applied

sciences
Article
Analysis of Sheet Metal Tapping Screw Fabrication
Using a Finite Element Method
Shao-Yi Hsia 1, *, Yu-Tuan Chou 2 and Guan-Fan Lu 1
1 Department of Mechanical & Automation Engineering, Kao-Yuan University, Kaohsiung City 821, Taiwan;
guan.fan.lu@gmail.com
2 Department of Applied Geoinformatics, Chia Nan University of Pharmacy & Science,
Tainan City 717, Taiwan; ytchou@mail.cnu.edu.tw
* Correspondence: syhsia@cc.kyu.edu.tw; Tel.: +886-7-607-7777 (ext. 2103); Fax: +886-7607-7112

Academic Editor: Teen-Hang Meen

Received: 20 June 2016; Accepted: 8 October 2016; Published: 18 October 2016

Abstract: The malformation of sheet metal tapping screw threads in the screw threading process
increases the cost of screw threading dies and their maintenance. Die factories do not reveal their
screw threading die design techniques, so production and maintenance processes are established by
trial-and-error or worker experience and passing down such techniques and documenting quality
control is difficult. In this study, screw thread forming design and process analysis were carried
out by combining computer-aided design software with computer-aided metal forming analysis
software. Simulation results were verified in an actual forming process. The sheet metal tapping
screw forging size error was less than 0.90%, except at a sharp angle, which was associated with an
error of 3.075%, thereby demonstrating the accuracy of the simulated forming process. The numerical
analysis process can be utilized to shorten forming development time; to reduce the number of die
tests, and to improve product quality and die service life, reducing the cost of development and
promoting the overall competitiveness of the company.

Keywords: sheet metal tapping screw; screw threading die; computer aided design; computer aided
metal forming analysis

1. Introduction
Screw threading has various origins, and has a recorded history that goes back to “Before the
Common Era”. After the Industrial Revolution in England began in the late Eighteenth Century,
screw threads of various sizes were manufactured by various methods under various production
policies. The domestic screw industry developed over a long period of time. Many people regard
screws as a result of simple engineering, but their development is truly remarkable. The screw
industry systematically classifies its products, the name of which has changed from screws to
fasteners. Small screws may seem unimportant, but they provide great economic value. Following the
development of screw technology, international competition has become fierce. Taiwan’s domestic
screw industry is currently encountering competitors and pursuers: Japan is a representative
competitor and mainland China is a representative pursuer.
Although many methods for producing a screw exist, improvements in screw blanks and advances
in steelmaking have left people wondering about changes in screw threading over the last decade.
Although the future of the industry is not known, the trial-and-error method is no longer competitive.
Given international free trade, a foothold in a dynamic market can be ensured only by embracing
accurate, rapid, and effective “innovation” models.

Appl. Sci. 2016, 6, 300; doi:10.3390/app6100300 www.mdpi.com/journal/applsci

Appl. Sci. 2016, 6, 300 2 of 15
Appl. Sci. 2016, 6, 300 2 of 14

1.1. Research Motivation

1.1. Research Motivation
The
The flat-die
flat-die thread
thread rolling
rolling process
process isis widely
widely utilized
utilized inin the
the screw
screw industry.
industry. Although
Although severalseveral
varieties of screws add to difficulties in design and manufacturing,
varieties of screws add to difficulties in design and manufacturing, domestic thread flat-die domestic thread flat-die
manufacturers
manufacturers use usevarious
variousproduction
productiontechnologies,
technologies, which
whichthey keep
they confidential.
keep Owing
confidential. Owing to social and
to social
cultural changes, today’s youth appears to have little desire to engage in traditional
and cultural changes, today’s youth appears to have little desire to engage in traditional industries. industries. Also,
aAlso,
general over-investment
a general in Taiwan’s
over-investment screw “specification
in Taiwan’s products”products”
screw “specification has resulted in resulted
has little uniqueness
in little
and low added
uniqueness andvalue,
low resulting in a lack
added value, of competitiveness
resulting in a lack ofincompetitiveness
the global market. in Moreover,
the globalTaiwan’s
market.
population is rapidlypopulation
Moreover, Taiwan’s ageing andisexhibits
rapidlysub-replacement
ageing and exhibits fertility, as does Japan,fertility,
sub-replacement so the fastener
as does
industry should actively pursue the production of high value-added and
Japan, so the fastener industry should actively pursue the production of high value-added high-quality products and
and high-
improve its production
quality products and technology
improve itsbyproduction
enhancing product
technologyresearch and development.
by enhancing product research and
This
development.investigation focuses on cone bolt (CB) screw thread plates (Figure 1), which are an important
product.
This It suggests a new
investigation sheet
focuses onmetal
cone thread plate
bolt (CB) design
screw usingplates
thread SolidWorks
(Figure(2012 Edition
1), which areSP0,
an
SolidWorks, Concord
important product. MA, USA)
It suggests computer-aided
a new designplate
sheet metal thread software and
design DEFORM-3D
using SolidWorks (V6.1,
(2012Scientific
Edition
Forming Technologies
SP0, SolidWorks, ConcordCorporation,
MA, USA) Columbus, OH, USA)
computer-aided finite element
design softwareforming analysis software
and DEFORM-3D (V6.1,
to reduce Forming
Scientific errors during die manufacturing.
Technologies Corporation,The results thus
Columbus, OH,obtained
USA) finite not element
only improve
forming dieanalysis
design
efficiency
software to but also reduce
reduce production
errors during costs. Thus, a practicable
die manufacturing. The resultsmanufacturing
thus obtained method
not onlyisimprove
developed die
and validated using real products. The study of new thread plates depends
design efficiency but also reduce production costs. Thus, a practicable manufacturing method on solutions to the
is
following
developedproblems.
and validated using real products. The study of new thread plates depends on solutions
to the following problems.
(a) Recruiting specialists in thread plate design is difficult and this traditional industry can hardly
(a) Recruiting
survive in specialists
the currentin thread plate design
environment. Also,is current
difficult salaries
and this are
traditional industry
not generally can hardly
attractive to
survive
qualified inprofessionals.
the current environment. Also, current salaries are not generally attractive to qualified
(b) professionals.
The shortage of CAD and CAE designers is a significant problem for businesses that seek
(b) The shortagethe
to increase of value
CAD provided
and CAE bydesigners
screws is a significant
without givingproblem
away tradefor businesses
secrets. This thatdilemma
seek to
increase the value provided by screws without giving away trade secrets. This
is real, as newly developed products may involve a complicated thread for which a thread dilemma is real,
as newly developed products may involve a complicated thread for which a thread
flat-die manufacturer must develop a mold, the existence of which may result in the sharing of flat-die
manufacturer must develop a mold, the existence of which may result in the sharing of
confidential data.
confidential data.
(c) A complicated thread form cannot be easily simulated using CAD and forming analysis
(c) A complicated
software. thread
Training form cannot
designers be feedback
using the easily simulated using based
design curve, CAD on andtheforming
experienceanalysis
of a
software.
mold manufacturer, takes a long time and is costly, and is unacceptable to the industry. a mold
Training designers using the feedback design curve, based on the experience of
manufacturer, takes a long time and is costly, and is unacceptable to the industry.

Figure 1. Cone bolt (CB) thread and screw thread plate.

Promoting research
Promoting researchand
anddevelopment
developmentininscrew
screwproducts
productsdirectly
directly improves
improves thethe competitiveness
competitiveness of
of the industry, but the ability to pass along technological knowledge to future workers is worsening.
the industry, but the ability to pass along technological knowledge to future workers is worsening.
Farsighted corporations
Farsighted corporationstherefore
thereforerecord
record their
their design
design and
and process
process technologies
technologies and and promote
promote R&D,R&D,
SOP
(Standard Operation Procedure), and various process improvement programs to prevent them them
SOP (Standard Operation Procedure), and various process improvement programs to prevent from
from being
being monopolized
monopolized by onlybya few
onlydesigners.
a few designers. Therefore,
Therefore, this workthis workdevelops
designs, designs, anddevelops anda
analyzes
analyzes a thread flat-die using both SolidWorks computer-aided design software and DEFORM-3D
finite element forming analysis software, and verifies the practicability of the die thus produced.
Appl. Sci. 2016, 6, 300 3 of 15

thread flat-die using both SolidWorks computer-aided design software and DEFORM-3D finite element
forming analysis software, and verifies the practicability of the die thus produced.

1.2. Literature Review

The finite element method can be utilized to analyze simultaneously all mechanical problems that
are associated with the interface between a die and blank under plastic deformation. Theoretically,
the geometric complexity of the simulated object is unlimited. The advance of technology in recent
years has rapidly increased the speed of computers. The development of simulation and analysis
software has matured and stabilized, so the finite element method is more efficient and accurate than
ever before. The application of the finite element method to forging is discussed below.
Connell et al. [1] developed DEFORM-2D, the slab method and the finite element method in 1996
to estimate the forming load in hexagon-head screw flashless closed-die forging with the purpose
of suitable forming machines, reducing the energy consumption, and increasing the production rate.
Kim and Altan [2] used FORMEX and DEFORM finite element software in the same year to establish a
process program database for a part design forming process and effectively reduced the order and die
design time in production. Also in that year, Liou and Jang [3] combined the Taguchi method with the
finite element method in a radial forging analysis to find optimal process conditions that minimize
residual stress, because residual stress causes the geometric deformation of forges and some related
materials. A corrosive environment damages dies via stress corrosion.
To reduce the forming load in closed-die forging and prevent short filling or laciniate line, in 1998,
Joun et al. [4] utilized penalty rigid viscoplastic finite element algorithms to add a die plate to the
radial of reflection-symmetric forming dies with a spring at the bottom to enable the moveable forming
die to self-adjust its displacement during blank flow as the material is filling the mold. Thus, they
markedly reduced the friction and forming load, while providing uniform streamlining of material
that enhanced the quality of forges. In the same year, Vazquez et al. [5] used DEFORM finite element
software to compare a tungsten carbide loading die with a split loading die for cold forging and they
examined the effects of the material on the service life of the dies; their ultimate goal was to find the
best method for extending die service life. As well as reducing the cost of forging dies, they analyzed
the service life of cold forging dies.
In 2001, Falk et al. [6] utilized DEFORM finite element software to develop a method that was
related to forge volume. It easily and accurately estimated the service life of forging dies, as was verified
experimentally. In 2002, Janiceka et al. [7] utilized ANSYS finite element software to reduce the number
successive heat treatments following cold forging to achieve the required strength of cold-processing
bolts that were made from specially designed 8Mn2Si micro-alloy steel. In 2003, Min and Kim et al. [8]
used DEFORM-3D finite element analysis software to perform a multi-pass forming analysis of
automobile turning connectors, subsequently proposing a new process for improving the properties
of these products, production efficiency, development time, and costs. This work was successfully
exploited to mass production. In 2004, Liu et al. [9] utilized DEFORM-3D to combine forging with
the establishment of nuts specifically for tyres, and analyzed to identify the factors that affect punch
destruction. Their results revealed that an unreasonable punch size affects metal flow and increases
the axial tensile stress of the punch as it exits the nut hole. In 2004, Sofuoglu and Gedikli [10] used
physical modeling and ANSYS Finite Element to analyze the variation of the internal grid of a blank
with the extrusion rate (R) and die extrusion half angle (α) in the 3D extrusion process as well as the
variation of the extrusion load with the punch displacement.
In 2004, Kim et al. [11] used AUTOCAD’s auto-writing function (LISP) with DEFORM and
ANSYS to develop an automatic process planning and die design system that could be used to
design multi-pass bolt-forming products. The system was established by combining plastic theory,
experimental results, and the research design rules and experiences of experts. The planning process
and die design module took into account complicated punch and die shapes, available multi-pass
forming, and available standard parts. The system effectively reduced the time that engineers required
Appl. Sci. 2016, 6, 300 4 of 15

to determine the diameter and height of an original blank and reduced the time required to form the
shapes of the final products. In 2007, Kim [12] utilized CAMPform-3D to analyze cold forging tail
pins, and replaced original welding with extrusion and upsetting to obtain results that were consistent
with those of the cold forging experiment for mass production. In the same year, Jun et al. [13] utilized
the finite element method to predict the geometry of cold forges and elucidated the problems of
deformation, spring-back, and heat shrinkage by analyzing material SCM420H and die material
SKD11. They utilized this method to test whether the effects of rising temperatures on die material
could be ignored in the cold forging process.
In 2008, Lv et al. [14] utilized 3D finite elements to simulate a multi-pass turbo-compressor
blade forging process. Their simulation successfully predicted the complete load/time curve and
the deformation structure whilst performing, as well as the material flow, strain, and temperature
distribution. They also carried out experiments to optimize the process parameters and proved that the
optimal process parameters effectively reduced product fragility and provided favorable mechanical
properties (strength and ductility).
In 2015, Hsia [15] utilized the finite element method to analyze and simulate the forming load of
movable retaining pins at each stage, and the Taguchi method to optimize the quality of products in
the key second stage. Their analytical results demonstrated that converting the original three forging
processes and one drilling process into four forging stages solves the problems in the manufacturing of
parts. In the same year, Hsia and Shih [16] used finite element analysis to simulate wear in automotive
repair fastener manufacturing dies, based on actual process conditions. Applying the Taguchi quality
method to the new design, they found a 19.87% improvement in wear.
In 2015, Landeta et al. [17] developed a method for estimating the wear of forming taps, which is
useful for evaluating the performance of roll taps with hexagonal or pentagonal section geometry.
They drew a useful conclusion for tap manufacturers that taps with a hexagonal section and five
pitches in the chamfer zone generated lower thrust forces and torques and lower wear than those
with a pentagonal section. Urbikain et al. [18] developed a new method for the rapid and economical
production of ‘nutless’ bolted joins, by combining two hole-making techniques, namely, form-drilling
and form-tapping. The combined method enabled the rapid production of threaded holes in coupled
dissimilar metal alloys, such as steel and aluminum alloys. They also carried out corrosion tests to
obtain a better understanding of the manufactured joint.
In summary, many researchers have investigated forming, bolts, and screw threading technologies,
but no specific reference literature is available for academia or industry owing to the complicated
shapes of screws or sheet metal nails. Accordingly, the goal of this investigation is to help businesses
to establish a sheet metal thread design and analysis method using forming software that is matched
with solid parameters and optimization.

2. Fundamental Theory

2.1. Screw Thread Theory

A screw thread can be regarded as a gently rolling inclination on a cylinder (Figure 2).
The continuous bulges on the spiral inclination are “screw threads.” The spiral lines on the outer
surface of a cylinder or a cone are outer screw threads (bolts and studs) whereas the spiral lines on
the surface of the cylindrical bore or the conical bore are inner screw threads (nuts and tapped holes).
In Figure 2, dm denotes pitch circle diameter; P represents the pitch of the screw thread, and α is the
spiral angle. A spiral line that rotates in a clockwise spiral is called a right screw thread and one that
rotates in a counterclockwise spiral is called a left screw thread.
 continuous bulges on the spiral inclination are “screw threads.” The spiral lines on the outer surface
of a cylinder or a cone are outer screw threads (bolts and studs) whereas the spiral lines on the surface
of the cylindrical bore or the conical bore are inner screw threads (nuts and tapped holes). In Figure
2, dm denotes pitch circle diameter; P represents the pitch of the screw thread, and α is the spiral
angle.
Appl. Sci. 2016,A6,spiral
300 line that rotates in a clockwise spiral is called a right screw thread and one that rotates5 of 15
in a counterclockwise spiral is called a left screw thread.

Figure2.2.Screw
Figure Screw thread
thread spiral
spiraldiagram.
diagram.

2.2. Brief Introduction to Flat-Die Thread Rolling

2.2. Brief
Appl. Introduction
Sci. 2016, 6, 300 to Flat-Die Thread Rolling 5 of 14

Two methods can be used for screw thread rolling. One involves cutting parallel grooves on
Two methods can be used for screw thread rolling. One involves cutting parallel grooves on the
the surface of each mold between two flat dies, where the groove shape is the reverse of the screw
surface of each mold between two flat dies, where the groove shape is the reverse of the screw
threads. One One
threads. mold is fixed
mold and
is fixed andthe theother
otherundergoes reciprocationwith
undergoes reciprocation withthethe workpiece
workpiece (blank)
(blank) between
between
them.them.
This This
process is called
process thethe
is called flat-die thread
flat-die threadrolling
rollingprocess,
process, wherein
wherein thethescrew
screwthread
thread rolling
rolling diedie is
composed of a fixed
is composed of aplate
fixed and
platea and
moving plate.plate.
a moving The The
fixedfixed
plate is generally
plate shorter
is generally (short
shorter (shortthread
threadplate)
and the moving
plate) and theplate is longer
moving plate is(long
longer thread
(long plate)
thread (Figure 3). 3).
plate) (Figure

Figure 3. Flat-die thread rolling (with fixed flat die and moving flat die).
Figure 3. Flat-die thread rolling (with fixed flat die and moving flat die).

The other method involves a cylindrical roller mold with two or three grooves, and the rolling
The other
of the method
workpiece involves
between the amolds.
cylindrical
When roller mold
two roller withare
molds two or three
used, grooves,between
the workpiece and the them
rolling of
the workpiece between the molds. When two roller molds are used, the workpiece
is supported on a parallel holder and the right roller exerts pressure. When three rollers are used, between them is
three axes
supported on a are parallel
parallel and and
holder synchronously rotated
the right roller at appropriate
exerts pressure. When speeds. Therollers
three three are
rollers arethree
used,
operated
axes are by aand
parallel camsynchronously
while the workpiece
rotatedis fed radially, andspeeds.
at appropriate this process
Theisthree
called roundare
rollers mold thread by a
operated
rolling.the workpiece is fed radially, and this process is called round mold thread rolling.
cam while
Flat-die thread rolling is a chipless cold-working precision forming process for producing
Flat-die thread rolling is a chipless cold-working precision forming process for producing screws.
screws. Cold forging is primarily utilized in mass production; hot forging is used to manufacture
Cold forging is primarily utilized in mass production; hot forging is used to manufacture large
large screws and nuts, and cutting processing is utilized only to manufacture a few products with
screws and nuts,
special and cutting
specifications. The processing is utilized
underlying principle is only to manufacture
to apply proper pressure a few
on aproducts
round rod with
blankspecial
specifications. The underlying principle is to apply proper pressure on a round
between a rotating roller mold and a reciprocating plane mold during cold processing. The threads rod blank between a
rotating roller mold and a reciprocating plane mold during cold processing.
on the mold are the reverse screw threads of the workpiece. Rolled under pressure, the metal The threads on the mold
are the reverse plastic
undergoes screw flow
threads
and of
thethe workpiece.
bulged wedging Rolled under pressure,
mold compresses theof
the bottom metal undergoes
the screw thread soplastic
flow that
and the
themetal
bulgedis extruded
wedging along
moldboth sides to form
compresses the the peak ofof
bottom thethe
screw thread.
screw thread so that the metal is
extruded Screw
along thread rolling
both sides toproduces
form thesmoother
peak of thesurfaces
screw than turning, milling, or grinding. It provides
thread.
greater strength and hardness of the screw thread
Screw thread rolling produces smoother surfaces than turning,surface because of work hardening,
milling, high material
or grinding. It provides
utilization, and double the productivity of cutting processing; it is easily automated, and results in a
greater strength and hardness of the screw thread surface because of work hardening, high material
long service life for dies. Nevertheless, the hardness of the workpiece material for rolling screw
utilization, and double the productivity of cutting processing; it is easily automated, and results in
threads cannot exceed HRC40; the need for precise blank sizing is greater; the need for precise rolling
a longandservice
a hardlife
die for dies. Nevertheless,
is greater; producing the dies theishardness of theand
more difficult, workpiece
the processmaterial
cannot be for rolling
used to rollscrew
threads cannot exceed HRC40; the need for precise blank sizing is greater;
asymmetric screw threads. More than 90% of screws with diameters less than 50 mm are producedthe need for precise rolling
and abyhard die is
rolling. Ingreater; producing
metal stretching thea dies
tests, 5 cmisgauge
more length
difficult,
withand12%theelongation
process cannot
exhibitsbeexcellent
used to roll
rollability and is suitable for the rolling process. Numerous metal characteristics, such as hardness,
ductility, internal friction that is generated during plastic deformation, yield strength, and cold
hardening, affect the plastic deformation and rollability of metals.
An automatic thread rolling machine completes a large deformation in a single operation. It
provides a high production rate, but product defects and the short service life of the thread plate
Appl. Sci. 2016, 6, 300 6 of 15

asymmetric screw threads. More than 90% of screws with diameters less than 50 mm are produced by
rolling. In metal stretching tests, a 5 cm gauge length with 12% elongation exhibits excellent rollability
and is suitable for the rolling process. Numerous metal characteristics, such as hardness, ductility,
internal friction that is generated during plastic deformation, yield strength, and cold hardening, affect
the plastic deformation and rollability of metals.
An automatic thread rolling machine completes a large deformation in a single operation.
It provides a high production rate, but product defects and the short service life of the thread plate
negatively affect productivity and production costs. As a result, a comprehensive understanding of the
characteristics of process parameters through simulation would improve process design and quality
evaluation. The blank material, surface quality, blank size, thread plate size, thread plate speed, thread
flat-die geometry, interface lubricant, and service life of the thread plate all significantly influence the
quality of the thread rolling product, its production cost, and its production efficiency.

2.3. Geometric Construction of Screw and Thread Plate

The characteristics of the cone bolt (CB) screw thread plate (Figure 4) are as follows.

(a) Feed-in area: the portion where a light nail is fed in and compressed in the turning process.
The feed-in area and shaping area are often within carved slip teeth.
(b) Shaping area: the area where the light nail, after passing the feed-in area, is extruded and formed.
(c) Forming area: the area where the light nail, after passing the feed-in area and the shaping area,
is extruded into screws, in a manner that is determined by the thread grooves of the thread plate,
the thread peak, and the cone bolt angle.
(d) Discharge area: the portion where formed screws are discharged.
(e) Back angle and elevation angle: the portion where the cone bolt thread plate is cut to form the tip.
The back angle controls the feed-in of the material in that a large back angle allows more material
to be fed in and a small back angle reduces material feed. The elevation angle is the essential
parameter in the forming of the thread tip and thread peak on the thread tip. Small elevation
angles result in trailing as the tail is not cut cleanly. Larger elevation angles cause broken tips
because the light nail is cut too early.
(f) Cut: crossing of the back angle and screw thread plate cone bolts. A sharp cut is required as a
blunt cut results in trailing and inconsistent tip forming.
(g) Thread depth: depth of the screw thread peak, which controls the outer diameter of the screw.
(h) Crest angle: the angle of the screw thread peak. Specific screw crest angles are required to meet
particular specifications; for example, a C/B chipboard nail has a crest of 40 degrees; a general
BA round-tail screw has a crest of 47.5 degrees; a general triangular self-tapping thread has a
crest of 45 degrees, and a general machine thread has a crest of 58~60 degrees. Crest angle is also
critical in controlling the outer diameter of the screw.
(i) Cone bolt angle: screw tip angle. General self-tapping screw tips have angles of 40~50 degrees.
Specific screws must meet particular specifications; for example, general wallboard nail and
chipboard nail tips have angles of 20~30 degrees. Customers sometimes specify tip angles.
(j) Angle of chamfer: the feed-in area and shaping area that are milled sharply in the thread plate
production process for easy feed-in. When the angle of chamfer is too small, the thread plate is
not abrasion-resistant. When the angle of chamfer is too large, the tail feed-in area is too large,
making screw forming difficult, and the outer diameter too small. When chamfer in the feed-in
area is greatly worn, the screws are not sufficiently formed and the screw diameter will be too
large to support slipping.
(k) Slip teeth: threads that are specially carved on the thread plate feed-in area and the forming area
to prevent a light nail from slipping in the feed-in process. Shallow slip teeth cause slipping,
while deep slip teeth result in roughened screw bottoms, dim thread peaks, and even blocking of
the extrusion of light nails, causing the outer diameters of the screws to be too small.
Appl. Sci. 2016, 6, 300 7 of 15

(l) Cone bolt height: the distance between the thread plate surface and the cut, which is generally
half of the bottom diameter of the screw. Cone bolts that are too high cause the screw cut to bump
together, causing insufficient screw forming. A cone bolt that is too low causes trailing because
the tail is not cut off.
Appl. Sci. 2016, 6, 300 7 of 14

Figure4.4.Parts
Figure Parts of
of aa thread
threadplate.
plate.

2.4. Mathematical Theory of DEFORM-3D

2.4. Mathematical Theory of DEFORM-3D
The DEFORM-3D program was specifically designed to analyze 3D flows in various metal
The DEFORM-3D
forming program
processes, and was specifically
to provide designed
valuable process to analyzematerial
data concerning 3D flowsand
in various metal
temperature forming
flows
processes, and to provide valuable process data concerning material and temperature
in forming processes. This software program is based on the finite element method (FEM), and can flows in forming
processes.
be usedThis software
in other program
fields. is based
For example, onbe
it can theused
finite
to element
generate method (FEM),
a numerical and
model of can be used in other
ball-burnishing
fields.
to For example,
understand anditpredict
can beresidual
used tostress
generate
valuesaand numerical modelwith
their variation of ball-burnishing to understand
process parameters. Typical
DEFORM-3D
and predict residualapplications are plastic
stress values processing
and their variation during
withforging,
processextrusion, calendaring,
parameters. open-die
Typical DEFORM-3D
forging, and
applications are flexure.
plasticThe software isduring
processing also frequently
forging,utilized in the calendaring,
extrusion, aerospace, automobile,
open-die and screw- and
forging,
and-nut industries to analyze complex forging processes.
flexure. The software is also frequently utilized in the aerospace, automobile, and screw-and-nut
Based on the revised Lagrange’s Theory, DEFORM is a rigid-plastic FEM. The FEM formulation,
industries to analyze complex forging processes.
using “the variation principle,” is used for rigid plastic material, and its function is as follows.
Based on the revised Lagrange’s Theory, DEFORM is a rigid-plastic FEM. The FEM formulation,
using “the variation principle,” is used for π =rigid
∫ σ ̅plastic
ε̅̇𝑑𝑉 − ∫material,
𝐹 𝑢 𝑑𝑆 and its function is as follows.(1)
𝑖 𝑖
𝑉 𝑆𝐹
.
Z Z
where σ ̅ is effective stress, ε̅̇ is the effective
π= σ − Fi F
εdV rate,
strain isi u i dS
surface tractions, and V and S are volume (1)
V SF
and surface of the deforming workpiece, respectively. The solution to the original boundary-value
problem is then acquired. from the solution of the dual-variation problem. When applying the penalty
where σ is effective stress, ε is the effective strain rate, Fi is surface tractions, and V and S are volume
method, velocity is the primary solution variable. The variation equation is
and surface of the deforming workpiece, respectively. The solution to the original boundary-value
problem is then acquired fromδπ(𝑉)
the solution
=∫ σ of the
̅̇𝑑𝑉
̅δε + dual-variation problem.
𝑘 ∫ ε̇ 𝑉 δε̇ 𝑉 𝑑𝑉 − ∫ 𝐹𝑖 δ𝑢𝑖 𝑑𝑆When applying the (2)
penalty
𝑉 variable. The
method, velocity is the primary solution 𝑉 variation equation
𝑆𝐹 is
Z ε̇ 𝑉 .is the volumetric
where k is the penalty constant, and Z strain rate.
Z
. .
Equation (1) and its
δπderived
(V ) = formulations
σδεdV + kcan be εVconverted
δεV dV − into Fai δu
seti dS
of algebraic equations by (2)
V
the standard FEM discretization procedures. HereV DEFORM-3D software
SF provides three iterative
computations, the Newton–Raphson, . Direct, and Explicit computations, which can be selected based
where k is the penalty constant, and εV is the volumetric strain rate.
on material properties. The software also provides a rich material database that contains elastic
Equation
deformation(1)data,
andplastic
its derived formulations
deformation can be
data, thermal converted
energy intoexchange
data, heat a set of algebraic
data, grainequations
growth, by
the standard FEM discretization procedures. Here DEFORM-3D
material hardening data, and fracture data for common materials. software provides three iterative
computations, the Newton–Raphson, Direct, and Explicit computations, which can be selected based
2.5. Cold properties.
on material Forging TheoryThe software also provides a rich material database that contains elastic
deformation data,toplastic
In order deformation
arrive at data,
a manageable thermal energy
mathematical data,ofheat
description exchange
the metal data, grain
deformation, growth,
several
material hardening
simplifying (but data, and fracture
reasonable) data for
assumptions common materials.
are made:
(a) Elastic deformations are neglected.
Appl. Sci. 2016, 6, 300 8 of 15

2.5. Cold Forging Theory

In order to arrive at a manageable mathematical description of the metal deformation, several
simplifying (but reasonable) assumptions are made:

(a) Elastic deformations are neglected.

(b) The deforming material is considered to be in continuum (metallurgical aspects such as grains,
grain boundaries, and dislocations are not considered).
(c) Anisotropy and Bauschinger effects are neglected. Volume remains constant. In this study,
we assume the workpiece is homogeneous and isotropic, ignoring the effects of direction on stress
yield that von Mises asserted should be considered.
(d) Yield criterion

Generally, the von Mises yielding criterion is adopted as a material plastic rule. This yield
characterizes the relationship between material yield and 3D stress states. All three axial principal
¯
stresses, σ1 , σ2 and σ3 , can be expressed as effective stress σ in Equation (3).
1
1
σ = √ [(σ1 − σ2 )2 + (σ2 − σ3 )2 + (σ3 − σ1 )2 ] 2 (3)
2
Von Mises notes that when effective stress reaches the material’s yield strength value (Y), plastic
deformation starts. Equation (3) is expressed as
1
1
σ = √ [(σ1 − σ2 )2 + (σ2 − σ3 )2 + (σ3 − σ1 )2 ] 2 = Y (4)
2
(e) Friction is expressed by a simplified expression such as Coulomb’s law or by a constant
shear stress.

3. Research Methodology
Thread rolling was simulated with the following objectives in this study.

(a) To predict the required forming load to support the design or selection of proper dies and thread
rolling machines.
(b) To model material flow (stress, strain, and velocity field) to evaluate thread plate design and
material selection.
(c) To determine simulation parameters to further thread plate design.

The mechanical properties of materials must be analyzed, such as by analyzing cylindrical test
results for flow stress, before a flat-die thread rolling simulation can be performed. In the experiment
herein, the material AISI (American Iron and Steel Institute) 1022 is firstly cut as is a hex nut to form
the test cylindrical sample; the external diameter to length ratio is 1:1.5; the external diameter of the
completed cylindrical sample is 3.7 mm, and its height is 5.55 mm. A universal testing machine with
20 tons of pressure is used to perform the compression test; the cylindrical sample is coated with
lubricant (MoS2) before compression so the material is tested under conditions close to those of an
actual production line.
After 30%, 60%, 75%, and 90% compression of the cylindrical sample, as shown in Figure 5,
the computer automatically records the cold forging load, compressing step, and the deformation time.
These data are further calculated and organized with Excel and curve fitting, and the true stress-strain
equation is found to be σ = 625.16ε016 (Figure 6), where the constant 625.16 is the strength coefficient
and 0.16 is the hardening index. The higher R-squared 0.9723, in this study, means the better the model
fits the experiments data.
 After 30%, 60%, 75%, and 90% compression of the cylindrical sample, as shown in Figure 5, the
computer automatically records the cold forging load, compressing step, and the deformation time.
These data are further calculated and organized with Excel and curve fitting, and the true stress-
strain equation is found to be σ = 625.16ε016 (Figure 6), where the constant 625.16 is the strength
coefficient
Appl. Sci. 2016, 6,and
300 0.16 is the hardening index. The higher R-squared 0.9723, in this study, means the
9 of 15
better the model fits the experiments data.

Appl. Sci. 2016, 6,

Figure 300 9 of 14
Figure
Appl. Sci. 5. 5.
2016, 6,Compression
Compression
300 experimentand
experiment and compressed
compressed cylindrical
cylindricalsamples
samplesatat30%,
30%,60%,
60%,75%, and
75%, 90%.
and 90%.
9 of 14

Figure
6.6.6.
Figure True
TrueTrue Stress versus
Stressversus
Stress true
versustrue strain
truestrain for AISI
strainfor AISI 1022
1022 (h is initial
(hii is initial height
height of
of compressed
compressedcylindrical
cylindrical
Figure i is initial height of compressed cylindrical
sample,
sample,and
and ddi iis
isdiameter).
diameter).
sample, and di is diameter).

Figure77 displays
Figure displays the the research
research process.
process. The computer-aided
computer-aided designdesign software
softwareSolidWorks
SolidWorkswas was
Figure
utilized
utilized to7
to displays
depict
depict the the research
theproduced
produced thread
threadprocess.
rollingThe
platecomputer-aided
transformdesign
and to transform itit into
intoansoftware
anSTL fileSolidWorks
STLfile for
forsimulation
simulationwas
utilized to depict
using DEFORM
using the
DEFORM finite produced
finite element thread
element forming rolling plate and
forming analysis software. to transform
software. Table it
Table 11 presentsinto an
presents the STL file for
the relevant simulation
relevantanalytic
analytic
using DEFORM
settings. The finite
sheet element
metal forming
forming
settings. The sheet metal forming process analysis
process is software.
not easily Table
analyzed and simulated because thesettings.
1
analyzedpresents
and the relevant
simulated analytic
because the fixed
fixed
The sheet metal
thread plate
thread plate andforming
and the process
the sliding is
sliding thread not easily analyzed
thread plate are more complicatedand simulated
complicated than because
than mechanical the fixed
mechanical threads. thread
threads.InInthe plate
the
and the sliding thread
simulation process,
simulation process, theplate are
the fixed more
fixed flat complicated
flat die than mechanical
die is fixed in all the directions. threads.
directions. The In the
The moving simulation
moving flat process,
flat undergoes
undergoes
the fixed flat die
reciprocation
reciprocation withis the
with fixed in all the(blank)
the workpiece
workpiece directions.
(blank) between
betweenThe moving
them,
them, and flat undergoes
and shifts
shifts towards
towardsaafixed reciprocation
directionwith
fixeddirection shown
shown the
workpiece
in Figure
in Figure 3.(blank)
3. between them, and shifts towards a fixed direction shown in Figure 3.

Figure 7. Research flow chart.

Figure 7. Research flow chart.
Figure 7. Research flow chart.
Table 1. DEFORM simulation parameters.
Table 1. DEFORM simulation parameters.
Type of Mesh Element Tetrahedron
Type of Mesh Element Tetrahedron
Workpiece material AISI 1022
Workpiece material
Flat dies AISI
SKH1022
9
Flat dies curve
True stress-strain SKH 9 0.16
σ = 625.16ε
True stress-strain curve
Blank/die property σ = 625.16ε 0.16
Plastic body/rigid (elastic) body
 Appl. Sci. 2016, 6, 300 10 of 15

Table 1. DEFORM simulation parameters.

Type of Mesh Element Tetrahedron

Workpiece material AISI 1022
Flat dies SKH 9
True stress-strain curve σ = 625.16ε0.16
Blank/die property Plastic body/rigid (elastic) body
Temperature 20 ◦ C
Die speed 10 mm/s
Appl. Sci. 2016, 6, 300
Mesh number (workpiece/flat die) 80,000/300,000 10 of 14

In the above
In the above analytical
analyticalprocess, thread
process, rolling,
thread butbut
rolling, notnot
thethe
thermal conduction
thermal conduction mode, is taken
mode, is taken
intointo
account in the preprocessing simulation environment of DEFORM. The blank
account in the preprocessing simulation environment of DEFORM. The blank is a plastic body; is a plastic body;
thethe
restrest
of the diedie
of the is aisrigid body,
a rigid and
body, thethe
and planned
planned conditions
conditions conform
conformas much
as much as possible
as possibleto those
to those
of real thread rolling in the forming process. In this study, the forming temperature
of real thread rolling in the forming process. In this study, the forming temperature is assumed is assumed to be
to be
room temperature; temperature variations that arise from plastic deformation of
room temperature; temperature variations that arise from plastic deformation of formed pieces during formed pieces
during cold forming
cold forming is small,
is small, and theand the
local localofeffects
effects of temperature
temperature are ignored.
are therefore thereforeFieldignored. Field
observations
observations revealed that four major factors affect the quality of thread rolling and
revealed that four major factors affect the quality of thread rolling and the service life of the threadthe service life
of the thread plates; they are constant shear friction, thread rolling compression (screw
plates; they are constant shear friction, thread rolling compression (screw thread plate gap), material thread plate
gap), material
flow flow stress-strain
stress (true stress (true stress-strain
relation), andrelation),
geometry and ofgeometry
the screwof the screw
thread plate.thread plate.

4. Results andand
4. Results Discussion
Discussion
TheThe
simulation
simulationinvolved 80,000
involved gridgrid
80,000 cells owing
cells to the
owing large
to the changes
large in the
changes workpiece
in the geometry,
workpiece geometry,
andand
thethe
grid around
grid around thethe
workpiece
workpiece waswasparticularly
particularlyfinefine
(Figure 8). 8).
(Figure More accurate
More results
accurate could
results be be
could
obtained using
obtained usinga afiner
finer grid at the
grid at theexpense
expense of of increased
increased computing
computing time.time.
FigureFigure 9 displays
9 displays the
the simulated
simulated equivalent
equivalent stress, equivalent
stress, equivalent strain,
strain, and and principal
principal stress. stress.

Figure 8. Refined
Figure gridgrid
8. Refined around workpiece.
around workpiece.

Figure 9a shows the distribution of equivalent stress, whose maximum (1040 MPa) appears on
the contact surface between the threading board and the screw. Figure 9b presents the distribution of
equivalent strain on the screw surface (at the thread forming position) when the sheet metal threading
board is compressed into the cone bolt. Therefore, the maximum strain (14.1 mm/mm) is reached
on the cone bolt. Figure 9c plots the distribution of maximum principal stress. Like the maximum
equivalent stress and the maximum equivalent strain, the maximum principal stress (1990 MPa)
appears on the contact surface between the threading board and the screw, and is mostly tensile.
Compressive stress appears in some areas near the cone bolt.

(a) Effective stress (b) Effective strain (c) Principal stress

Figure 9. Effective stress, effective strain, and maximum principal stress of a sheet metal tapping
 Appl. Sci. 2016, 6, 300 11 of 15
Figure 8. Refined grid around workpiece.

(a)2016,
Appl. Sci. Effective
6, 300 stress (b) Effective strain (c) Principal stress 11 of 14

Figure 9. Effective stress, effective strain, and maximum principal stress of a sheet metal tapping
Effective stress,
Figure 9. stress
equivalent and the effective
maximum strain, and maximum
equivalent principal
strain, stress of a sheet
the maximum metal tapping
principal screw MPa)
stress (1990
screw in 3D.
in 3D.on the contact surface between the threading board and the screw, and is mostly tensile.
appears
Compressive stress appears in some areas near the cone bolt.
Figure 9a shows the distribution of equivalent stress, whose maximum (1040 MPa) appears on
Figures
Figures1010andand11 11 compare actual sheet
compare the actual sheetmetal
metaltapping
tappingscrew
screwbefore
beforethethe simulation
simulation with
with that
the contact surface between the threading board and the screw. Figure 9b presents the distribution of
that after it; they demonstrate that the simulation
after it; they demonstrate that the simulation exactly exactly captured actual physical deformation.
actual physical deformation.
equivalent strain on the screw surface (at the thread forming position) when the sheet metal threading
Furthermore,
Furthermore,equivalent
equivalentstress,
stress,equivalent
equivalentstrain,
strain,velocity
velocityfield,
field,deformation,
deformation,and andforming
formingload
loadatat
board is compressed into the cone bolt. Therefore, the maximum strain (14.1 mm/mm) is reached on
various
variousdeformation
deformationstages,stages,which
whichcould
couldnot notbebedetermined
determinedon-site,
on-site,were
wereacquired.
acquired.Such
Suchsimulations
simulations
the cone bolt. Figure 9c plots the distribution of maximum principal stress. Like the maximum
help
helpmold
molddesigners
designersororscrew
screwmanufacturers
manufacturerstotodesigndesignnew newsheet
sheetmetal
metalthreads
threadstotounderstand
understandthethe
complete
complete process
processof thread forming
of thread and to
forming andsearch for optimized
to search designsdesigns
for optimized of the threading board without
of the threading board
developing molds. Simulations
without developing can be carried
molds. Simulations out to understand
can be carried and reduce
out to understand the amount
and reduce of cutof
the amount
remainders that arethat
cut remainders formed by compressing
are formed sheet metal
by compressing in the
sheet fabrication
metal process to reduce
in the fabrication production
process to reduce
costs and enhance
production costs competitiveness.
and enhance competitiveness.

Figure10.
Figure 10.Simulated
Simulatedworkpieces
workpiecesand
andactual
actualsheet
sheetmetal
metaltapping
tappingscrew.
screw.
Appl. Sci. 2016, 6, 300 12 of 15
Figure 10. Simulated workpieces and actual sheet metal tapping screw.

Figure
Figure 11.
11. Detail
Detail of
of simulated
simulated workpieces
workpieces and
and actual
actual sheet
sheet metal
metal tapping
tapping screw.
screw.

Figure 12 shows the simulated forging loads on the moving flat die. The forging load (5.88 kN)
Figure 12 shows the simulated forging loads on the moving flat die. The forging load (5.88 kN) is
is largest during sheet metal tapping screw forming with a moving flat die.
largest
Appl. Sci.during sheet metal tapping screw forming with a moving flat die.
2016, 6, 300 12 of 14
Figures 13 and 14 plot the effective stresses of the moving flat die, the fixed die and the
workpiece at a stroke distance of 8.89 mm. Figure 13 indicates the effective stresses of the moving flat
die and the fixed flat die are not equal. From Figure 14, the effective stresses on the cross-section,
according to Figure 13, indicates a different distribution of the effective stress situation on the
workpiece, moving and fixed flat dies.

Appl. Sci. 2016, 6, 300 12 of 14

Figure
Figure 12.
12. Forging
Forging loads
loads on
on mov ing flat
moving flat die.
die.

Figures 13 and 14 plot the effective stresses of the moving flat die, the fixed die and the workpiece
at a stroke distance of 8.89 mm. Figure 13 indicates the effective stresses of the moving flat die and the
fixed flat die are not equal. From Figure 14, the effective stresses on the cross-section, according to
Figure 13, indicates a different distribution of the effective stress situation on the workpiece, moving
and fixed flat dies. Figure 12. Forging loads on moving flat die.

(a) Moving flat die (b) Workpiece (c) Fixed flat die
Figure 13. Effective stresses of flat dies and workpiece at a stroke distance of 8.89 mm.

(a) Moving flat die (b) Workpiece (c) Fixed flat die
Figure
Figure 13.
13. Effective
Effective stresses
stresses of
of flat
flat dies
dies and
and workpiece
workpiece at
at aa stroke
stroke distance
distance of
of 8.89
8.89 mm.
mm.

(a) Moving flat die (b) Workpiece (c) Fixed flat die
Figure 14. Effective stresses of flat dies and workpiece for cross-section of Figure 13.
 (a) Moving flat die (b) Workpiece (c) Fixed flat die
Appl. Sci. 2016, 6, 300 13 of 15
Figure 13. Effective stresses of flat dies and workpiece at a stroke distance of 8.89 mm.

(a) Moving flat die (b) Workpiece (c) Fixed flat die
Figure 14. 14.
Figure Effective stresses
Effective of flat
stresses diesdies
of flat andand
workpiece for for
workpiece cross-section of Figure
cross-section 13. 13.
of Figure

Figures 15 and 16 plot the effective stresses of the moving flat die, the fixed die and the
Figures 15 and 16 plot the effective stresses of the moving flat die, the fixed die and the workpiece
workpiece at stroke distances of 66.60 mm. Again, the effective stresses of the moving flat die, the
at stroke
Appl. distances
Sci. 2016, 6, 300 of 66.60 mm. Again, the effective stresses of the moving flat die, the fixed flat
13 of 14
fixed flat2016,
Appl. Sci. die 6,and
300the workpiece are not equal in this case, and the different distribution of the effective
13 of 14
die and the workpiece are not equal in this case, and the different distribution of the effective stress
stress situation is also displayed in Figure 16. The induced maximum effective stress, 1470 MPa, in
dimensional
situation accuracies
is also displayedthat are obtained
in Figure 16. Thefrom experimental
induced maximum and numerical
effective stress, analyses
1470 MPa,appear
in the to
fixedbe
dimensional
the fixed flat die accuracies
does notthat are the
exceed obtained from of
yield stress experimental and numerical
the die material SKH 9. analyses appear to be
consistent
flat die does and
notreliable.
exceed the yield stress of the die material SKH 9.
consistent
Table 2and reliable.the DEFORM-simulated with the mean sizes and standard deviations (SD),
compares
based on five dimensions of the actual sheet metal tapping screws; the errors are less than 0.90%,
except for the error of 3.075% with sharp angle (A3) owing to its small size. This finding indicates
that the accuracy of new product development based on a DEFORM simulation is high. The

(a) Moving flat die (b) Workpiece (c) Fixed flat die
(a) Moving flat die (b) Workpiece (c) Fixed flat die
Figure 15. Effective
Effective stresses
stresses of
of flat
flat dies and
dies and the workpiece
workpiece at aa stroke
stroke distance
distance of 66.60
66.60 mm.
mm.
Figure
Figure 15.15.
Effective stresses of flat dies and thethe
workpiece at aatstroke distance of of
66.60 mm.

(a) Moving flat die (b) Workpiece (c) Fixed flat die
(a) Moving flat die (b) Workpiece (c) Fixed flat die
Figure 16. Effective stresses of flat dies and workpiece for cross-section of Figure 15.
Figure 16.16.
Figure Effective stresses
Effective of flat
stresses dies
of flat and
dies workpiece
and forfor
workpiece cross-section of of
cross-section Figure 15.15.
Figure
Table 2. Comparison of dimensions of simulated and actual products.
Table 2. Comparison of dimensions of simulated and actual products.
Table 2 compares the DEFORM-simulated with the mean sizes and standard deviations (SD), based
on five dimensions of the actual sheet metal tapping screws; the errors are less than 0.90%, except for the
Appl. Sci. 2016, 6, 300 14 of 15

error of 3.075% with sharp angle (A3) owing to its small size. This finding indicates that the accuracy
(a) Moving
of new product flat die
development based on a DEFORM (b) Workpiece (c) Fixed flat
simulation is high. The dimensional die
accuracies that
are obtainedFigure
from experimental and numerical analyses appear to be consistent and reliable.
16. Effective stresses of flat dies and workpiece for cross-section of Figure 15.

Table 2. Comparison of dimensions of simulated and actual products.

Table 2. Comparison of dimensions of simulated and actual products.

DimensionTitle Exp.±±SD
Exp. SD FEMFEM ± SD± SDError (%) Error (%)
A1 (mm) 4.32 ± 0.0049 4.32 ± 0.0043 0.085
A1 (mm) 4.32 ± 0.0049 4.32 ± 0.0043 0.085
A2 (mm) A2 (mm) 2.64
2.64±±0.0171
0.0171 2.62 ±2.62
0.0029
± 0.0029 0.884 0.884
◦
A3 ( ) A3 (°) 23.73 ± 1.0333
23.73 ± 1.0333 24.4624.46
± 0.9587
± 0.9587 3.075 3.075

5. Conclusions
5. Conclusions
Comparing DEFORM
Comparing DEFORM simulation
simulation results
results with
with the
the actual
actual products
products in this study
in this study yields
yields the
the
following conclusions.
following conclusions.
(1) A combination of CAD and CAE can replace the trial-and-error method or worker experience
(1) A combination of CAD and CAE can replace the trial-and-error method or worker experience for
for determining the plastic deformation of screw threading processes.
determining the plastic deformation of screw threading processes.
(2) Comparing simulated and actual sizes of the produced sheet metal tapping screw reveals that
(2) Comparing simulated and actual sizes of the produced sheet metal tapping screw reveals that the
the sheet metal tapping screw forging size errors were less than 0.9%, except for the 3.075% error
sheetametal
with small tapping screw forgingthe
angle, demonstrating size errors were
accuracy of theless than 0.9%,
simulated except
forming for the 3.075% error
process.
with a small angle, demonstrating the accuracy of the simulated forming process.
(3) The forming process can be used to reduce the number of die tests and to improve the quality
and properties of formed tapping screws.

Acknowledgments: The authors would like to thank the National Science Council of the Republic of China,
Taiwan, for financially supporting this research under Contract No. MOST 105-2622-E-244-001-CC3.
Author Contributions: Shao-Yi Hsia designed and performed the experiments and analysis, and wrote the paper;
Yu-Tuan Chou and Guan-Fan Lu built up the research project and consulted with the research process.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

References
1. O’Connell, M.; Painter, B.; Maul, G.; Taylan, A. Flashless closed-die upset forging-load estimation for optimal
cold header selection. J. Mater. Process. Technol. 1996, 59, 81–94. [CrossRef]
2. Kim, H.; Altan, T. Cold forging of steel-practical examples of computerized part and process design. J. Mater.
Process. Technol. 1996, 59, 122–131. [CrossRef]
3. Liou, J.H.; Jang, D.Y. Forging parameter optimization considering stress distributions in product through
FEM analysis and robust design methodology. Int. J. Mach. Tools Manuf. 1997, 37, 775–782. [CrossRef]
4. Joun, M.S.; Lee, S.W.; Chung, J.H. Finite element analysis of a multi-stage axisymmetric forging process.
Int. J. Mach. Tools Manuf. 1998, 38, 843–854. [CrossRef]
5. Vazquez, V.; Hannan, D.; Altan, T. Tool life in cold forging–example of design improvement to increase
service life. J. Mater. Process. Technol. 2000, 98, 90–96. [CrossRef]
6. Falk, B.; Engel, U.; Geiger, M. Fundamental aspects for the evaluation of the fatigue behavior of cold forging
tools. J. Mater. Process. Technol. 2001, 119, 158–164. [CrossRef]
7. Janicek, L.; Petruska, J.; Maros, B.; Rusz, S. Clod forming of bolts without thermal treatment. J. Mater.
Process. Technol. 2002, 125–126, 341–346. [CrossRef]
Appl. Sci. 2016, 6, 300 15 of 15

8. Min, D.; Kim, M. A study on precision cold forging process improvements for the steering yoke of
automobiles by the rigid–plastic finite-element method. J. Mater. Process. Technol. 2003, 138, 339–342.
[CrossRef]
9. Liu, G.L.; Zhang, B.X.; Hu, L.; Wang, Z.R.; Huang, S.D.; Tang, Q.B. Applications of numerical simulation to
the analysis of bulk-forming processes—Case studies. J. Mater. Process. Technol. 2004, 150, 56–61. [CrossRef]
10. Sofuoglu, H.; Gedikli, H. Physical and numerical analysis of three dimensional extrusion process.
Comput. Mater. Sci. 2004, 31, 113–124. [CrossRef]
11. Kim, M.S.; Choi, J.C.; Kim, Y.H.; Kim, C.; Park, C.W. The development of an automated process planning
and die design system for multi former-bolt products. Int. J. Mach. Tools Manuf. Technol. 2004, 24, 288–297.
[CrossRef]
12. Kim, H.S. A study on cold forging process sequence design of terminal pins for high-voltage capacitors.
J. Mater. Process. Technol. 2007, 187–188, 604–608. [CrossRef]
13. Jun, B.Y.; Kang, S.M.; Lee, M.C.; Park, R.H.; Joun, M.S. Prediction of geometric dimensions for cold forgings
using the finite element method. J. Mater. Process. Technol. 2007, 189, 459–465. [CrossRef]
14. Lv, C.; Zhang, L.; Mu, Z.; Taib, Q.; Zheng, Q. 3D FEM simulation of the multi-stage forging process of a gas
turbine compressor blade. J. Mater. Process. Technol. 2008, 198, 463–470. [CrossRef]
15. Hsia, S.Y. Improved manufacturing process for movable retaining pins using optimization method.
Trans. Can. Soc. Mech. Eng. 2015, 39, 379–396.
16. Hsia, S.Y.; Shih, P.Y. Wear improvement of tools in the cold forging process for long hex flange nuts. Materials
2015, 8, 6640–6657. [CrossRef]
17. Landeta, J.F.; Valdivielso, A.F.; de Lacalle, L.L.; Girot, F.; Pérez, J.P. Wear of Form Taps in Threading of Steel
Cold Forged Parts. J. Manuf. Sci. Eng. 2015, 137. [CrossRef]
18. Urbikain, G.; Perez, J.M.; de Lacalle, L.N.L.; Andueza, A. Combination of friction drilling and form tapping
processes on dissimilar materials for making nutless joints. Proc. Inst. Mech. Eng. B J. Eng. Manuf. 2016.
[CrossRef]

© 2016 by the authors; licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access
article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution
(CC-BY) license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).