepadatan, dan struktur Bulan. Potensi permukaan memiliki bentuk bola harmonik derajat 2. Akibatnya, untuk
jari r≥R, potensi dari distorsi pasut adalah
À 3cos2 Á
θÀ1 ( 3)
V2 ð r, θ ⁄ 1⁄4
k2GM′R2r′3r3 5
Sekarang θ adalah sudut berpusat Bulan antara tubuh yang menaikkan pasang dan titik eksternal pada
persamaan (3) sehubungan dengan koordinat yang tidak di -rim memberikan akselerasi. Untukdiberikan r yang
adalah yang terkuat langsung menuju atau menjauh dari badan yang menaikkan pasang surut, di mana θ adala
Jika respon pasang surut bulan elastis tanpa disipasi, maka persamaan (2) dan (3) dan gradien persamaan (3)
disipasi pasang surut, dua hal terjadi: Love number k2 tergantung pada periode paksa Pdan ada pergeseran fa
terdistorsi dan potensinya. Modifikasi ini dapat direpresentasikan dengan kompleks k2* (P) yang ditampung de
persamaan (1) menjadi deret Fourier dan mengalikan setiapdengan k2* (Pq), di mana Pq sukuadalah period
komponen Fourier . Potensi peningkatan pasang surut W2(r, θ) dari persamaan (1) sebanding dengan (a/rr
mana r′ dan θ bergantung pada waktu t. Medan gravitasi statis secara konvensional dijelaskan oleh koefisien h
sehingga lebih mudah untuk mewakili potensial W2 dengan koefisien harmonik bola variabel ΔC2m(t) dan ΔS
pesanan m≤ 2 Lampiran A menjelaskan bagaimana W2 diekspresikan dalamgeografis bulan koordinatden

harmonik bola. Orbit Bulan memiliki periode rata-rata yang didefinisikan dengan baik untuk sirkulasi sidereal (2
perigee (8,85 tahun), dan presesi node (18,6 tahun). Ada gangguan besar oleh Matahari, tetapi itu tergantung p
Sun. Rotasi sinkron berbagi periode sidereal 27,322 hari. Sebagai konsekuensi dari keteraturan ini, masing-masing koefisien tanpa dim
ΔS2m(t) dari persamaan (A4) - (A8) dapat diperluas ke deret Fourier dengan koefisien konstan C2mq atau S2mq dan argumen ζ q(t)
ΔC20 tðÞ1⁄4 Xq WILLIAM DAN BOGGS © 2015. American Geophysical Union. Seluruh hak cipta. 691 C20qcos ζ q tð Þ (4)
X C22qcos ζ
ΔC21 tðÞ1⁄4 Xq C21qsin ζ q tð Þ (5) ΔS21 tðÞ1⁄4 Xq S21qcos ζ q tð Þ (6) ΔC22 tðÞ1⁄4 q q tð Þ (7) ΔS22 tðÞ1⁄4 Xq S22
mana q berada indeks untuk persyaratan periodik. Kami menggunakan fungsi harmonik bola tidak normal dalam makalah ini; lihat Lamp
Argumen ζ q(t)adalah kombinasi linear dari lima sudut yang memiliki positifdζ q(t)/ dt.Periode yang sesuai adalah Pq. Sudut dalam a
didefinisikan sebagai berikut:

l dievaluasi dari polinomial untuk rata-rata anomali Bulan; l'adalah representasi polinomial untuk anomali rata-rata Matahari seperti yang
sistem Bumi-Bulan; F adalah polinomial untuk argumen garis lintang Bulan; D adalah polinomial untuk perbedaan bujur rata-rata Bulan d
L'); dan Ω adalah representasi polinomial untuk simpul bidang orbit pada bidang ekliptika.
Periode lima sudut masing-masing adalah 27,555 hari, 365,260 hari, 27,212 hari, 29,531 hari, dan 18,6 tahun. Istilah dengan sudut l'atau
perturbasi matahari di orbit atau pasang surut matahari di Bulan. The pasang diangkat oleh Sun terutama mempengaruhi m = 2 kompon
dengan argumen 2D.Ekspresi polinom dapat ditemukan di Chapront-Touzé dan Chapront [1988], Simon et al. [1994], atau Petit dan Luz
Analisis Fourier lima dimensi dari koefisien ΔC2m(t) dan ΔS2m(t) tergantung pada lima sudut sebelumnya. Argumen, periode, dan koefis
dalam Tabel 1. Fungsi harmonis bola dan koefisien tidak dinormalisasi. Ekspansi mencakup pasang surut yang ditimbulkan oleh B umi d
Yang pertama lebih besar dari yang kedua. Bahkan yang lebih kecil adalah distorsi putaran yang juga termasuk dalam ekspansi Tabel 1
melibatkan simpul Ω lebih kecil dari level pemotongan untuk tabel. Informasi lebih lanjut tentang ekspansi Fourier diberikan di bagian 3.2
mengkonversi koefisien yang tidak dinormalisasi menjadi koefisien yang dinormalisasi, kalikan koefisien C20 dengan 1 / √5, koefisien C
dengan √ (3/5), dan C22 dan S22 koefisienoleh 2√ (3/5) .

Angka Cinta k2 dari persamaan (2) dan (3) adalah konstan untuk respons elastis, tetapi dengan disipasi, potensi dari Bulan yang te
membutuhkan pengali setiap istilah periodik dalam persamaan (4) - (8) oleh sebuah kompleks k2* (Pq) itu tergantung pada periode Pq.
(Pq) memiliki amplitudo |k2* (Pq) | dan fase –Δζ q, di mana tan (Δζ q) = ÀIm [k2* (Pq)] / Re [k2* (Pq)].
Re k2 * À Pq Á Ã 1⁄4 k2* À Pq Á cos À Δζ q Á (9) k2* À Pq ÁIm exp Â kÂ iζ 2* q À tð PÞ q Ã Á Ã 1⁄4 1⁄4 kÀ 2 * kÀ 2* Pq À Á P ex
ζ q ttðÞÀ q Á
Untuk tingkat argumen positif, Δζ q = Δζ (Pq) adalah positif untuk disipasi energi. Kami mendefinisikan dosa (Δζ q) = 1 /Q(Pq), di man
faktor kualitas karena disipasi.

Hasil sebelumnya [Williams et al., 2001, 2014a] dan bagian 6 menunjukkan bahwa pada periode 1 bulan Q ≈ 38 sehingga |k2* | > Re (k2
di mana cos (Δζ) = √ (1–1 /Q2) ≈ 0.9997 pada 1 bulan. Untuk periode pasang surut di dekatnya, ada sedikit perbedaan numerik ant
dan komponen sebenarnya. Akibatnya, untuk singkatnya, ada kalanya k2(Pq) dapat digunakan sebagai ganti Re [k2* (Pq)] dan - (k2/
Tabel 1. Fourier Dihasilkan oleh Bumi Seri dan untuk Matahari Tidak Dinormalisasi Plus Potensi Bulat Dihasilkan Harmonik oleh Koefisien Spin Selesai untuk hingg
10À9Surut
2Potensi Meningkatkan Pasang
Argumenζ q Periode (hari) C20q, 10À9 C21q, 10À9 S21q, 10À9 C22q, 10À9 S22q, 10À9
F 27.212 0 À869.6 À4.4 0 0 l 27.555 À605.4 0 0 302.2 407.1 2DÀ l 31.812 À115.6 0 0 53.7 81.0 2D 14.765 À101.1 0 0 68.8 44.4 2l 13.777 À49.7 0 0 47.0 46.9 F +
47.2 0 0 2F 13.606 À75.6 0 0 12.5 À13.1 F À l 2190.350 0 À18.0 À47.2 0 0D+ l 9.614 À16.1 0 0 13.8 13.5 l′ 365.260 À0.1 0 0 À0.8 À13.6 2D + F À l 14.666 0 À22.5
9.572 0 À19.1 7.3 0 0 2l + F 9.146 0 À13.9 8.0 0 0 2D À F 32.281 0 À12.2 À4.9 0 0 F + l À 2D 188.201 0 À3.6 À11.1 0 0 2F + l 9.108 À14.5 0 0 1.0 À1.1 2l À 2D 20
À4.7 2D À l′ 15.387 À6 .6 0 0 4.2 3.5 3l 9.185 À4.0 0 0 5.3 5.3 2F À l 26.878 5.2 0 0 À0.2 À2.5 2D À l À l′ 34.847 À4.9 0 0 2.5 3.8
untuk Im (k2* (Pq)) = Àk2(Pq) /Q(Pq). Kemudian, produk k2 cos ζ q(t) dan k2 sin ζ q(t) dalam perluasanpasang surut responpersamaa
È Â ÃÉ
Re k2* À Pq WILLIAMS DAN BOGGS © 2015. American Geophysical Union. Seluruh hak cipta. 692 Áexp iζ q tð Þ 1/4 k2 À Pq Ácosζ q
tð Þ (12) Im È k2* À Pq Áexp Â iζ q tð Þ Ã É 1⁄4 k2 À Pq Ásinζ q tðÞÀ k2Q
Pada periode 1 bulan, k2 adalah ~ 38 kali k2/Q; kami berharap rasio k2(P) ke k2(P) /Q(P) untuk pita pasang surut periode cukup bes
memberikan keuntungan untuk memisahkan potensi pasang surut menjadi bagian dengan konstanta k2 dan bagian itu hanya tergantung
dan ΔST yang muncul dari
Untuk koefisien medan gravitasi ΔCT2m 2m Bulan terdistorsi, nilai elastis yang sesuai dengan persamaan (2) a
k2ΔC2m(t) dan ΔST2m(t) = k2ΔS2m(t); dengan disipasi, kami menggabungkan deret persamaan Fourier (4) - (8) dengan ekspresi bila
kompleks (12) dan (13) untuk mendapatkan
tðÞ1⁄4 k2 P X C20qcos ζ X C20q k 2 À Pq Á
ΔCT20 ð ref Þ q qþ q Â À k2 ð Pref Þ Ãcos ζq þ k2Q()
sin ζq
tðÞ1⁄4 k
(14) qΔCT21 2ð Pref ÞXq C21qsin ζ q þ Xq C21q Â k2 À Pq Á À k2 ð Pref Þ Ãsin ζ q À ( kQ2 qcos ζ q
)
(15)
tðÞ1⁄4 k
ΔST21 2ð Pref ÞXq S21qcos ζ q þ Xq S21q Â k2 À Pq (Á À k2 ð Pref Þ Ãcos ζ q þ kQ2 qsin ζ q
)
(16)
tðÞ1⁄4 k X C k
ΔCT22 2ð Pref ÞXq C22qcos ζ q þ q 22q Â k2 (À Pq Á À k2 ð Pref Þ Ãcos ζq þ 2Q qsin ζq
)
(17)
tðÞ1⁄4 k
ΔST22 2ð Pref ÞXq S22qsin ζ q þ Xq S22q (Â k2 À Pq Á À k2 ð Pref Þ Ãsin ζ q À k2Q qcos ζ q
), (18) di
mana k2(Pref) adalah nilai nyata dari nomor Cinta pada periode referensi yang diadopsi Pref. Untuk lima koefisien, jumlah pertama d
diganti dengan bentuk kompak untuk koefisien potensial pasut dari persamaan Lampiran A (A4) - (A8). Keduanya (k2/Q)q dan k2(Pq) Àk
dengan k2/Q di
Journal of Geophysical Research: Planet 10.1002 / 2014JE004755
periode referensi untuk respons anelastik. Kami mendefinisikan fungsi f dan g sedemikian sehingga k2(P) /Q(P) =f(P)k2(Pref) /Q(Pref) da
= g(P)k2(Pref) /Q(Pref). Fungsi f dan g bergantung pada model reologi yang akan dibahas pada bagian 5. Perhatikan bahwa f(Pref) = 1
Untuk singkatnya kami menggunakan fq = f(Pq), gq= g(Pq), dan (k2/Q)ref= k2(Pref) /Q(Pref).
tðÞ1⁄4 k
ΔCT20 2ð Pref ÞΔC20 tðÞþ kQ2WILLIAM DAN BOGGS © 2015. American Geophysical Union. Seluruh hak cipta. 693
refXq hi
C20q gqcos ζq tðÞþ f qsin ζ q tð Þ

(19)
tðÞ1⁄4 k
ΔCT21 2ð Pref ÞΔC21 tðÞþ k2Q refXq hi
C21q gqdosa ζ q tðÞÀ fqcos ζ q tð Þ

(20)
tðÞ1⁄4 k
ΔST21 2ð Pref ÞΔS21 tðÞþ k2Q refXq hai
S21q gqcos ζ q tðÞþ fqsin ζ q tð Þ

(21)
tðÞ1⁄4 k
ΔCT22 2ð Pref ÞΔC22 tðÞþ k2Q refXq hi
C22q gqcos ζq tðÞþ f qsin ζ q tð Þ

(22)
tðÞ1⁄4 k2 P k
ΔST22 ð ref ÞΔS22 tðÞþ 2Q refXq hi
S22q gqsin ζ q tðÞÀ fqcos ζ q tð Þ

(23)
Mengganti istilah pertama di sisi kanan persamaan (14) - (18) dengan bentuk kompak dari Lampiran A menghapus kesalahan pemoton
numerik yang lebih besar dari setiap ekspresi. Jumlah, yang merupakan bagian yang lebih kecil, tunduk pada kesalahan pemotongan ~ 1
Tabel
1.ΔCT2m(t)dan ΔST2m(t)memberikan variasi pasang surut potensial gravitasi yang sebuah pesawat ruang angkasa yang mengorbit Bulan
Analisis data GRAIL oleh Konopliv et al. [2013] dipecahkan untuk frekuensi-independenk2 nilai dan mengadopsi enam pertama istilah d
dengan frekuensi-independen k2/Q nilaidari 7 × 10A4 yang berasal dari analisis berbagai lunar Laser sebelumnya[Williamsetal.,2001]. L
parameter k2(Pref) dan (k2/Q)ref akan ditentukan dari pengamatan.

3. Pemindahan Pasang Surut 3.1. Pemindahan Elastis Pemindahan
pasang-surut vertikal dan horizontal dari suatu titik pada permukaan (r=R) dapat digabungkan menjadi bentuk vektor. Perpindahan pasa
elastis dihasilkan dari produk Love number h2 danpeningkatan pasang surut potensidi permukaan dibagi dengan Gm/R2, percepatan p
massa bulan m. Perpindahan pasang-surut horizontal elastis bergantung pada Cinta (atau Shida) nomor l2 dan gradien horizontal pote
perpindahan kecil ΔR titik di permukaan
h
ΔR ð R, θ Þ 1⁄4 Gm 2R2
W
2ð R, θ ÞEeR þ lGm 2R2
∂W2 ∂θ ð R, θ Þ
Eeθ, (24) di
mana êR dan êθ adalah vektor satuan dalam arah radial dan sudut, W2 adalah potensi peningkatan pasang surut yang diberikan o
(1), dan θ adalah sudut antara kenaikan pasang surut dan tubuh yang menarik perhatian pasang surut. Bulan memanjang di sepanjang
tubuh yang menaikkan pasang. Perhatikan bahwa ∂P2(cos θ) / ∂θ = À3 sin θ cos θ = ÀP21(cos θ).
Dalam derajat-2 potensi persamaan (1) dan (3), cos θ dapat ditulis sebagai titik produk u · u′ antara dua vektor satuan yang menunjuk ja
Bulan, di mana u′ diarahkan ke arah pasang surut tubuh dan Anda menuju titik di mana potensi sedang dievaluasi. Dengan koordinat ya
dalam bujur timur-direferensikan Bulan λ dan lintang φ, maka vektor satuan u adalah
u1⁄4
1CA (25)
dan vektor u′ memiliki koordinat prima.
0B @
cosφ cosλ cosφ sinλ sinφ
Untuk derajat 2 pasang elastis dengan Anda menunjuk dari pusat Bulan menuju titik permukaan dan utoward menunjuk ke arah badan p
pasang, perpindahan permukaan adalah
M′R
ΔR 1⁄4 mr′3 4
h
& 2 23
ð
u · u′ Þ À 1
2
'
(26)
M′R
ΔR 1⁄4 mr′3 4
hiu þ 3l2 ð u · u′ ÞuÂ ð u′ Âu Þ & h 2 3 ð u· u′ Þ À 1

2
2
'
(27)
Identitas untuk produk triple vektor telah digunakan dalam ekspresi kedua. Ekspresi analog untuk perpindahan pasang surut di Bumi dib
Petit dan Luzum [2010, persamaan (7.5)]. Ini adalah bentuk yang berguna untuk perhitungan; bentuk kedua digunakan untuk perpindaha
di Bulan dalam perangkat lunak pas kisaran laser bulan. Bagian 6.2 memiliki deskripsi lebih lanjut tentang perangkat lunak dan cocok.
Koefisien harmonik bola dari potensial kenaikan pasang sebanding dengan M′R3/mr′3 seperti yang ditunjukkan pada Lampiran A sedang
radial dalam persamaan (24), (26), dan (27) sebanding dengan h2M′R4/mr′3. Kita hanya perlu mengalikan koefisien medan gravitasi Tab
produk Rh2 untuk mendapatkanbola koefisien harmonikdari perpindahan gelombang radial elastis. Nilai h2 diperkirakan 0,0423 pada 1
berdasarkan nilai GRAIL untuk k2 [Williams et al., 2014a]. Derajat 2 order-0 bulanan terbesar memilikiradial amplitudo4,5 cm di kutub
term bulanan memiliki amplitudo 11,2 cm di khatulistiwa, dan 2,1 syarat terkuat di ± 45 ° garis lintang pada meridian nol dengan amplitud
Pasang yang menggabungkan komponen 2,0 dan 2,2 dapat membuat pola rumit di permukaan sejak fase maxima dan minima bergeser
lintang.
3.2. Disspasi dan Perpindahan
Pada bagian 2, disipasi dimasukkan ke dalam potensi yang disebabkan oleh distorsi pasang surut. Nomor cinta k2 memiliki komponen
fase k2/Q, di mana Q adalah faktor kualitas. Secara paralel, pertimbangkan faktor-faktor kualitas Qh dan Ql untuk dihubungkan den
perpindahan h2 dan l2masing-masing. Bagian fase-bergeser dari angka-angka Cinta adalah h2/Qh dan l2/Ql. Perpindahan vertikal ela
dihitung dengan mengalikan koefisien harmonik bola dari Tabel 1 atau Lampiran A oleh Rh2.Untuk menghitung perpindahan radial de
sisi kanan persamaan (19) - (23) gantik2(Pref) dengan Rh2(Pref) dan (k2/Q)refdenganR(h2/Qh)ref. Untuk model dengan satu jenis disipas
adalah sama untuk potensi pasang surut, tetapi lihat bagian 6.7 untuk diskusi model multikomponen. Memperkenalkan disipasi ke pasan
diperhitungkan oleh l2 dalam persamaan (26) dan (27) membutuhkan pengembangan lebih lanjut.
Pertimbangkan elemen matriks yang bergantung pada produk u atau ukomponen vektor.
Uij 1/4 ar 3uiuj (28)
Matriks ini akan digunakan dengan parameter prima dan unprimed. Derajat 2 ini ekspresi Cartesian terkait dengan derajat 2 fungsi harm
Lampiran B untuk koneksi. Perhatikan bahwa U matrikssimetris dan jejaknya adalah Tr (U) =U11+U22+ U33= (a/r)3.
Perpindahan permukaan persamaan (27) menjadi
ΔR 1/4
M
m
'R
· u'TH 1/2 u 'D u· u'Thu Š
hiu Th 3l2 ð u a′
& Â Ã Â Ã
R3 h2 2 3Tr ð UU'THTR Uð ÞA1 À Tr ð U'Þ u Th 3l2 U'u À Tr ð UU'THTR Uð ÞA1u
'(29)
Enam Fourier seri untuk fungsi Uij diberikan untuk Bumi sehubungan dengan Bulan pada Tabel 2, dan untuk Matahari sehubungan d
pada Tabel 3. Amplitudo terbesar untuk istilah periodik pada Tabel 2 adalah pada 1 bulan, sedangkan yang terbesar istilah periodik pad
2 minggu. Pasang dengan argumen 2D adalah analog dari pasang S2 di Bumi. Analog dari pasang M2 adalah konstan dan tidak dapat d
ini berasal dari analisis Fourier lima dimensi dengan sudut l, l', F, D, dan simpul Ω. Seri ekspresi untuk teori bulan Chapront-Touzé dan C
1991] dan analisis librasi fisik Newhall dan Williams [1997] digunakan.
Istilah terbesar untuk ekspansi literal u dan U komponenBumi adalah u1≈1, u2 ≈2e sin l, u3≈ Àsin (i +I) sin F, a/r≈1 +e cos l, U11 ≈1 + 3
sin l, dan U13≈ -sin (i+ I) sin F, di mana e≈ 0,0549 adalah

Tabel 2. Fourier Series untuk Uij Matrix Elemen untuk Posisi Bumi dengan Hormat ke Bulan Apakah Lengkap untuk 1 × 10A3 Argumenζ q Periode(hari) U11q,10A6,c
U13q, 10À6, sin U22q, 10À6, cos U23q, 10À6, cos U33q, 10À6, cos
0 ∞ 991.582 0 0 6337 0 6819 l 27.555 162.094 108.340 3 1246 0 1056 F 27.212 À1 À1 À115.648 1 À583 0 2DÀ l 31.812 29.910 21.570 0 1336 0 230 2D 14.765 28
À2146 0 À113 2l 13.777 19,188 12.485 0 À5816 0 72 F + l 13.691 0 07070F 13.606 6.670 À3.479 0 3 0 À6719 F À l 2190.350 0 À6 À2.605 0 À6400 0 2D+ l 9.614
1571 0 À30 l′ 365.260 À360 À3.622 0 46 0 À3 2D+ F À l 14.666 0 0 À2992 0 1181 0 2D+ F 9.572 0 0 À2540 0 978 0 2l À 2D 205.892 À1.248 0 2492 0 13 3l 9.185 1
4 2DÀ l′ 15.387 1.924 1.0000 0 À158 0 À1 2l + F 9.146 0 0 À1.848 0 1070 0 2DÀ F 32.281 0 0 À1.704 0 À726 0 F + l À2D 188.201 0 0 À484 0 À1473 0 l À l′ 29.803
7 2DÀ l À l′ 34.847 1.330 1.007 0 6 0 10 2F + l 9.108 908 À290 0 374 0 À1287 l + l′ 25.622 À1.243 À846 0 407 0 À6 4DÀ l 10.085 1.119 697 0 À301 0 À5
eksentrisitas dan i+ I≈6.69 ° adalah kemiringan pesawat khatulistiwa bulan ke bidang orbit. Fungsi U22, U23, dan U33 masing-masing leb
istilah-istilah utama diperhitungkan oleh e2, e sin (i+ I), dan sin2(i+ I).
dalam fase U12 dan U13 Elemenbergantung pada sinus. Dengan disipasi, perluasan l2U'12 elemen melibatkan substitusi
l2U'12 tð Þ → l2 ð Pref ÞU'12 tðÞþ WILLIAMS DAN Boggs © 2015. American Geophysical Union. Seluruh hak cipta. 695
l2 Ql
refXq hi
U′12q gqsin ζ q À fqcos ζq

(30)
dan l2U′13 memiliki bentuk yang sama. U11, U22, U33,dan U23 elemen tergantung pada cosinus. Dengan l2U′11 sebagai contoh, untu
ekspansi mengikuti substitusi
l2U′11 tð Þ → l2 ð Pref ÞU′11 tðÞþ l2 Ql
refXq haiU′11q gqcos ζ q þ fqsin ζ q
. (31)
Bentuk persamaan ringkas (28) dapat digunakan untuk suku pertama di sisi kanan persamaan (30) dan (31). Potensi dan perpindahan y
berhubungan dengan distorsi bergantung pada fungsi f dan g yang sama dan U′ij yang sama, sesuai dengan kualifikasi pada bagian 6.7.
bentuk-bentuk di atas berlaku jika l2 diganti dengan baik h2 atau k2 dan l2/Ql diganti dengan h2/Qh atau k2/Q,masing-masing. Perhat
persamaan (30) dan (31) adalah analog dengan (19) - (23).

Tabel 3. Seri Fourier untuk Uij Elemen Matriksuntuk Posisi Matahari Dengan Menghormati Bulan, Lengkap dengan 0,01 Argumen ζ q Periode (hari) U11q, 10À6, cos
U13q, 10À6, sin U22q, 10À6, cos U23q, 10À6, cos U33q, 10À6, cos
0 ∞ 500.038 0 0 500.035 0 363 2D 14.765 500.050 À500.027 0 À500, 029 0 2 l′ 365.260 25.062 0 0 25.062 0 18 F 27.212 0 0 À13493 0 À13.440 0 2DÀ F 32.281 0
2DÀ l′ 15.387 12.312 À12.311 0 À12.311 0 0 2D+ l′ 14.192 12.752 À12.750 0 À12.751 0 0

4. Librasi Fisik 4.1. Teori Librasi
Seperti yang terlihat dari Bulan yang berputar secara sinkron, arah Bumi berosilasi sekitar ± 0,1 rad di kedua lintang dan bujur. Gerakan
sebagian besar disebabkan oleh kemiringan 6,7 ° antara bidang ekuator Bulan dan bidang orbitnya (sin 6,7 ° = 0,12) dengan kontribusi k
gangguan orbit. Gerakan bujur terutama disebabkan oleh orbit non-lingkaran Bulan dengan kontribusi kecil dari kemiringan: orbit tentang
(2e = 0,11), cenderung, dan terganggu oleh Matahari dan planet-planet. Gerakan nyata dalam garis bujur dan garis lintang menghasilka
berubah-ubah waktu ketika gaya tarik gravitasi Bumi dan Matahari berinteraksi dengan medan gravitasi bulan. Torsi ini menyebabkan or
bervariasi dengan waktu sekitar ketiga sumbu. Ada variasi rotasi tentang sumbu kutub, dan sumbu kutub berubah arah di ruang angkasa
orientasi ini disebut librasi fisik. Meskipun librasi fisik terutama hasil dari tarikan gravitasi antara Bumi dan medan gravitasi bulan statis, a
kecil dari variasi pasang surut medan gravitasi, persamaan (19) - (23). Perubahan pasang surut kecil dari librasi fisik ini memungkinkan
(LLR) untuk mencari efek pasang surut.
Analisis awal tentang efek pasang surut dan disipasi pasut terhadap librasi fisik oleh Yoder [1979, 1981] dan Eckhardt [1981] menemuka
istilah terbesar. Pendekatan teoritis yang diuraikan di sini dikembangkan di Williams et al. [2001]. Jumlah periode dalam U matrikstelah d
pada karya 2001 menjadi 62 dalam perhitungan numerik dari makalah ini. Tabel 2 dan 3 adalah versi terpotong dari U. matriks
Persamaan diferensial untuk pengaruh pasang surut pada librasi fisik adalah persamaan Euler [Williams et al., 2001, persamaan (13)].
uÂSaya
dAkuωdt þ ωÂSaya0ω 1/4 3GM r3 0u À 3k2 WILLIAMS DAN Boggs © 2015. American Geophysical Union. Seluruh hak cipta
GMM′Rr3r′3 5
ðu
· u′ ÞuÂu′ þ ... (32)
Momen bulan dari matriks inersia adalah I(t) = I0 + IT(t), di mana saya0 adalah bagian statis dari I, IT(t) hasil daripasang surut distors
vektor kecepatan sudut, dan bilangan prima merujuk pada badan yang menaikkan pasang. Massa tubuh pasang penggalangan adalah M
tubuh menarik yang berlaku torsi ke Bulan adalah M.Vektor unit yang berpusat pada Bulan u′ dan u mengarah ke dua benda. For our ap
u′ will point toward Earth and Sun in four combinations: Earth acting on Earth-raised tides, Earth acting on solar tides, Sun on Earth tides
Sun tides. The ω × term on the left-hand side of equation (32) results from expressing the derivative in a frame rotating with the Moon. O
side are the torques acting on the Moon: the u × I0u torque comes from the static gravity field whereas the u·u′ u × u′ torque results
by one body interacting with a body that may be the same or different. Three additional terms in the 2001 paper that contained ω are no
they are very small, but they are included in the numerical calculations of this paper. The first torque term is summed over Earth and Sun
second term is summed over the four possible pairs.
The moment of inertia matrix is composed of constant and time-varying parts. The static I0 is diagonal with principal moments A <B<C
The time-varying part of the moment matrix that is caused by tidal distortion is
ITij 1⁄4 Àk2M′Rr′3 5
u′
iu′j À δ3
ij , (33)
where r′ and u′ depend on time. The δij symbol is the Kronecker delta function and u′·u′ = 1. There are tidal distortions from Earth and
form of the tide-induced moment of equation (33) is
M′
ITij 1⁄4 Àk2mR2 m
R 3 a′
U′ij À Tr ð U′ Þδ3
ij!
(34)
where the U′ matrix depends on time. The effect of spin on the moment of inertia matrix is given in Appendix C.
For the orbit of the Moon with respect to the Earth, the semimajor axis is a′= 384,399 km, R/a′= 1/221.17, and the Earth-Moon mass ratio
81.30057 [Williams et al., 2013]. The constant coefficient of equation (34) is then À7.514 × 10 À6k2mR2. With the GRAIL-determined va
coefficient is À1.82 × 10À7mR2. By comparison, the moment of inertia of the Moon is 0.393 mR2. Consequently, the tidal effects on the
Journal of Geophysical Research: Planets 10.1002/2014JE004755
moments are more than 6 orders of magnitude smaller than the static moments. The coefficient for the solar tides is a further 2 orders of
smaller.
In equation (32) the torque vector from the static moment is
33GM
u ÂI 3GM
r3 0u 1⁄4 a3
264
75, (35)
where A<B <C are the static values of the principal moments of inertia. See Eckhardt [1981] for a development. The tide-induced momen
(34) are about 3 orders of magnitude smaller than the differences of the static moments that appear in torque equation (35).
In the differential equation (32), the u·u′ u × u′/r3r′3 term can be written with Uij functions.
Sebuah 3 a′rr′
WILLIAMS AND BOGGS ©2015. American Geophysical Union. Seluruh hak cipta. 697
ð C À B ÞU23 À ð C À A ÞU13 ð B À A ÞU12
3
ð
u · u′ ÞuÂu′ 1⁄4
3264 À ð Uð U22 11 À À UU33 33 ÞU′ÞU′23 13 À þ UU23 13 ð U′ð U′22 11 À À U′U′33 33 Þ Þ þ þ UU12U′23U′13 12 À À UU13U′1
23
75 (36) ð U11 À U22 ÞU′12 À U12 ð U′11 À U′22 Þ þ U13U′23 À U23U′13

For elastic distortion, the tide raised by the Earth (or the Sun) acting back on the Earth (or the Sun) gives zero torque since u ×u = 0. It is
u·u′ u ×u′+ u′·uu′ ×u = 0. Not only does the bulge of the Earth cause no torque on the Earth, and similarly, there is no torque from the so
on the Sun, but the torque from the solar bulge acting on the Earth opposes the Earth-raised bulge acting on the Sun. However, elastic d
physical libration effects from the variation of I in the dIω/dt term of equation (32).
The formulation of this section was not set up to show that tidal distortion causes no torques. We now introduce modifications caused by
For Earth tides acting on the Earth and solar tides acting on the Sun, dissipation introduces a small frequency-dependent shift in the dire
u ×u′ becomes small but finite. Note that it is the tide-raising parameters r′, u′, and U′ that are affected by dissipation, not their unprimed
the torquing body.
The tidal torques that are proportional to the equation (36) components involve the products Uij U′jp, where U′jp involves dissipation and
Consequently, when the Fourier series for the Uij functions are multiplied together, the product of pairs of periodic terms gives libratio
and ζ–ζ′. The only time that the physical libration argument (and period) equals the tidal argument (and period) is when a constant term m
periodic term, eg, when the constant part of U11 multiplies a periodic term. Because the libration arguments result from combinations of
ζ′, there are multiple ways to get the same libration argument and period. For example, the annual libration has contributions from a cons
(argument 0) multiplying the annual term (solar mean anomaly l′) as well as the lunar mean anomaly l mixing with l–l′ and l + l′. Cons
effect on the annual libration depends on a linear combination of k2/Q values at multiple tidal periods.
Dissipation is introduced in the same manner as in section 2. Dissipation modifies the product k2U′ij, but not the unprimed functions. A co
multiplies either sin ζ′ or cos ζ′ for each periodic term in the U′ij functions in equation (36) following equations (12) and (13). For anela
the f and g functions describe the variation of k2/Q and k2 with period.
4.2. Libration Expressions
Vector equation (32) can be solved for three tidal libration parameters: p1 and p2 describe the coordinates perpendicular to the lunar po
principal axes) of a unit vector normal to the ecliptic plane, and τ is the libration in longitude, which is the angular deviation from uniform
conventional to express p1 and p2 with units of seconds of arc, approximating their small values with angles. See Eckhardt [1981], W
[2001], and Rambaux and Williams [2011] for more detailed definitions. The solutions for the tidal influence on τ, p1, and p2 depend on th
behavior of the rotating Moon. Differential equations are described by Eckhardt and approximate differential equations are in Williams et
three main resonances: 27.30 days and 74.6 years for pole direction, and 1056 days for τ [Rambaux and Williams, 2011].
The 206 day libration term with argument 2 l–2D is the first example. Section 2 defines angles l and D as polynomial representations of l
anomaly and mean elongation of the Moon from the Sun,
respectively. In the following equations, the subscripts of Δτ include the libration period along with C and S that indicate the cosine and s
respectively. The Δ denotes a small change in τ. The subscripts of k2/Q and k2 indicate the arguments of the dissipating tides in Table
corresponding tidal periods are in those tables. The tidal influence on the physical libration in longitude is expressed in seconds of arc
k k
ΔτC206 1⁄4 &0.87 kQ2WILLIAMS AND BOGGS ©2015. American Geophysical Union. Seluruh hak cipta. 698 2lÀ2D À 2.27 Q2 2DÀl À 2.23 Q
k k
3lÀ2D À0.26 2 Q2D þ 2Q 2l
(37)
ΔτS206 1⁄4 À0.87 ð k2 Þ2lÀ2D À ð k2 Þref
!'cos ð 2l À 2D Þ
È Â Ã Ésin ð 2l À 2D Þ (38)
In equation (38), the term with reference period Pref applies if a first approximation to tidal perturbations has been made using a const
this paper, Pref is set to 27.212 days for the GRAIL derived k2 and monthly LLR libration results in section 6. Thek2 and k2/Q quantitie
subscripted with tidal arguments can be replaced with the f and ΔτC206 1⁄4 g kfunctions 2QÂ Ã þ 2.27 ð k2 Þl À ð k2 Þ2DÀl
of tidal periods (in days).
f 0.87f ð 206 Þ À 2.27f ð 31.8 Þ À 2.23f ð 27.6 Þ ref þ 0.04f ð 24.3 Þ À 0.26 1⁄2 f ð 14.8 Þ þ f ð 13.8 Þ Šgcos ð 2l À 2D Þ
(39)
ΔτS206 1⁄4 k2Q ref f À0.87g ð 206 Þ þ 0.85g ð Pref Þ À 2.27 1⁄2 g ð 31.8 Þ À g ð 27.6 Þ Š gsin ð 2l À 2D Þ (40)
In the 206 day example, the cosine term depends on the monthly values of k2/Q or f with a contribution from the 206 day dissipation, bu
mainly affected by the 206 day value of k2 or g because the two largest monthly terms have opposite signs and similar sizes. The 206 d
with argument 2l–2D has a contribution from the constant part of (U11–U22) multiplying the 206 day tidal term in U′12. Since there is no
part of constant U11 or U22, the 206 day contribution occurs as a single term in the cosine series. Additional terms occur in pairs that
cosine terms factored by the various k2/Q or f(P′) values, but subtract for the sine terms factored by k2(P′) or g(P′). Consequently, few
given for the sine series since the numerical differences of pairs at similar periods are small.
Two tables of the coefficients for tidally induced libration terms were given in Williams et al. [2001]: seven periodic terms and a constant
periods for the p1 and p2 pair. That paper gave the phase-shifted expressions depending on k2/Q, but not the expressions related to
tabulated expressions were based on Uij series for 52 periods. In this latest analysis, the series was expanded to 62 periods. In thi
present the expressions for the longitude libration terms at 206 days, 365 days, and 1095 days plus the p1 and p2 expressions for 27.2
days. These are expected to be the largest periodic terms caused by dissipation.
Most of the annual tide comes from solar perturbations of the lunar orbit rather than from Sun-raised tides. For the tide-caused libration t
mean anomaly l′, we list the annual libration coefficients that depend on f and g.
ΔτC365 1⁄4 k2Q ref 1⁄2
8.49f ð 365 Þ À 0.07f ð 34.8 Þ À 0.05f ð 31.8 Þ À 0.41f ð 29.8 Þ À 0.04f ð 27.6 Þ þ 0.37f ð 25.6 Þ À 0.07f ð 15.4 Þ À 0.06f ð 14.8 ÞŠcos
(41)
ΔτS365 1⁄4 k2Q ref 1⁄2 À8.49g ð 365 Þ þ 8.49g ð Pref Þ Šsinl′ (42)
A large contribution comes from the annual tide. The two largest monthly tidal terms have opposite signs so the annual tide is the major
allows an unambiguous value for (k2/Q)365= f(365) (k2/Q)ref to be derived from the LLR result for ΔτC365.
The 1095 day libration term with argument 2 F–2l has a period that is close to the longitude resonance at 1056 days. The difference betw
argument of latitude F and mean anomaly l is the argument of
perigee, so 1095 days is half of the period of precession of the argument of perigee. Although the 1095 day (3 year) tide is smaller than
levels of Tables 1 and 2, the libration amplitude is increased by the nearby resonance and the series of terms is affected by many small
ΔτC1095 1⁄4 WILLIAMS AND BOGGS ©2015. American Geophysical Union. Seluruh hak cipta. 699 k2Q ref f 0.10f ð 2190 Þ þ 17.94 f ð 1095 Þ þ 0
þ f ð 173 Þ Š À0.08 1⁄2 f ð 32.8 Þ þ f ð 31.8 Þ Š À 0.28f ð 28.3 Þ À 5.31f ð 27.9 Þ À 14.82f ð 27.6 Þ À 5.93f ð 27.2 Þ À14.91f ð 26.9 Þ À
0.04 1⁄2 f ð 14.9 Þ þ f ð 14.7 Þ Š À 0.17f ð 14.8 Þ À 0.13f ð 14.6 Þ À0.47 1⁄2 f ð 13.8 Þ þ f ð 13.6 Þ Š À 0.06f ð 13.7 Þ À 0.08f ð 13.5 Þg
(43)
ΔτS1095 1⁄4 k2Q ref f
À17.94g ð 1095 Þ þ 17.88g ð Pref Þ À 14.91 1⁄2 g ð 27.6 Þ À g ð 26.9 Þ Š À5.31 1⁄2 g ð 27.9 Þ À g ð 27.2 Þ Šgsin ð 2F À 2l Þ
(44)
The cosine series has positive coefficients at long periods that compete with large negative coefficients at 1 month. The sine term mainly
1095 day Love number since the monthly pairs have opposite signs. There is strong sensitivity to 3 year tides.
The direction of the pole is affected by a 2190 day (6 year) tidal term with argument F–l, the argument of perigee. The pole direction para
k
Δp2 include second-order terms that are more challenging to calculate than the first-order Δp1C2190 1⁄4 terms. 2Q ref 1⁄2 À1.94f ð 21
Ã
27.6 Þ À 6.89f ð 27.2 Þ À 0.04f ð 26.9 Þ À0.11f ð 13.8 Þ À 0.18f ð 13.7 Þ À 0.04f ð 13.6 Þ cos ð F À l Þ
(45)
k
Δp2S2190 1⁄4 2Q ref f
2.60f ð 2190 Þ À 0.04f ð 27.9 Þ þ 7.54f ð 27.6 Þ þ 8.27f ð 27.2 Þ À 0.05f ð 26.9 Þ þ0.05 1⁄2 f ð 14.8 Þ þ f ð 14.7 Þ Š þ 0.16f ð 13.8 Þ þ 0
0.08f ð 13.6 Þgsin ð F À l Þ
(46)
k k
Δp1S2190 1⁄4 2Q ref 1⁄2 1.94g ð 2190 Þ À 3.44g ð Pref Þ À 5.74g ð 27.6 Þ þ 6.85g ð 27.2 Þ Šsin ð F À l Þ (47) Δp2C2190 1⁄4 2Q ref 1
Þ À 3.51g ð Pref Þ À 7.66g ð 27.6 Þ þ 8.32g ð 27.2 Þ Šcos ð F À l Þ (48)
The sensitivity to the 6 year tide will be used in section 6.
The final major tide-induced libration of our examples is a monthly (argument F) term in pole direction. This is a large retrograde term as
rotating body, but it precesses slowly when viewed from space. The first two equations below correspond to a shift in the intersection of t
with the orbit plane. The last two equations give a change in the inclination angle between the two planes.
k
Δp1C27.2 1⁄4 2Q ref 1⁄2
0.69f ð 2190 Þ þ 0.28f ð 31.8 Þ þ 7.99f ð 27.6 Þ þ 217.31f ð 27.2 Þ þ 0.25f ð 14.8 Þ þ0.17f ð 14.7 Þ þ 0.15f ð 13.8 Þ þ 4.70f ð 13.7 Þ þ 1
0.12f ð 9.6 ÞŠcos F
(49)
k
Δp2S27.2 1⁄4 2Q ref 1⁄2
À0.69f ð 2190 Þ À 0.29f ð 31.8 Þ À 8.01f ð 27.6 Þ À 215.99f ð 27.2 Þ À 0.25f ð 14.8 Þ À0.17f ð 14.7 Þ À 0.15f ð 13.8 Þ À 4.70f ð 13.7 Þ
À 0.12f ð 9.6 ÞŠsin F
(50)
k
Δp1S27.2 1⁄4 2Q ref 1⁄2
À0.76g ð 2190 Þ þ 0.17g ð 31.8 Þ þ 5.40g ð 27.6 Þ À 213.72g ð 27.2 Þ þ73.79g ð Pref Þ þ 0.12g ð 14.8 Þ À 0.17g ð 14.7 Þ À 4.64g ð
ð 13.6 Þ À 0.12g ð 9.6 ÞŠsin F

(51)
k2 1⁄2
Δp2C27.2 1⁄4 Q ref
À0.76g ð 2190 Þ þ 0.17g ð 31.8 Þ þ 5.39g ð 27.6 Þ À 212.41g ð 27.2 Þ
þ73.95g ð Pref Þ þ 0.12g ð 14.8 Þ À 0.17g ð 14.7 Þ À 4.64
1.83g ð 13.6 Þ À 0.12g ð 9.6 ÞŠcos F

(52)
Most terms still occur in pairs, but they are not at similar periods, which causes the last two expressions to be sensitive to the variation o
part of the last two, 74k2(F), comes from the derivative of the

moment of inertia. The 27.2 day tidal libration terms are large, but dissipation at the core-mantle boundary (CMB) causes a similar signa
determination of the monthly k2/Q from the smaller tidal terms, the 27.2 day tidal term can be separated from dissipation at the CMB.
Additional terms include a constant term in τ, which results from products of Fourier components with the same period in equation (36).
cannot distinguish a constant part of τ from the longitudes of the lunar retroreflector array sites. See Williams et al. [2001] for tidal libratio
here.
5. Rheology and Period of Deformation 5.1. From Compliance to Love Numbers
The expressions for tidal potential and the induced physical librations account for dissipation with a complex Love number k2* that depe
period of each tidal component. The elastic response depends on the elastic properties, density, and structure of the Moon. The real
components of k2* also depend on how lunar materials dissipate energy. The dissipation-caused real and imaginary components of k2*
and f functions of period, respectively. Several models for frequency dependence are presented in this section.
The elastic Love numbers depend on the internal shear modulus or rigidity, μ, bulk modulus, K, and density. With a spherical body's radi
these three quantities, one can calculate the tidal response of the potential characterized by k2 and the distortion described by Love nu
For the Moon, the Love numbers are much more sensitive to μ than to K. The compliance J is the inverse 1/μ.
Dissipation causes a perturbed k2*(P) that differs from its elastic value k2(0). For the Earth, Wahr and Bergen [1986] computed partia
k2 with respect to μ for two mantle layers and multiplied the partials by the perturbations of complex μ* due to dissipation. For each lu
Williams et al. [2014a] converted the partials of k2 with respect to μ to partials with respect to compliance 1/μ, ∂k2/∂(1/μ)= Àμ2∂k2/∂μ,
multiplying by the difference in compliances 1/μ*(P)–1/μ(0) that allows for dissipation. Bulk modulus is a minor influence on lunar tidal dis
ignored. There is no imaginary part of the rigidity and compliance at zero period, so k2(0) is a real Love number for an elastic Moon wi
dissipation. The index j denotes different layers in the Taylor expansion.
k2 * Pð Þ1⁄4 k2 0ð ÞÀ Xj
"#
(53)
The bulk modulus is held fixed when calculating the partial derivatives. The results for one model, GPM3, were tabulated [Williams et al.,
12]. The partials were computed from finite differences, perturbing μ by À10% in each layer and recalculating the Love number. Expansi
equation (53) can be made for h2andl2. Linear expansions should serve well so long as the perturbation of μj is small; in practice, th
the local shear Qj≫1.
The derivation of equations (19)–(23) in section 2 separated k2*(P)–Re[k2(Pref)] into real and imaginary parts proportional to (k2/Q)ref: I
Àk2(P)/Q(P) = Àf(P) (k2/Q)ref and Re[k2*(P) –k2(Pref)] = g(P) (k2/Q)ref. The f and g functions depend on the model of rheology. Note tha
g(Pref) = 0. The complex Love number depends on a real Love number at a reference period and frequency-dependen t effects of dissip
∂k
k2* Pð ÞÀ Re 1⁄2 k2 ð Pref Þ Š 1⁄4 μj 0ð Þ2 2 0ð Þ ∂
À1
μj* Pð Þ
μj 0ð Þ
1⁄2 g Pð ÞÀ i f Pð Þ Š (54)
If the f and g functions are known, then the k2(Pref) and (k2/Q)ref parameters are to be determined from observation, as will be explored
Equation (54) can be used where there is dissipation that is resisted by elastic forces. Under a constant stress the distortion is limited. W
force, energy is dissipated and the distortion is cyclic, but the distortion is shifted in phase. For lunar tidal dissipation, this anelastic beha
arise from sliding at grain boundaries. Defects in the grains can inhibit sliding allowing shear stress across grains to resist the motion [Ka
Spetzler, 1990; Karato, 2010; Faul and Jackson, 2015].
For a second type of dissipation, a constant stress causes unlimited viscous distortion. This inelastic behavior requires an additional term
with long periods, we add an imaginary contribution that is proportional to period. Equation (54) becomes
k2* Pð ÞÀ Re 1⁄2 k2 ð Pref Þ Š 1⁄4 kQ2WILLIAMS AND BOGGS ©2015. American Geophysical Union. Seluruh hak cipta. 701
P
ref 1⁄2 g Pð ÞÀ i f Pð Þ ŠÀ i ξ Pref
(55)
where now it is necessary to distinguish between k2/Q from the anelastic tide and its counterpart from Maxwell-type viscosity. We call
term the Maxwell term. Rather than use anelastic equations (19)–(23) for the tidal potential, it would be necessary to replace (k2/Q)ref f(P
f(P)+ξ (P/Pref).
5.2. Viscoelastic Model
Laboratory experiments frequently find that the material Q for shear follows a power law: 1/Q(P) = [1/Q(Pref)] (P/Pref)α, where P is a forc
a reference period, and α is an exponent [Gribb and Cooper, 1998; Jackson and Faul, 2010; Faul and Jackson, 2015]. If we use a po
imaginary part of the compliance and add a term for Maxwell viscosity, the complex compliance for each layer is
μ* 1
1⁄4 1 þ bcot απ
Pð Þ μ 0ð Þ 2
PPref
α
!
(56)
where b combines a parameter that depends on the material with functions of Pref and exponent α, and η is shear viscosity. This equati
derived from an expression relating the shear strain to the shear stress, as Gribb and Cooper outline and Findley et al. [1989] derive in m
ratio η/μ(0) is the Maxwell time τM. The ratio of the (negative) imaginary and real parts gives the tangent of the phase shift for the m
the sine of the phase shift as equal to 1/Q. See Efroimsky [2012a, 2012b] for a discussion of several possible definitions of Q. In principle
properties can be different for each layer, hence, the subscript j in equation (53). Note that the Qj of the material in a layer will not be id
associated with k2, as Efroimsky cautions.

If equation (56) is inserted into the linear expansion (53) with a single value of α for all layers, then
k2* Pð Þ1⁄4 Re 1⁄2 k2 ð Pref Þ Š þ κ cot απ2
P
À ib Pref
α
P
þ 2πη
P!
Pref
α
À1
P
À i κ Pref
!
(57)
Tidal dissipation coefficient κ depends on the b values in the different layers and the partial derivatives in equation (53). The Maxwell term
ξ. We treat κ and ξ as parameters that scale the strengths of two sources of dissipation that need to be determined from observation. Pa
complex, but the real value of k2(Pref) is used.

5.3. Andrade Model
Without the term for viscosity, equation (56) is anelastic and without the corresponding Maxwell term, equation (57) gives the Andrade m
parameters κ =(k2/Q)ref and ξ = 0. The reference period is chosen to be 27.212 days, the period of the largest latitude libration that is d
the equator plane to the orbit plane.
For the Andrade model, comparison of equations (55) and (57) yields
P
f Pð Þ1⁄4
27.212
α
P
þ ξ Pref
α
(58)
απ
g Pð Þ1⁄4 cot 2
1⁄2 f Pð ÞÀ 1 Š (59)
where the deformation period P is in days.
The Andrade model has been used for dissipation studies of the Earth [Wahr and Bergen, 1986], Enceladus [Rambaux et al., 2010], the
et al., 2001, 2014a], and others.
The time delay model for tides is achieved by replacing the time t in the elastic expressions with tÀΔt, where Δt is a time delay. A time de
α=À1 and no first-order perturbation of the real k2.
27.212
f Pð Þ1⁄4
(60)
P
g Pð Þ1⁄4 0 (61)
The time delay model is used during our numerical integration of the lunar orbit and physical librations [Folkner et al., 2014] because it d
expansions. In practice, it fits monthly tides, but the phase shifts at other periods are not realistic.
In the limit as α→0, the imaginary part of the Andrade model has a constant k2(P)/Q(P) and the real part becomes a logarithmic function
f Pð Þ1⁄4 1 (62)
g Pð Þ1⁄4 WILLIAMS AND BOGGS ©2015. American Geophysical Union. Seluruh hak cipta. 702
2
π 1n 27.212
P
(63)
5.4. Single Relaxation Time Model
The Andrade model has dissipation that increases with period for α>0. In contrast, consider dissipation that peaks at a single period. An
has elastic and dissipative properties. The standard linear solid exhibits limited distortion when a constant shear stress is applied. With a
there is a phase shift in the oscillating strain due to the dissipation; see Henning et al. [2009] for a discussion. With a single relaxation tim
the response to periodic forcing has the form
μ* 1
À 1 1⁄4 S 1 À ivτ 2
Pð Þ μ 0ð Þ 1 þ v τ2
, (64)
where τ is a relaxation time due to dissipation and ν =2π/P is the forcing frequency. The factor S scales the strength of the dissipation. T
peaks at ντ =1, so the period at the peak is 2πτ.
For a complex Love number, equations (53) and (64) lead to
k2 * Pð Þ1⁄4 k2 0ð Þþ N 1 À ivτ 1 þ v2τ2
. (65)
The dimensionless factor N scales the strength of the dissipation. From equations (54) and (65) we obtain
1 þ v2 τ2
g Pð ÞÀ if Pð Þ1⁄4 ref
1 À ivτ vrefτ
1 þ v2τ2
1
À vrefτ
, (66)
where νref=2π/Pref. The scaling factor N is (k2/Q)ref [1 +νref2τ2]/(νrefτ) and (k2/Q)ref is to be established from observations. At the refere
= 1 and g(Pref) = 0. At the elastic limit, f(0) = 0 and g(0) =À1/(νrefτ). The period of the peak imaginary part is 2πτ. The real part grow
period. We shall sometimes refer to the single relaxation time model as the Debye model.
5.5. Absorption Band Model
In the absorption band model there is a band of periods where attenuation follows a power law increase with period similar to the Andrad
periods outside of the band limits, the attenuation decreases away from the absorption band. The absorption band model has been succ
to the Earth at seismic and free oscillation frequencies [Minster and Anderson, 1981; Anderson and Given, 1982; Anderson, 1989; Roma
Durek, 2000] and possibly at tidal and Chandler wobble periods [Benjamin et al., 2006]. For seismic waves, attenuation is associated wit
the Moon, there is much less seismic data from fewer sites, the coda that trails the arrivals makes waves arriving after the initial P and S
identify, and there is no free oscillation data. Although a variety of terrestrial measurement techniques detect tidal signals, ocean tides co
determination of solid body tidal dissipation [Ray et al., 1996, 2001; Benjamin et al., 2006]. Only a few techniques have measured lunar
For the absorption band model, there is a distribution D(τ) of relaxation times τ between the band's lower limit τ 1 and upper limit τ2. The
distribution function and equation (64) are integrated over τ to get the compliance.
1⁄4 1 þS
∫ τ
1 μ* Pð Þ μ 0ð Þ τ21
1 À ivτ
D τð Þ 1 þ v2τ2
dτ (67)
The factor S scales the strength of the absorption band. An exponential distribution of relaxation times is used with exponent αÀ1.
ð ατα À αÀ1
D τðÞ1⁄4 τ 2
τα Þ (68)
1
Outside of the band, D is zero. If the compliances for each layer have the same α, τ 1, and τ2 and they are combined with the partials in t
expansion (53), then the Love number is
k2* Pð Þ1⁄4 k2 0ð Þþ N ∫ τ2τ1
dτ (69)
The dimensionless factor N scales the strength of the absorption band. From equations (54) and (69) one derives
g Pð ÞÀ if Pð Þ1⁄4 ∫
τ2
τ1
1 À ivτ
24
35À1 ∫ τ2τ1
!dτ. (70)
The constant factor N is not explicit with the f and g functions. The f and g functions satisfy f(Pref) = 1, g(Pref) = 0, and f(0) = 0 as they sh
determine (k2/Q)ref from observations. The integrals are evaluated numerically. For periods well within the band of relaxation times, the
increases with period approximately like the Pα in the Andrade model, where exponent α is now seen to arise from the distribution of rela
Dissipation decreases away from the band.
Exponent α has been investigated in laboratory experiments; for polycrystalline olivine, α≈0.34 [Gribb and Cooper, 1998; Jackson and Fa
analogous Andrade-type expression for the Earth uses 0.15 [Petit and Luzum, 2010, equation (6.12)]. It might be possible to determine α
observations in the tidal band if there were a broad spread of detected periods.
5.6. Adding a Maxwell Term
The viscous Maxwell term can be added to the anelastic Andrade or absorption band formulations to give inelastic expressions. We will c
Andrade + Maxwell model whereas the latter is referred to as the extended Burgers model. The ξ factor comes from the sum over layers
the viscosity term in equation (56) and the partial derivatives of equation (53). The ξ factor adds another parameter to be determined from
observations.
5.7. Core Resonance and Pole Tide
In the theory of tidal distortions of the Earth, there is a resonance due to the flattening of the core-mantle boundary (CMB). This so-called
nutation resonance corresponds to a 14 month retrograde free precession of the fluid core. For the Earth this effect is strong enough to m
amplitudes near 1 day. Notably, the 7.5 cm K1 amplitude is decreased by 1.2 cm [Petit and Luzum, 2010, Table 7.3a]. The lunar core is
than the Earth's core, the rotation rate is less, and the flattening of the CMB is less; the associated core precession period is probably c
rotating Moon, this resonance will occur at a period that is slightly shorter than the sidereal period of 27.322 days. We expect this correct
and do not attempt to calculate it. We note that there is a small tide-induced libration term at the sidereal period (see tabulation in section
that there is a nearby dynamical resonance at 27.296 days that is associated with an 81 year retrograde free precession of the lunar ma
and Williams, 2011].
v
D τð Þ 1 þ refτ
τ2
v2ref
dτ
1 À ivτ
1
À
τ2
1 þ v2ref
Analogous to tides, the spin of a body also gives rise to a distortion called the pole tide. On the Earth, the devia
spin vector from the polar principal axis gives rise to variable distortion of a few centimeters. The pole tide for th
distortions <0.2 mm. Appendix C enables these distortions to be calculated by substituting the degree 2 part of
equation (24). Table C1 gives the components of the angular velocity vector. The appendix also gives the altera
inertia matrix due to spin.
6. Fits for Dissipation 6.1. The k2 and k2/Q The Re[k2(Pref)] and (k2/Q)ref parameters must be determin
observations. Exponent α might come from laboratory experiments, terrestrial experience, or lunar observation
to determine the ξ factor if observations show a viscous influence on tidal dissipation.
Analysis of data from the GRAIL mission [Konopliv et al., 2013; Lemoine et al., 2013] has determined that Re[k
0.00022 [Williams et al., 2014a], with reference radius R= 1738 km. Those data analyses assumed that Re
tidal periods. Examination of the largest terms in Table 1 indicates that the GRAIL value was mainly determi
and 27.555 day terms with some influence from the 31.812 day and 2 week terms, hence, the 1 month inferred
section will compare the k2/Q results from an analysis of LLR data to the rheological models of section 5 in
k2/Q depends on tidal period.
6.2. Global LLR Fits
The lunar laser ranging effort has been reviewed by Dickey et al. [1994] and Murphy [2013]. Accurate ranges a
observatory on the Earth and a corner cube retroreflector array on the Moon. A short laser pulse is directed tow
the round-trip time of flight is measured from firing to reception of the reflected pulse at the observatory. Range
sites: the McDonald Observatory, Texas [Shelus, 2001], the Haleakala Observatory, Hawaii, the Observatoire d
[Samain et al., 1998], and the Apache Point Observatory, New Mexico [Murphy et al., 2008, 2012]. LLR data ar
International Laser Ranging Service [Pearlman et al., 2002] at http://ilrs.gsfc.nasa.gov/. Apache Point data are
http://physics.ucsd.edu/~tmurphy/apollo/norm_pts.html. There are five retroreflector arrays on the Moon at the A
and on the Lunokhod 1 and 2 rovers. A geographical spread of array sites aids the determination of the lunar p
tides.
The LLR analysis uses software developed at the Jet Propulsion Laboratory. Fits were made of 19,361 lunar ra
1970 to April 2014. Ranges from the last two decades can be fit with a weighted root-mean-square (rms) resid
of the distance. The earlier ranges are less accurate but they increase time span. Global solutions include para
locations and motions, array locations, tidal displacements, Earth orientation, lunar orbit, and physical libration
dissipation coefficients and dissipation at the core-mantle boundary [Williams et al., 2004, 2013]. The nominal o
are integrated numerically [Standish and Williams, 2012; Folkner et al., 2014], but corrections to their initial con
solution parameters. We call this least squares solution with many parameters the global solution.
The dissipation parameters that result from a global solution are presented in Table 4. An input value for Re(k2)
GRAIL solution [Konopliv et al., 2013] and was not adjusted during the LLR fit; consequently, the tabulated
uncertainty. Libration effects due to dissipation at the lunar core-mantle boundary (CMB) depend on parameter
2001], where parameter K scales the torque arising from the relative motion of core and mantle and C is the po
Tidal time delay is Δt. Dissipation parameter (k2/Q)27.2 is computed from 2πk2Δt/27.212. Four periodic librati
milliseconds of arc (mas). They correspond to the phase-shifted coefficients in section 4. The numerically integ
are expressed as Euler angles versus time [Williams et al., 2013] rather than periodic series. The integration us
[Standish and Williams, 2012; Folkner et al., 2014]. For comparison with the Δτ and Δp coefficients, we comput
the integrated libration parameters based on the time delay tidal model (α= À1) using the (k2/Q)27.2 value and th
interaction at the lunar CMB using the K/C value. The two columns with these
Table 4. Solution for Dissipation-Related Parameters With LLR Data From 1970–2014 Parameter Function Unit Coef. Corr. Model Tide Corr. + Tide Model CMB To
K/C 10À8/day 1.41 ± 0.34 1.41 ± 0.34 Re(k2) 1 0.024059 0.024059 Time delay Δt (k2/Q)27.2 10day À4 0.115 ± 0.028 6.4 ± 1.5 0.115 ± 0.028
6.4 ± 1.5 ΔτC206 cos(2l À 2D) mas 2.0 ± 1.2 À3.2 ± 0.8 À1.2 ± 1.0 0 À1.2 ± 1.0 ΔτC365 cos l' mas 4.9 ± 1.1 0.2 ± 0.1 5.1 ± 1.1 +0.1 5.2 ± 1.1 ΔτC1095 cos(2F À 2 l) m
6.8 À27.2 ± 2.0 +0.6 À26.6 ± 2.1 Δp1C2190 cos(F À l) mas 0.3 ± 1.8 À8.5 ± 2.0 À8.3 ± 0.8 À0.6 À8.8 ± 0.8
model values are headed “Model Tide” and “Model CMB,” respectively. The solution's four coefficients of periodic corrections to the num
physical librations are in the column headed “Coef. Corr.” The correction + tide model values are given in the sixth column and the corre
+ CMB model are given in the last column.
We made a second fit to the LLR data with four additional parameters that would detect real k2 variation with period (section 4). These te
same periods as the periodic terms in Table 4, but they involve sine terms rather than cosines. The uncertainties for the sine terms were
are affected by conventional solution parameters including (C–A)/B, (B–A)/C, and core flattening. There was no certain detection of the v
with period and this second solution is not tabulated. This solution showed that the core-flattening value depends on how k2 varies w
particularly how k2 influences the Δp1S2190 term. Consequently, the previously reported value of core flattening [Williams et al., 201
considered too uncertain to be useful.
6.3. Model Variety
We present six figures that illustrate either the dissipation expression k2(P)/Q(P)=ÀIm[k2*(P)] or Re[k2*(P)] versus period of deformation
tidal periods have discrete values including 0.5 month, 1 month, 206 days, 1 year, 3 years, and 6 years, the curves are plotted as continu
P. Six curves for k2/Q versus period are shown in Figure 1 for the rheological functions of section 5. In Figure 1, the (k2/Q)27.2 value
10À4 from Table 4 is plotted as a circle with a vertical line for the uncertainty. Equation (41) shows that the annual term is composed of a
from the annual tide, plus the two largest contributions from monthly tides that have opposite signs, plus small contributions. Roughly, Δτ
8.5(k2/Q)365 À0.2(k2/Q)1 mo À0.1(k2/Q)2 weeks ≈ (5.1 ± 1.1) × 10À3, with the last coefficient
from column 6 of Table 4. With the foregoing monthly (k2/Q)27.2 value and uncertainty and a slightly smaller value at 2 weeks, the annua
(5.3 ± 1.2) × 10À3/8.5≈(6.2 ± 1.4) × 10À4, which is plotted as a circle with a vertical line for the uncertainty. The two upper limits are show
horizontal marks with downward pointing arrows; their derivation is described at the end of section 6.5.
Figure 1 shows six curves for k2(P)/Q(P) versus deformation period P. All curves
Figure 1. Six curves show the dependence of k2/Q on period of deformation. The two circles indicate monthly and annual determinations
except the Maxwell case pass through the monthly (k2/Q)27.2 value. As an from LLR data analysis. Upper limits are shown at
example, equation (60) gives f(P) for the All curves except the Maxwell curve were fit to the monthly value of k2/Q. The single relaxation time (Debye) curve
band curve have additional parameters that were adjusted to put the curves through the annual value. The Maxwell curve is restricted by the two upper limits.
time delay model, which is multiplied by (k2/Q)27.2 to give the k2(P)/Q(P) from the imaginary part of equation (54). The Parameters for th
Andrade curve uses equation (58) for f(P),

Table 5. Model Values of Exponents, Relaxation Times, and Band Edge Ratios Type α τ2 (days) τ2/τ1 k2/Q Fitsa Re(k2) Fitsa Comp. Fraction Figure
Time Delay À1 MM 1, 2 Andrade 0.36 M MS 1, 2 Const k2/Q 0 MM 1, 2 Abs Band 0.35 66 1800 MAL MS 1, 2 Debye 15.7 1 MAL M 1, 2 Maxwell +1 1 Abs Band 0.2
5 Abs Band 0.25 65 300 MAL MS 4, 5 Abs Band 0.15 119 420 MAL MS none Debye + Andrade –, 0.1 15.0, À 1, À MAL MS 0.85, 0.15 6 Debye + Abs Band –, 0.15
MAL MS 0.20, 0.80 none Debye + Abs Band –, 0.15 19.0, 100 1, 900 MAL MS 0.15, 0.85 6
aM, monthly; A, annual; L, long period; and S, seismic.
constant k2/Q uses f(P) = 1 from equation (62), the single relaxation time curve uses the imaginary part of equation (66), and the ab
curve uses the imaginary part of equation (70). The single relaxation time and absorption band curves were also made to pass through t
of k2/Q by adjusting the relaxation time τ for the former and the upper relaxation time τ 2 for the latter. The Maxwell curve is placed ne
possible value described in section 6.8. The shapes of the time delay and Maxwell curves are poor fits to the dissipation data. The param
curves are summarized in Table 5.
There is information on lunar elastic properties near 1 Hz. The analysis of P and S wave arrival times from moonquakes and impacts rec
Apollo sites has provided models of the internal structure of the Moon [Nakamura et al., 1973, 1974; Toksöz et al., 1974; Goins et al., 19
Mosegaard, 2002; Lognonné et al., 2003; Nakamura, 2005; Gagnepain-Beyneix et al., 2006; Weber et al., 2011; Garcia et al., 2011]. An
of ray paths provided P and S wave velocities versus depth and, along with density, the shear and bulk moduli versus depth. This inform
accurate for the shallow mantle and becomes progressively more uncertain for the deep mantle and core, which were probed by fewer ra
their model, Weber et al. infer a Love number k2 = 0.0232 but do not provide an uncertainty. We use this value as an approximate val
Five curves for model functions of Re[k2(P)] are shown in Figure 2. They result from inserting the g(P) functions from equations (59),
and (70) into the real part of equation (54). All curves pass through the monthly GRAIL value of Re(k2). The Andrade α and the absorp
adjusted so that the two curves also pass through the seismic (near elastic) k2 value. The same parameters are used for the correspo
Figures 1 and 2. Auxiliary information is provided in Table 5. The columns labeled
“k2/Q Fits” and “Re(k2) Fits” indicate whether the comparisons to monthly (M), annual (A), long period (L), and seismic (S) results are a
Among the curves in the two figures, the single relaxation time model matches four results and the absorption band curve matches all fiv
6.4. Andrade Model
Although the Andrade curve in Figure 1 was not promising, we explore other values of exponent α for the comparison of Andrade curves
solutions
Figure 2. Five curves for Re(k2) versus period of deformation. The circle indicates the GRAIL-determined value of Re(k2) that all curves were required to satisfy. Th
curves of Figures 1 and 2 use
for the (k2/Q)27.2 value in Table 4 and the four libration coefficients from the correction + tide column. The annual compatible paramete
and monthly values of k2/Q are shown

with circles with vertical lines for the uncertainties. The other three coefficients must be treated as linear combinations of k2/Q values at
for the coefficients in equations (39), (43), and (45). On a log-log plot, if k2/Q is an Andrade power law function of the deformation peri
function plots as a straight line with a slope that depends on α. Power law lines are shown in Figure 3 with different colors for the 206 da
1095 day
Figure 3. Andrade (power law) fits to k2/Q versus period of deformation for libration coefficients with periods of 206 days (magenta), 1095 days
(red), and 2190 day (blue) libration coefficients. The libration period labels (red), and 2190 days (blue). For each physica
the lines and the width on the abscissa exponents with α = À0.2, 0, and +0.2 have negative, horizontal, and positive slopes, respectively. The two circles sh
annual determinations from LLR analysis. A negative slope for the 1095 day and 2190 day lines pass close to the monthly and annual circles and to
gives the span of tidal periods in equations (39), (43), and (45). We solve for values of (k2/Q)ref at Pref= 27.212 days that each other. The
appear in the three equations. With α= 0.2 as an example, we evaluate the brace in equation (43) for the 1095 day term with f(P) from eq
À4.37. Then (k2/Q)ref=(À27.2 ± 2.0) × 10À3/(À4.37) = (6.2 ± 0.5) × 10À3, where the numerator comes from column 6 of Table 4. The
matches the monthly value on the upper c

Three values of the exponent α are shown in Figure 3: À0.2, 0, and +0.2. Ideally, for a successful α value, we wish the lines for the librat
nearly coincide and to pass near the monthly and annual spots. From the sixth column of Table 4, the correction plus model tide column,
are 90% for the 206 day coefficient, 22% for 365 days, 8% for 1095 days, and 10% for 2190 days. The lines for the 2190 day libration co
near the vicinity of the monthly and annual spots. The 206 day lines are lower than the other lines, but the 90% uncertainty allows a large
lines for the 1095 day libration are separated and the trace for α= 0.2 is a poor match for the others. In fact, the theoretical coefficient of
would be zero for α= 0.23, preventing the recovery of (k2/Q)ref and larger α values give a wrong sign for the coefficient. Since lunar mat
expected to give a positive α, this disagreement is a problem. Because of the 1095 day libration coefficient, a negative α fits better with t
see why Williams et al. [2001, 2014a] found a negative exponent for power law fits. By contrast, the 2190 day line with the negative value
below the annual value of k2/Q. The 1095 day result causes major problems for any Andrade fit with positive α, and no value of the exp
the data well. Laboratory and terrestrial experience do not find negative exponents.
6.5. Absorption Band
Next we try absorption band fits to the (k2/Q)27.2 value and three libration coefficients from Table 4. Plausible values of exponent α sp
choose a middle value. Six curves for k2/Q versus period of deformation P are shown in Figure 4 for α= 0.25. In addition to α, there are
that can be adjusted: (k2/Q)ref, τ2, τ2/τ1, and k2(Pref). The first two parameters mainly affect the Figure 4 curves for k2/Q versus perio
two mainly affect the Figure 5 curves for k2(P). The middle blue curve passes through the monthly and annual spots and the values (k
and τ2= 83 days accomplish that. The two additional blue curves also have an upper absorption band edge at τ 2 = 83 days and a low
times smaller (τ1= 0.146 day). The three magenta curves have an upper band edge at τ2= 65 days and a lower edge smaller by a
0.217 day). The plotted absorption band α, τ2, and τ2/τ1 values are given in Table 5 along with a case with a smaller α value that we d
maxima of the curves occur at periods that are about 120 days for the blue curves and 100 days for the magenta curves. For each triplet
gives k2/Q versus period when (k2/Q)ref is adjusted to fit the 1095 day libration coefficient. With α= 0.25 and τ2 = 83 days as an exa
in equation (43) for the 1095 day term is evaluated with f(P) from equation (70) to get À33.7. Then (k2/Q)ref=(À27.2 ± 2.0) × 10À3/(À3
0.6) × 10À4,
where the numerator comes from column 6 of Table 4. That value for (k2/Q)ref matches the monthly value on the upper blue curv
bottom curve is adjusted to fit the 2190 day result using equations (45) and (70). The noisy 206 day curve is not plotted, but it would be
2190 day curve. The middle magenta curve passes above the monthly and below the annual spot; the τ2 = 65 day band edge is ch
upper curve by reducing the Figure 4. Absorption band fits to k2/Q versus period of deformation for different LLR-determined physical libration coefficients. E
all cases. Curves with an upper band edge τ2 = 83 days are blue whereas red indicates τ2 = 65 days. Other parameters
k2/Q value at 1095 days. The resulting magenta curves are closer together than the blue curves.
Two circles indicate monthly and annual determinations. The upper blue and magenta curves are fit to the 1095 day libration coefficient and the lower curves are fit
coefficient.
WILLIAMS AND BOGGS ©2015. American Geophysical Union. Seluruh hak cipta. 708 Owing to dissipation, Re(k2) increases with period o
Andrade-type models of the previous section, the increases of Re(k2) and k2/Q with period are unlimited. For the absorption ba
approaches an upper limit as k2/Q decreases at very long periods. For the absorption band model with α= 0.25, curves of k2/Q ve
period are illustrated in Figure 4 and two curves for Re(k2) versus period are shown in Figure 5. At 1 month, k2(Pref) is set equal to
The width of the absorption band is adjusted with τ 2/τ1; it affects the increase of Re(k2) from seismic to tidal periods. The τ2/τ1 ratios
are adjusted to match the increase of Re(k2) from 0.0232 at seismic periods [Weber et al., 2011] to the GRAIL value of 0.02416
size of Re(k2) continues to grow for periods longer than 1 month approaching 0.0259 for very long periods. When values of α from
considered, the separation between Re(k2) curves remains small, presumably because they are restricted to pass though two poin
upper blue curve in Figure 4 that fits the 1095 day libration result lies above the monthly and annual circles. The magenta curves, w
days, are more satisfactory. The upper magenta curve is about 3 × 10 À4 at the 1095 day tidal period. We use 3.5 × 10À4 as an approxim
(k2/Q)1095. The lower blue and magenta curves fit the 2190 day libration result. Equation (45) shows that those curves mainly depend on
6 year dissipation. If (k2/Q)2190 were larger than illustrated, then the equation shows that (k2/Q)27.2 would need to be smalle
discordant with the global value and 1095 day curves. An upper limit of 4.5 × 10À4 at 2190 days would lower (k2/Q)27.2 to 5.7 × 10
2190 day upper limits are approximate, but we use them in Figures 1 and 6 to illustrate
6.6. Narrow Band Relaxation Times
A curve for a single relaxation time (labeled Debye) is shown in Figure 1. It passes through the monthly and annual spots. The Debye cu
Figure 2 changes more abruptly than
Figure 5. Absorption band fits to real Love number Re(k2) versus period of deformation. Exponent α is 0.25. The curve with an upper band edge at τ2 = 83 days is b
magenta indicates τ2 = 65 days. Other parameters are given in Table 5. The circle indicates the
the other model curves, but the steep change takes place over a narrower span of periods. A model with a single relaxation time, o
band GRA
of relaxation times, is offered as an
analogue of a low-viscosity layer, such as the investigation of dissipation from the attenuation zone by Harada et al. [2014]. The viscosity
the rigidity and relaxation time. For the fit shown in Figure 1, the viscosity would be ~5 × 10 16Pa s if due to the attenuation zone. But note
Q, about 2–4 if due to a 150–200 km thick attenuation zone, is a challenge to the linear expansion in equation (53). Low viscosities and t
analogues
Figure 6. Two-component models versus period of deformation. Re(k2)
are discussed in section 7.
is shown in the upper part and k2/Q is graphed in the lower part. The blue lines combine strong single relaxation time with weak Andrade
6.7. Complicated Distributions
dissipation. The red lines combine weak single relaxation time with
Lunar dissipation is likely more strong absorption band dissipation. See section 6.7 for a description and
complicated than that portrayed by Table 5 for parameters.
the preceding fits of this section. The lunar structure includes a crust, mantle, and core. The temperature increases with depth,
composition change with depth, and the deep mantle strongly attenuates seismic waves [Nakamura et al., 1973, 1974; Toksöz et al., 1
1981; Nakamura, 2005; Weber et al., 2011]. Consequently, we expect the dissipation to vary with depth and that variation may inclu
Weber et al. found a 150 km thick attenuating zone. The linear approximation of equation (53) allows different regions to contribute
strengths, exponents, relaxation times, and absorption bands with different
In Figure 1, the k2/Q curve for a single relaxation time fits the LLR results well, but with k2(0) = 0.0240 it is larger than the seismic k2
[Weber et al., 2011]. The seismic value has no reported uncertainty, which limits its accurate use. Still, we can attempt to improve th
between the model k2(0) and the near elastic seismic k2 and we hope that future seismic k2 values will include an uncertainty. Hybri
models can improve the comparison. Figure 6 shows two hybrid models. The blue lines show k2/Q and k2 versus tidal period for a single
combined with Andrade (α= 0.1) dissipation; see Table 5 for parameters. The single relaxation time model contributes 85% of monthly (k
Andrade model contributes 15% (Q≈ 250). The narrow relaxation time might represent a low-viscosity layer resembling the model of Ha
whereas the Andrade dissipation model represents tidal dissipation from other mantle material. The combination gives a k2(0) value of 0
Andrade component induces a shallow slope in k2(P) far from the steeper slope caused by the single relaxation time component. T
not unique; for α>0, both the strength and α of any Andrade-type dissipation must be low to keep the long-period k2/Q smaller than the
1095 and 2190 days while still influencing k2(0).
When two models each pass through the monthly and annual values of k2/Q, linear combinations can be used. One example is given i
not plotted. Many linear combinations are possible, but it is necessary to adjust the width of the absorption band if the seismic k2 is to be
The second hybrid case in Figure 6 combines single relaxation time and absorption band models. This case has 85% of the monthly k2/Q
absorption band dissipation (Q≈45) and 15% from a (putative low viscosity) single relaxation time. The elastic k2(0) = 0.0231. The p
Table 5.
The derivation of the f and g functions for the Andrade model in section 5.3 assumed that exponent α was the same for all layers. The sin
time model of section 5.4 considered only one relaxation time without specifying the number of layers. The absorption band model of sec
on three parameters: exponent α, and band edges τ 1 and τ2. When these parameters are assumed to be the same for all layers, then
set of f and g functions for k2, h2, and l2. The two-component models of this subsection have two sets of f and g functions, one for eac
The right-hand side of equation (54) would be replaced with the addition of two sums with two sets of (k2/Q)ref factors. There would be a
combinations for the displacement Love numbers. For models that do not assume uniform properties
for different layers, it would be necessary to derive separate f and g functions for each layer and sum up each l
the partial derivatives from equation (53) with separate values of (k2/Q)ref for each layer. We do not offer examp
than two components in this paper; the number of unknown parameters would exceed our information. Lunar d
certainly more complicated than we have considered.
6.8. Reflections
The (k2/Q)27.2 value from the global solution is (6.4 ± 1.5) × 10À4. From the absorption band model of Figur
from the 2190 day libration is (6.1 ± 0.6) × 10À4for the 83 day band edge and (6.2 ± 0.6) × 10À4 for the 65 day b
from the 1095 day libration coefficient are (8.1 ± 0.6) × 10À4 and (7.6 ± 0.6) × 10À4 for the two cases, respective
term gives (k2/Q)27.2= (3 ± 3) × 10À4. The middle curve for 65 days used 6.8 × 10À4. The uncertainties are base
Table 4 and do not reflect uncertainties from the rheological model, which particularly affect the 3 year term. A c
(k2/Q)27.2= 6.6 × 10À4 may be an improvement over the global solution, but the difference from the global v
the uncertainty and we adopt (k2/Q)27.2= (6.4 ± 0.6) × 10À4. The monthly Q is 38 ± 4. Past published values o
10À4 [Williams et al., 2001] and (k2/Q)27.2= (6.4 ± 0.6) × 10À4 [Williams et al., 2014a] were based on Andrade
A low value of k2/Q is required at 1095 days and 2190 days. We must conclude that any Maxwell-type add
band model must be small at those periods. To keep those contributions small, the viscosity term in equation (5
≤ 3 × 10À6 (viscous k2/Q≤ 1.2 × 10À4 at 3 years) and ξ ≤4 × 10À6 (k2/Q≤3 × 10À4 at 6 years). The former value
example in the Figure 1 plot.
7. Comments and Discussion

To explain the low lunar tidal Q, Williams et al. [2001] suggested that the deep attenuating zone was the major
depended on the previous seismic discovery of that zone [Nakamura et al., 1973, 1974; Toksöz et al., 1974; Go
papers have attempted to explain the low tidal Q in a fundamental way. Possible mechanisms are discussed be
properties, water content, and a deep partial melt.
The study byKhan et al. [2014] combines information on lunar Love number, mass distribution, composition, an
sounding data to explore a variety of interior models. It concludes that the deep mantle is a partial melt that acc
layer. The temperature profile crosses the solidus at a depth of about 1200 km, just under the zone of deep mo
propose that the dissipating layer is heated by radioactive isotopes that were trapped near the top of the crysta
carried to the bottom of the mantle during overturn.
The study by Nimmo et al. [2012] used an extended Burgers model, which is an absorption band model plus a
introduced a plateau in dissipation at high frequencies, but that should not affect the tidal region. Although their
versus temperature did show a long-period turnover at high temperature, their figure showing the Q associated
turnover. Their table of model parameters had a Maxwell time that was ~3 times the upper band edge, so any
limited. Possibly the dissipation from the higher cooler layers helped reduce any inflection. The Nimmo et al. mo
distinct attenuation zone and they concluded that melt-free materials were adequate to explain the low tidal Q.
Water is an important constituent of the Earth's asthenosphere and Karato [2013] explored the effect of a simila
lunar mantle. A low lunar Q was achieved but not the dependence on tidal period. This mechanism does not re
zone. The water content of the lunar mantle is still uncertain [Albarède et al., 2014].
Efroimsky [2012a, 2012b] presented a model based on a homogeneous incompressible spherical Moon that co
anelasticity with Maxwell viscosity. This model allows the Love numbers to be expressed analytically with a com
low viscosity, the k2/Q function can reach a peak in the tidal band. Although low global viscosity is an extreme
large Love number, there is a connection to the model with a single relaxation time. At long periods, where the
important than the anelastic term, the function that was used for k2/Q has a numerator that is proportional to
denominator approximated with 1 + (1 +A2)2 ν2τM2. Efroimsky's A2 is 1.5/k2. This functional form resembles eq
relaxation time. In the vicinity of the peak, the k2/Q curve that Efroimsky presented should resemble the curve
in Figure 1. His parameter values of A2= 80.5 and τM= 0.43 days place the k2/Q peak at 220 days, which is
value that we find.

Harada et al. [2014] proposed that the deep attenuating zone is a low-viscosity layer of partial melt. They cons
monthly and annual Q values from Williams et al. [2001] to infer a Maxwell viscosity of 2 × 1016Pa s for the laye
the 2001 paper's upper limits, which were larger than the limits in the present paper. From the sum of partial de
we expect that a layer with a single low value of viscosity would contribute a single relaxation time peak for k2/Q
superposed on a broader base from the mantle's higher and more rigid layers. From the Weber et al. [2011] de
for their 150 km thick attenuating zone, one derives μ = 3.5 × 10 10Pa. Consequently, the Maxwell relaxation tim
of the Debye curve would be at 42 days, shorter than the analogous Figure 1 peak at 99 days. If the attenuating
viscosities, then the narrow peak would be widened into a band with less curvature, perhaps resembling a narro
peak for a single viscosity is too narrow to give the proposed increase of Re(k2) from seismic to monthly period
results do not match. Harada et al. used a background monthly Q contribution of ~40,000 from the mantle abov
which appears to be based on a high-viscosity Maxwell model. We suspect that the fit to the high side of the LL
implies that the region of strong dissipation is thicker than the 150 km that was considered.
If we return to the model for a single relaxation time, we can also derive a viscosity for the curve in Figure 1. Mu
relaxation time from Table 5 by μ = 3.5 × 1010Pa we get a viscosity of 5 × 1016Pa s. We do not have a certain te
such low viscosities, but Nakada and Karato [2012] considered viscosities as low as 1017 Pa s for the bottom of
is located just above the core and Nakada et al. [2012] had models with viscosities as low as 1016 Pa s. They w
limits on damping of the terrestrial Chandler wobble at 14 months and solid body tidal dissipation at 18.6 years.
had an alternative interpretation, an absorption band model that extended to 18.6 years, well beyond the lunar p
decrease in dissipation. We note that tidal dissipation in the oceans is strong, complicating the extraction of the
dissipation. We also note that temperatures and pressures are much higher in the terrestrial D′′ layer than in the
we consider absorption band models for the Moon then we get larger viscosities: 3.6 × 10 17 Pa s for the Table 5
and 2 × 1017 Pa s for the 66 day case. The viscosity of the Earth's mantle is on the order of 3 × 1021 Pa s. Th
upper mantle, which is weakened by water, has a viscosity on the order of 10 20 Pa s, possibly as low as 1019 Pa
low viscosities that we find for the lunar attenuation zone are related to viscosities of ~3 × 10 21 Pa s that are exp
mantle.
If most of the dissipation is coming from the attenuation zone, then the effect of that zone on the Love number k
the Weber et al. [2011] model with a 330 km core and a 150 km thick attenuation zone, letting the rigidity μ
fluid value of 0 causes the model k2 to increase from our elastic value of 0.0234 to 0.0248. The k2 curves of Fig
beyond 0.0248 at long periods when k2/Q is fit at 1 month and 1 year. Consequently, we suspect that eithe
thicker than 150 km or that there is significant dissipation taking place at higher regions of the mantle. How thic
dissipation need to be to produce the long-period limits on k2 for the absorption band curves (Figures 2 and 5)
curve (Figure 2)? For the absorption band curves, the thickness would be ≥205 km, whereas the Figure 2 single
requires a thickness ≥225 km. The region of high dissipation appears to extend up to the bottom of the deep mo
[Nakamura, 2005] or possibly into that region. Frohlich and Nakamura [2009] suggested that there might be poc
weak tidal stresses to cause deep moonquakes in the deep moonquake region above the attenuation zone.
The dissipation of energy during distortion by tides or seismic waves depends on the behavior of materials at m
dissipation is mainly concerned with shear. There are multiple mechanisms of
dissipation that can depend on frequency, temperature, and stress; see Karato and Spetzler [1990], Faul and J
references therein. In the Moon at tidal frequencies, the application of shear stress to a material is thought to c
slide by one another at their boundaries. The mineral grains have defects that can impede the motion so that sh
grains can oppose the sliding force. This anelastic mechanism dissipates energy, but the distortion from sliding
to defects on the grains. At high temperatures and long time scales the pinning becomes ineffective and the slid
Consequently, Karato [2010] expects that the upper band limit would be replaced with a transition to a Maxwell
can be seen for laboratory data on hot materials [Jackson et al., 2004, 2009] but at periods that are much short
Considering this knowledge, why do the LLR data show a dip at long periods that can be fit by absorption band
models? Should we expect a Maxwell curve like that shown in Figure 1? Harada et al. [2014] showed that an at
viscosity and shear strength produces a peaked curve like the single relaxation time curve. Although the short-p
that curve is proportional to period like Maxwell viscosity, the curve reaches a peak. The curve for single relaxa
enhanced viscous sliding between hot grain boundaries that are lubricated by a small amount of melt, but the m
opposed by shear forces. The curves for Love number and k2/Q might require two components resembling the
Figure 6. Our viscosity of ~5 × 1016Pa s would apply to grain boundaries lubricated by small amounts of melt (a
larger amounts of liquid. The single relaxation time model predicts a decrease in Re(μ); the attenuation zone is
velocity [Nakamura et al., 1973].
From equations (53), (55), and (56), the factor Δξ j for Maxwell viscosity from a single layer j is k2fjPref/(2πτM),
k2 from layer j. For a mantle viscosity of ~3 × 1021Pa s above the attenuation zone, with μ =7×1010Pa the M
~1400 years. The fraction is <1 so the contribution to ξ is <2 × 10 À7. By comparison, an upper limit of ξ ≤3 × 10
So we predict that Maxwell dissipation from the overlying mantle is more than an order of magnitude smaller th
Figure 1.
Harada et al. [2014] suggest that there may be a thermal equilibrium involving heating of the attenuation zone b
convective heat transport upward, and low viscosity established by the temperature. Laneuville et al. [2014] pro
core would supply enough heat to cause core convection, with a heat flow of 2–8 mW/m2 at the core-mantle bo
the dynamical heat flow at the CMB, from the K/C in Table 4, provides only 0.05 mW/m2. At a 480 km boundary
the heat flow values are about half of the foregoing values. In addition, tidal heating provides 0.38 mW/m 2 so th
total 0.40 mW/m2, less than what is expected from crystallization. There may also be an uncertain amount of ra
that the 3–4 month period for the peak k2/Q value is on the long side of the monthly dissipation so that an incre
decrease the viscosity and peak period while increasing the melt region and peak dissipation. Whether dynamic
significant role in establishing the thermal equilibrium remains to be investigated.
On evolutionary time scales, the thermal evolution and the dynamical evolution are coupled. The dissipation cu
young Moon cools and the lithosphere grows. The dissipation from tides and CMB interaction must have been s
history, and the transition between Cassini states must have caused a pulse of power [Ward, 1975; Peale and
The distributions of the Moon's surface radioactivity and mineralogy are asymmetrical. Zhong et al. [2012] sugg
may not be spherically symmetrical. This would lead to Love numbers that depend on the spherical harmonic c
of kC2m and kS2m. In such a case we would also expect lack of symmetry to cause five values of k2/Q, particu
thermal asymmetry such as Laneuville et al. [2013] associate with the Procellarum KREEP Terrane. For tidal d
physical librations, such a lack of symmetry would cause a difference in the longitude (Δτ) and latitude (Δp1) ter
detected, we consider it premature to attempt to extract such an effect from the data of this paper. Future possi
section 8.
Is the absorption band model of Figure 4 too simple? Is a low-viscosity layer sufficient to account for the long-p
The solution to these puzzles must be left to the future.
8. Future Investigations
Our knowledge of lunar dissipation is limited. What can be learned about lunar dissipation in the future? In addi
data analysis, we consider experiments that might be carried to the Moon by future missions.
Analyses of GRAIL tracking data have provided accurate monthly k2 values; further analyses should improve
seeking an independent determination of monthly k2/Q. The two published k2 values [Konopliv et al., 2013
resulted from analyses of the 3 month primary mission data that determined degree and order 660 fields. The
maneuver, was better suited for determining degree 2 tides than the lower altitude extended mission with its fre
extended mission data analysis is providing higher-degree and higher-order gravity fields [Konopliv et al., 2014
must benefit the analysis of tides [Williams et al., 2015]. A determination of the semimonthly tide would be a us
missions could also contribute to knowledge of tides by probing a variety of tidal periods. Mission duration can l
period tides.
We now consider future lunar laser ranging measurement and data analysis. The best modern measurements h
[Samain et al., 1998; Murphy et al., 2008, 2012]. Those accuracies are achieved when atmospheric scintillation
The finite dimensions of the corner cube arrays coupled with optical librations of ~0.1 rad broadens the returned
Consequently, strong signals with many photons are needed to achieve millimeter ranges [Murphy et al., 2012]
ideal, the laser beam is spread over a larger area at the Moon, fewer photons are reflected and detected, and r
Modern designs for corner cubes include single corner cubes that would not spread the pulse in time [Otsubo e
2013; Preston and Merkowitz, 2013]. Separate from pulse spread, the four-decade-old arrays are degraded by
2010, 2014]. New corner cubes would be desirable experiments on future lunar landers. An alternative to retror
transponders would provide a strong signal [Bender et al., 1990; Yoshino et al., 1999], but they require power. S
displacements and physical librations would be enhanced by a broad geographical spread of corner cube retror
Our LLR data analysis is less accurate than the best ranges. So there is reason to expect that improved modeli
lead to better information on dissipation versus tidal period. Examination of spectra of postfit residuals shows th
retroreflectors have more power in the 2 to 5 year band than the Apollo 15 array. In part this may be due to a di
observations; the larger Apollo 15 array collects 75% of the observations whereas the combined Apollo 11 and
but it also suggests that there may be some unmodeled effect on physical libration in longitude. Future measure
librations could involve other techniques: differential radio tracking [Bender, 1994; Gregnanin et al., 2012] and a
[Hanada et al., 2012; Petrova and Hanada, 2013] have been proposed.
This paper's determination of tidal dissipation has focused on physical libration effects at four periods, but there
summary of physical libration terms is given in Table 6 using the absorption band model in Table 5 that has an
days. Libration coefficients in Table 6 should be multiplied by (k2/Q)27.2. Columns 3 through 7 give the phase
whereas the last five columns give the terms that depend on Re[k2(P)]–Re[k2(27.2)]. The perturbations were
and Δp2; the IΔσ and Δρ values come from an approximate transformation and will be less accurate. A un
rotating Moon would have the descending node of its equator plane on the ecliptic plane coinciding with the asc
orbit. The two inclinations are I for the equator and i for the orbit. For the real lunar equator, Ω +σ is the perturb
perturbed inclination. The I+ρ angle tilts downward where the lunar orbit inclination tilts upward. See Eckhardt [
approximation of Iσ and ρ involves a rotation of p1 and p2 by angle F, but higher-order approximations involve
example of the linear rotation, when the large p1 and p2 coefficients for the 27.212 day period are rotated by F
constant offset in σ. The interaction at the CMB causes similar terms, so, after the global solution, we did not tr
refine tidal dissipation. The 27.555 day term is mainly sensitive to the monthly tide, so it is not expected to prov
period terms are of particular interest, but their small predicted sizes would require that LLR analysis
Table 6. The Perturbation of Physical Libration Components by Tides, Which is Predicted for an Absorption Band Model With α = 0.25, an Upper Band Edge at τ2 = 65 Day
= τ2/300, Should be Multiplied by (k2/Q)27.2 Arg Period (days) Δτ (′′) cos Δp1 (′′) cos Δp2 (′′) sin IΔσ (′′) cos Δρ (′′) sin Δτ (′′) sin Δp1 (′′) sin Δp2 (′′) cos IΔσ (′′) sin Δρ (′′) cos
0 ∞ 339.22 À222.21 0.97 F 27.21 232.03 À230.72 1.02 1.02 F À l 2190.35 À1.94 À13.40 16.78 À0.05 0.19 4.75 6.39 0.01 2F À 2l 1095.18 À35.63 À0.86 À0.03 À43.87 À1.04
À10.88 5.59 5.57 l′ 365.26 6.83 0.18 À17.37 À0.47 2l À 2D 205.89 À4.10 À0.11 À1.63 À0.04 l À D 411.78 0.48 0.01 0.73 0.02 D Àl + l′ 3232.86 0.52 0.01 F + l À 2D 188.20 À
31.81 À0.39 0.39 À0.40 0.01 0.08 0.08 2l À 2D À l′ 471.89 0.02 À0.23 À0.01 2DÀ F 32.28 À0.16 0.21 À0.01 À0.01 2F À 2D 173.31 0.20 0.19 À0.18 À0.20 À0.02 À0.01 LÀ ∏
Ω À 90° 6794.32 0.18 À0.18 2l À F 27.91 À0.07 0.09 0.15 0.14 2F À l 26.88 À0.67 0.63 0.82 0.82 2F 13.61 0.02 À1.17 1.12 0.01 À0.01 0.01 2l 13.78 À0.02 0.26 À0.13 À0.01
accuracy be improved. The two terms with the angles Ω for node, L= F+ Ω for mean longitude, and ∏ arise from
plane. In precession theory, angle ∏ describes the node of the moving ecliptic plane on a fixed ecliptic plane an
J2000. The three angles should be measured from a common reference direction such as the moving equinox.
period is near the resonance at 27.296 days.
The free libration in longitude has a 1056 day period [Rambaux and Williams, 2011]. Over time its amplitude sh
dissipation and CMB interaction. Expressions for damping are given by Peale [1976] and Williams et al. [2001].
expressions, the damping time for the absorption band fit is predicted to be ~37,000 years with tidal friction acc
damping. Without further stimulation, the 1.3′′ (11 m on the equator) free amplitude should decay by 3.5 × 10 À5
wobble of the pole, a second free mode analogous to the Earth's Chandler wobble, traces out an elliptical path
3.3′′ (69 m by 28 m). The wobble period is 74.626 years and the damping time depends on k2/Q at that period.
parameter ξ is near the upper limit of 3 × 10À6 in section 6.8, then the damping time could be as short as 1.4 ×
Maxwell factor ξ is smaller, the damping time could be millions of years. Without further stimulation, the p1 com
could be decreasing by as much as 2 × 10À5 ′′/yr, or it could be more than an order of magnitude less. The dam
would be difficult to see with current LLR uncertainties, but it should be considered a future possibility. Stimulati
impact [Peale, 1975, 1976] and resonance passage [Eckhardt, 1993] would be very rare events so that present
expected. However, if stimulation of these modes is an ongoing process at the core-mantle boundary [Yoder, 1
fluctuations of either sign rather than decay.
The period of the Earth's Chandler wobble is lengthened by elastic distortion, but the influence of k2 on the luna
to be useful [Peale, 1973]. Equation (24) in Williams et al. [2001] shows an influence of k2 on the 27.3 day free
distortion period is 1 month, the integrator's time delay model should account for that dependence. The dam
mode is estimated to be 1.5 × 105 years, but the mode's amplitude of 0.032′′, or 0.27 m for a great arc on the su
Williams, 2011], is much too small to observe a slow change of ~2 × 10 À7 ′′/yr or ~2μm/yr.
There are additional free modes associated with the inner and outer cores [Petrova et al., 2008; Williams et al., 2
core modes is detected, they are unlikely to yield dissipation information soon. Detection would give information
Tidal displacements are more intuitive than tidal influences on physical librations. Tidal amplitudes depend on lo
monthly tides are ~0.1 m in size. The LLR solution of Table 4 has Re(h2) = 0.0473 ± 0.0061 and Mazarico et a
0.0033, but the model value of 0.0423 at 1 month should be more accurate than either determination. If most of
coming from the attenuating zone, then model-derived partial derivatives like those in equation (53) indicate tha
h2 should be about 2%–5% less than the Q associated with k2, eg, [Williams et al., 2014a, Table 11]. Then
the formulation of section 2 can be used by multiplying Table 1 coefficients by R= 1738 km, replacing k2 wi
with h2/Qh≈1.2 × 10À3. For example, the largest monthly term from Rh2C20 has a coefficient of -45 mm, the large
À96 mm, and the largest combined 2,2 component is 3 × 37.3 = 112 mm. The largest phase-shifted componen
cause changes of about 1.2 mm, 2.7 mm, and 3.1 mm, respectively. The largest semimonthly terms for the 2,0,
are 8 mm, 14 mm, and 18 mm, respectively, with phase-shifted components predicted to be ≤0.5 mm in size. T
terms would be interesting at the 10% level for comparison with the k2-related Q values. Displacement measu
of a few tenths of a millimeter become useful for dissipation studies. Note that the Apollo LLR arrays should di
day) thermal expansion cycles of ~1 mm. At 1 m above the surface, the Lunokhod arrays should show thermal
millimeters. There is even a small thermal expansion of the regolith that lags the surface temperature. The therm
interfere with tidal terms with arguments that are integer multiples of angle D, such as the 2D periodicity. Differe
have been proposed for measurements of tides [Bender, 1994; Gregnanin et al., 2012] and differential optical te
promise (SG Turyshev and M. Shao, private communication, 2013).
Horizontal tides (section 3) depend on the derivative ∂P2(cos θ)/∂θ. They are about half the size of the vertic
much less sensitive to the deep lunar interior than k2 and h2. If all of the tidal dissipations were coming from
zone, then the Ql associated with l2 would be ~300, but dissipation from other parts of the mantle could lower
Dissipation might affect horizontal tides at the 0.2 mm level. A determination of Ql might say something about
different depth. Accuracies of ≤0.2 mm would be needed for detection.
Recommended values of distortion and dissipation-related parameters are given in Table 7 for both the standar
for gravity and the mean radius from laser altimetry [Neumann, 2013]. The monthly k2 value comes from GRA
and (k2/Q)27.2 comes from this paper. Love numbers without uncertainties come from the GPM3 model [Willia
8].
Early in the exploration of the Moon, tidal gravimeters were considered [Sutton et al., 1963; Harrison, 1963]. On
surface, the elastic tidal potential depends on the factor 1 + k2 Àh2≈0.9819, the gravitational acceleration involv
≈1.0061, and the tidal tilt of the vertical with respect to space is factored by 1 + k2Àl2≈ 1.0135. For these par
interest is 2 orders of magnitude smaller than the tide-raising part and the accuracy of interest is another 2 to 3
smaller. High-accuracy instruments would be required. It would be necessary to include the higher-degree tidal
Love numbers, the negative imaginary parts of the factors depend on k2/QÀh2/Qh, h2/QhÀ1.5k2/Q, and k2/QÀ
Thermal expansion and contraction would interfere for arguments that are integer multiples of angle D.
Laboratory experiments have provided important information on the mechanisms of dissipation in materials ove
time scales, grain sizes, and presence of melt. Further studies spanning the physical conditions and compositio
deep interior would expand this understanding.
We hope that future data analysis and lunar experiments will expand the band of periods of deformation that ar
other than 1 month are of particular interest for k2/Q and k2: 2 weeks, 7 months, 1 year, and 6 years. For any
spans are desirable for dissipation studies, a concern for powered experiments. Shorter data spans might provi
week tides. Although there are shorter-period tidal terms at 1/3 month, 1/4 month, etc., Tables 1, 2, and 6 show
as the period becomes shorter. What about periods outside of the tidal band? A future geophysical network of l
other instruments would be very important for understanding the structure and properties of the lunar interior [N
Broadband seismometers would also improve information
Table 7. Recommended Values for Lunar Love Numbers and Dissipation
on seismically inferredk2 and dissipation. Parameters at a 1 Month Period
Detection of free oscillations would
R = 1738 km,
R = 1737.151 km,
sample periods from <1 min to 17 min Parameter
Pref = 27.212 days
Pref = 27.212 days
[Gudkova and Zharkov, 2002; Gudkova Re[k2(27.2)] (k2/Q)27.2 and Raevskii, 2013]. Unfortunately, there
are no natural periods of deformation to fill in the span from 0.01 day to the tidal band. Detecting secular changes in the spherical harmo
the “static” gravity field would sample the realm of viscous creep.
The Moon is an example of tidal dissipation in a silicate body. The larger population of solar system planets and satellites [Rambaux an
2013; Mathis et al., 2013] as well as exoplanets [Henning et al., 2009] has a variety of compositions, structures, temperatures, press
and tidal strengths. The Earth is another silicate body, and similarities between the terrestrial D′′ layer at the base of the mantle and the
zone are intriguing. Improved determination and interpretation of dissipation in the Earth, Moon, and other bodies sh
9. Summary
A problem that was addressed in Williams et al. [2001] was the separation of two sources of dissipation: tides and fluid motion at the cor
boundary. Prior to that time, LLR detected a combination of the two through the large monthly effect on pole direction. The resulting tidal
surprisingly low and its apparent increase with tidal period was puzzling. Subsequent solutions improved the accuracy of the separation
the strange dependence of Q on tidal period. The 2001 paper suggested that the strong tidal dissipation might be concentrated in the att
that seismic analysis discovered at the base of the mantle. More recent studies concluded that the dissipation arises deep in the mantle
lower region or, more narrowly, in the attenuation zone. Proposed mechanisms are sensitive to heat including dissipative properties of so
water content, and a partial melt. A better understanding of tidal dissipation should provide information on the deep mantle.
The tidal potential is addressed in section 2. For an elastic response of a spherical Moon, the tidal distortion and its additional potential in
the spherical harmonic series by three Love numbers. Degree 2 lunar tidal dissipation introduces effects depending on the inverse qualit
~1/38 at 1 month. To compute tidal distortion or potential with accuracies better than a few percent, one must account for dissipation. Th
raising potential is expressed with time-varying spherical harmonic coefficients ΔC2m(t) and ΔS2m(t) that are expanded into periodic se
The largest tidal terms have a 1 month period, lesser terms are at 2 weeks and 6 years, and smaller terms occur at other periods. For th
of the distorted Moon, each period P in the Fourier series has its own Love number, k2(P), and phase-shifted factor, k2(P)/Q(P). How t
period depends on the properties of the lunar material.

Tidal displacements are discussed in section 3. Vertical tides involve the tide-raising potential multiplied by Love number h2. Dissipation
vertical tides much like it affects the potential. Horizontal tides depend on the horizontal derivative of the tide-raising potential scaled
l2.
The tidal potential gives rise to torques on the Moon that affect its orientation. The torque modification depends on products of two period
one comes from the tide-raising body and the other describes the torquing body. The two components can have different arguments and
product has sums and differences of the two arguments. Of the two arguments, the tidal component is phase shifted. Tides also affect th
inertia. The orientation variations, called physical librations, are a dynamical response to the torque and moment-of-inertia changes. Sec
sensitivity of
0.02416 (6.4 ± 0.6) ± 0.00022 × 10À4 0.02422 (6.4 ± 0.6) ± 0.00022 × 10À4 Q(27.2) 38 ± 4 38 ± 4 Re[h2(27.2)] (h2/Qh)27.2 1.2 0.04
× 10À3 Qh(27.2) 36 36 Re[l2(27.2)] (l2/Ql)27.2 ~3.6 0.0107 × 10À5 ~3.6 0.0108
× 10À5 Ql(27.2) ~300 ~300 k3(27.2) 0.0095 0.0095 h3(27.2) 0.0234 0.0235 l3(27.2) 0.0030 0.0030

libration terms at five periods (1 month, 7 months, 1 year, 3 years, and 6 years) to tidal dissipation at multiple p
weeks, 1 month, 7 months, 1 year, 3 years, and 6 years.
Section 5 addresses the dependence of Love number k2(P) and phase-shifted component k2(P)/Q(P) on tida
experiments support a Qs associated with shear modulus μ that has a power law dependence on period, Qs∝
experiments are limited to periods that are short compared to tidal periods. If one assumes that a power law
imaginary part of complex 1/μ*, then k2* in equation (54) can be derived from a linear Taylor expansion (53)
a Maxwell term for viscosity. Without the Maxwell term, the Love number is anelastic and k2(P) and k2(P)/Q(P
g(P) and f(P), Love number k2(Pref), and factor (k2/Q)ref at a reference period Pref. The latter two parameters
observation. Anelastic models with a power law dissipation are called Andrade models, see section 5.3. If 1/μ*
single relaxation time, then k2(P)/Q(P) versus tidal period has a peaked shape (section 5.4). If there is a band
power law distribution, then an absorption band model follows (section 5.5). More than one of these models can
Maxwell term can be added.
The measurement of the lunar gravity field by the GRAIL mission has provided an accurate value of k2 at 1 mon
(LLR) data analysis is sensitive to k2(P)/Q(P) through measurement of the temporal variation of the three-axis
librations. In addition, the analysis of seismic data provides lunar models of elastic properties near the elastic lim
years of LLR data solved for dissipation at the core-mantle boundary, tidal dissipation at 1 month, and analytica
four periods: 206 days, 1 year, 3 years, and 6 years. The LLR solution (Table 4, section 6.2) finds a monthly (k2
10À4 (Q27.2≈ 38) and the annual libration term yields (k2/Q)365 = (6.2 ± 1.4) × 10À4 (Q365 ≈ 41 ± 9). The 206 d
10À4 at 1 month, but it is too noisy to be useful. The 3 year (1095 day) and 6 year (2190 day) libration terms de
periods, making them more difficult to interpret. Both are strongly affected by monthly tides; the 3 year libration
tides and the 6 year libration is affected by 6 year tides. For both LLR results, the agreement between the k2/Q
long-period k2/Q values are lower than the monthly and annual values. The 3 year term is particularly sensitiv
positive slope of k2/Q versus tidal period fails to satisfy the LLR results. This explains why Williams et al. [2
negative exponents for k2/Q versus period with Andrade-type models. With the qualification that long-period
assumptions about the behavior of k2/Q at shorter periods, we offer (k2/Q)1095≤ 3.5 × 10À4 (Q1095≥ 74) and (k
(Q2190 ≥58). The limits on Q also depend on assumptions about the growth of k2 with tidal period. There is n
term.
Section 6 presents various attempts to fit the LLR results on dissipation with different rheological models. Vario
k2(P)/Q(P) are illustrated in Figures 1–6. The most successful fits to the LLR results are single time delay m
band models that peak between 1 month and 1 year. Models with a single or a narrow spread of time delays mi
effect of a highly dissipative low-viscosity layer. Single time delay models give little difference in Re(k2) at mont
but that can be changed by adding a contribution to k2/Q with a weak dependence on period, see Figure 6. A
are thought to be invalid for hot material at long tidal periods because a band's upper limit for relaxation time wo
Maxwell viscosity. Although that behavior is seen in laboratory experiments at short periods, only peaked dissip
periods well for the Moon. The Moon is probably more complicated than our models.
Section 7 discusses several papers that have attempted to explain the LLR dissipation results. An extended Bu
by Nimmo et al. [2012]. They concluded that the low Q could result from the dissipative properties of hot solid m
without invoking a partial melt. Their model predicts an increase of k2/Q with period. Karato [2013] concluded
increase lunar dissipation. Efroimsky [2012a, 2012b] and Harada et al. [2014] attempted to explain the decrea
a function that was similar to the single relaxation time model with a peak in the vicinity of the tidal periods. Low
both cases. Efroimsky used a uniform Moon model but suggested that the real Moon had a low-viscosity attenu
used a model with a high Q mantle and a low-viscosity attenuating layer. Considering a variety of evidence, Kh
that the attenuating zone is a partial melt. Consideration of the curves for k2(P) in Figures 2, 5,
and 6 suggests that the region of high attenuation is at least 205 km thick, with outer radius ≥535 km reaching the bottom of the deep mo
possibly extending higher.
Although we may extract more tidal information from ongoing analyses of spacecraft tracking and LLR data, new missions with new expe
needed at some future time. Future tidal measurements (section 8) could include precision tracking of spacecraft, range and differential r
measurements to landing sites, surface gravitational acceleration, and direction of vertical. Measurement of free oscillations would expan
that are sampled. A wider distribution of seismometers would improve our knowledge of lunar structure and elastic properties.
Lunar tides provide information on dissipation at time scales that have not been probed by laboratory experiments and are only starting t
the Earth. Examination of the variety of possible curves illustrated by Figures 1–6 shows that the determination of lunar k2/Q and k2 is ne
variety of periods. The change in k2 between two periods is sensitive to k2/Q between those periods. Tidal measurements at 2 wee
year, and 6 year periods would help illuminate the causes of dissipation. There is much about tides and tidal dissipation that remains to b
Appendix A: Spherical Harmonic Functions and Tidal Potential
The equations for the tide-raising potential and the potential from elastic tidal distortion take a compact form. We start with equation (1) f
potential W2. The Moon has a static gravity field that is specified with spherical harmonic coefficients [Konopliv et al., 2013, 2014; Lem
2014], and we express the tide-raising potential in the same coordinate frame.
For a coordinate frame fixed in the Moon, the spherical coordinates of a point at which we want to evaluate the potential are east longitud
φ. In equations (1) and (3), the angle θ between the Moon-centered directions toward the tide-raising body and the point of interest satis
cosθ 1⁄4 sinφsinφ′ þ cosφcosφ′cos ð λ′ À λ Þ, (A1)
where primes are used for the coordinates of the tide-raising body and unprimed coordinates are used for the point at which the potentia
1 1⁄4 3 sin2 1
evaluated. Then 32 cos2θ À 2 2 φÀ 2
1
32 sin2φ′ À 2
þ 3sinφcosφsinφ′cosφ′cos ð λ′ À λ Þ
3 cos2
þ 4 φcos2φ′cos ð 2λ′ À 2λ Þ
(A2)
This expression is the addition theorem for unnormalized degree 2 spherical harmonic functions
1 P21 ð sinφ ÞP21 ð sinφ′ Þcos ð λ′ À λ Þ
P20 ð cos θ Þ 1⁄4 P20 ð sinφ ÞP20 ð sinφ′ Þ þ 3
1P
þ 12 22 ð sinφ ÞP22 ð sinφ′ Þcos ð 2λ′ À 2λ Þ
WILLIAMS AND BOGGS ©2015. American Geophysical Union. Seluruh hak cipta. 718 (A3)
where P20(sin φ) = 1.5sin2 φ–0.5 is a Legendre polynomial, P21(sin φ) = 3sin φ cos φ and P22(sinφ) = 3cos2 φ are associated Legen
and P2(sin φ)= P20(sin φ). The coordinates r′, λ′, and φ′ vary with time and it is convenient to write the tide-raising potential as time-depen
coefficients.
ΔC20 tðÞ1⁄4 M′m Ra′
3P20 ð sinφ′ Þ (A4)

ΔC21 tðÞ1⁄4 13
3 a′r′
3P21 ð sinφ′ Þcosλ′ (A5)

ΔS21 tðÞ1⁄4 13
À
M′ R 3 a′ma′ r′ 3P21
ΔC22 tðÞ1⁄4 12
1 M′ R 3 a′ma′ r′ 3P22 ð s
ΔS22 tðÞ1⁄4 12
1 M′ R 3 a′ma
a′r′
3P22 ð sinφ′ Þsin2λ′ (A8)

In the above, m is the mass of the Moon and R is its reference radius. For the tide-raising body with mass M′, r′ is the distance from the c
Moon and a′ is the semimajor axis. Equations (A4)–(A8) can be substituted for the first terms on the right-hand side of equations (19)–(2
For a spherical Moon with spherically symmetric elastic properties without dissipation, the tidal distortion of the gravity field has coefficien
1⁄4 k 1⁄4 k
ΔCT2m 2ΔC2m (A9) ΔS
T
2m 2ΔS2m . (A10)
These time-varying gravity field coefficients can be added on to the much larger static coefficients to compute the external potential. For
these expressions are compact.
With dissipation, we derive Fourier series for expressions (A4) to (A8), as equations (4)–(8) indicate, and apply a complex frequency-dep
number, as is done in section 2. Table 1 presents the Fourier series.
Appendix B: Cartesian Functions and Tides
Spherical harmonic functions are widely used, but for matrix expressions a Cartesian counterpart is useful. From the components of unit
equation (25), the definition (28) of the Uij elements and the definitions of unnormalized spherical harmonic functions, with the radial fact
are as follows:
ar 3P20 ð sinφ Þ 1⁄4 U33 À 12 ð U11 þ U22 Þ
!
(B1)
arWILLIAMS AND BOGGS ©2015. American Geophysical Union. Seluruh hak cipta. 719 3P22 arar ð 3sinφ 3PP21 21 ð ð sinφ Þcos2λ sinφ Þ
1⁄4 1⁄4 ð U11 3U3U23 À 13 U22 Þ ar 3P22 ð sinφ Þsin2λ 1⁄4
(B4)
(B5)
These expressions apply to primed or unprimed variables. They can be substituted into the tide-raising potential coefficients of (A4) to (A
ΔC20 1⁄4 M′m
R 3 a′
U′33 À 12 ð U′11 þ U′22 Þ

!
(B6)
ΔC21 1⁄4 M′m
3U′13 (B7)
M′
ΔS21 1⁄4 m
Ra′ 3U′23 (B8)
ΔC22 1⁄4 4m M′
Ra′ a′
R3
ð U′11 À U′22 Þ (B9)

ΔS22 1⁄4 2m M′
3U′12 (B10)
The ΔC2m, ΔS2m, and U′ij parameters depend on time t.

From expression (33) for the moment of inertia elements, one can replace the right-hand side of the above with moment of inertia eleme
al., 2014a, equations (21)–(25)]. The Cartesian expressions of this appendix are alternatives to conventional spherical harmonic function
With dissipation, Fourier analyzing the U′ij functions is an alternative to Fourier analyzing the spherical harmonic expressions in equat
Tables 2 and 3 present the Fourier series for the U′ij functions from Earth and Sun, respectively.
Ra′

Table Complete C1. to The 2 × Series 10À5
for Angular Velocity Vector Components in the Lunar Frame Are Divided by Mean Motion n and Are
Argument ζ q Period (days) ω1/n, 10À6, sin ω2/n, 10À6, cos ω3/n, 10À6, cos
0 ∞ 0 1 1,000,001 F 27.212 À1 À216 0 l 27.555 0 0 À74 F À l 2190.350 À600 À359 0 l′ W a 365.260 0 272
aW = 161.60° + 360°(JD À2451545.0)/27257.27, where JD is Julian Day [Rambaux and Williams, 2011].
Appendix C: Distortion From Spin
Distortion from lunar spin is small, but it is included here for completeness. The potential on the surface of a spherical body due to rotatio
and oblate parts
R2
WS 1⁄4 3 ω2
1⁄2 1 À P2 ð u Á w Þ Š, (C1)
where R is the radius of the sphere, u is a unit vector from its center to a point on its surface, ω is the angular velocity, w is a unit vector
the angular velocity vector ω, and P2 is a Legendre polynomial specified in Appendix A. The last term of the spin-generated potential can
the degree 2 tide-raising potential in equations such as (2) and (24).
The modification of the moment of inertia tensor by the angular velocity vector ω has degree 2 and degree 0 distortions.
k δ
ISij 1⁄4 3GR5 2 ω iω j À ω2 3
ij
þ sω2δij
!
(C2)
The s factor for the spherical mode of distortion is approximately 0.01 and the effect on the physical libration is very small [Williams et al.
A]. Table C1 gives the Fourier series for the largest components of the spin vector. The spin rate components are normalized by mean m
tabulation. The entry with argument W is the free wobble [Rambaux and Williams, 2011]. Multiplying the coefficient (n2R5/3G) = 2.5 × 10
6 × 10À8mR2, so that the largest variations of the moment of inertia elements are on the order of 4 × 10À11mR2. By comparison, the tid
× 10À7mR2 with largest variation 2 × 10À8mR2. The tidal variations of the moment tensor are 3 orders of magnitude larger than the spin v
the principal axis frame causes the constant part of ω 1/n to be À382 × 10À6.
The monthly F term in Table C1 is associated with the lunar pole that is precessing about the normal to the ecliptic plane with an 18.6 ye
of the precessing pole is 1.543°. The corresponding angular velocity vector component is offset from the body Z axis by 45′′, so both pre
contrast, the 6 year component of spin vector ω traces out an elliptical path of 124′′by 74′′in the body frame that differs by <2′′from the 6
components of the ecliptic pole. The combined components of the spin vector ω do not follow either the ecliptic pole or the body po
short-period components behave differently.
Notation
A Smallest principal moment of inertia. a Semimajor axis. B Second principal moment of inertia. C Largest principal moment of inertia. C
Fourier series for tidal potential.

D Elongation of Moon from Sun. e Eccentricity of orbit. F Lunar argument of latitude. f Function of period for anelastic dissipation.
G Gravitational constant. g Function of period for anelastic dissipation. h2 Degree 2

Love number for vertical displacement.
i Inclination of lunar orbit plane. i √(À1). I Inclination of lunar equator plane to ecliptic plane I Moment of inertia matrix.
IS(t) Spin contribution to moment of inertia matrix. IT(t) Tide contribution to moment of
inertia matrix.
Im Imaginary part. k2 Degree 2 potential Love number. k2* Complex

Love number.
K Bulk modulus.
l Lunar mean anomaly. l' Solar or Earth-Moon center of mass mean anomaly. l2 Degree 2 Love (or Shida) number for
horizontal displacement. M′ Mass of tide-raising body. m Mass of Moon. n Mean motion. P Period.
Pref Reference period.
p1 Component of ecliptic pole direction toward mean Earth direction. p2 Component of ecliptic pole dire
perpendicular to mean Earth direction.
Q Quality factor for dissipation associated with k2. Qh Quality factor for dissipation
associated with h2. Ql Quality factor for dissipation associated with l2.
R Reference radius of Moon. Re Real part.
r Radial distance from Moon's center. r' Radial distance of tide-raising body. S2mq
Coefficient in Fourier series for tidal potential.
t Time. Tr Trace of a matrix. Uij Matrix elements (a/r)3 ui uj. Uijq Coefficient in Fourier Series for U Matrix.
u Unit vector to point or attracting body. u′ Unit vector to tide-raising body. V2
Tidal potential from distortion. W Argument of free wobble. W2 Tide-raising
potential.
α Exponent for power law variation of dissipation with period. Δ Small change. δ ij Kronecker delta function. ΔC2m Tide-raising
gravity field coefficient. ΔCT2m Gravity field coefficient from tidal distortion.
ΔS2m Tide-raising gravity field coefficient. ΔST2m Gravity field coefficient from tidal distortion.
ΔR Tidal displacement at surface. Δζ Negative phase shift of tide. ζ Argument in Fourier series. η Shear
viscosity. θ Angle between direction to tide-raising body and point of interest. λ Longitude. μ Shear
modulus.
ν Frequency. ξ Coefficient related to inverse viscosity. ρ Density or component of physical libration in latitude. σ Component of physical l
latitude. τ Physical libration in longitude or relaxation time. τ M Maxwell time η/μ.
φ Latitude. ω Angular rate vector. ω Angular rate.
Acknowledgments
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2. Potensi Pasang Surut

pesanan m≤ 2 Lampiran A menjelaskan bagaimana W2 diekspresikan dalamgeografis bulan koordinatden

didefinisikan sebagai berikut:

dengan √ (3/5), dan C22 dan S22 koefisienoleh 2√ (3/5) .

faktor kualitas karena disipasi.

tð Þ (12) Im È k2* À Pq Áexp Â iζ q tð Þ Ã É 1⁄4 k2 À Pq Ásinζ q tðÞÀ k2Q

C20q gqcos ζq tðÞþ f qsin ζ q tð Þ

C21q gqdosa ζ q tðÞÀ fqcos ζ q tð Þ

S21q gqcos ζ q tðÞþ fqsin ζ q tð Þ

C22q gqcos ζq tðÞþ f qsin ζ q tð Þ

S22q gqsin ζ q tðÞÀ fqcos ζ q tð Þ

parameter k2(Pref) dan (k2/Q)ref akan ditentukan dari pengamatan.

hiu þ 3l2 ð u · u′ ÞuÂ ð u′ Âu Þ & h 2 3 ð u· u′ Þ À 1

sin l, dan U13≈ -sin (i+ I) sin F, di mana e≈ 0,0549 adalah

U′12q gqsin ζ q À fqcos ζq

refXq haiU′11q gqcos ζ q þ fqsin ζ q

persamaan (30) dan (31) adalah analog dengan (19) - (23).

Jurnal Penelitian Geofisika: Planet 10.1002 / 2014JE004755

75 (36) ð U11 À U22 ÞU′12 À U12 ð U′11 À U′22 Þ þ U13U′23 À U23U′13

ð 13.6 Þ À 0.12g ð 9.6 ÞŠsin F

1.83g ð 13.6 Þ À 0.12g ð 9.6 ÞŠcos F

Journal of Geophysical Research: Planets 10.1002/2014JE004755

the local shear Qj≫1.

associated with k2, as Efroimsky cautions.

complex, but the real value of k2(Pref) is used.

k2* Pð Þ1⁄4 k2 0ð Þþ N ∫ τ2τ1

Journal of Geophysical Research: Planets 10.1002/2014JE004755

k2/Q depends on tidal period.

6.2. Global LLR Fits

Andrade curve uses equation (58) for f(P),

and monthly values of k2/Q are shown

Journal of Geophysical Research: Planets 10.1002/2014JE004755

matches the monthly value on the upper c

1095 and 2190 days while still influencing k2(0).

example in the Figure 1 plot.

7. Comments and Discussion

value that we find.

period depends on the properties of the lunar material.

Journal of Geophysical Research: Planets 10.1002/2014JE004755

3P20 ð sinφ′ Þ (A4)

3P21 ð sinφ′ Þcosλ′ (A5)

3P22 ð sinφ′ Þsin2λ′ (A8)

1⁄4 1⁄4 ð U11 3U3U23 À 13 U22 Þ ar 3P22 ð sinφ Þsin2λ 1⁄4

U′33 À 12 ð U′11 þ U′22 Þ

Ra′ 3U′23 (B8)

ð U′11 À U′22 Þ (B9)

The ΔC2m, ΔS2m, and U′ij parameters depend on time t.

Journal of Geophysical Research: Planets 10.1002/2014JE004755

Fourier series for tidal potential.

G Gravitational constant. g Function of period for anelastic dissipation. h2 Degree 2

Im Imaginary part. k2 Degree 2 potential Love number. k2* Complex

perpendicular to mean Earth direction.

Coefficient in Fourier series for tidal potential.

Tidal potential from distortion. W Argument of free wobble. W2 Tide-raising

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