Chapter-6

Depositional environment:
The Geomorphological studies, sedimentological attributes and sedimentary facies analysis
of the fill deposits in the area studied exhibits highly heterogeneous facies distribution. The
depositional architecture, OSL based chronology as well as nature and composition of deposits
indicates variable sedimentary processes from calm water lacustrine, fluvial to alluvial fan and
glacial processes operated under different climatic milieu during Late Quaternary time period.
In sector-I, at Nyoma area, alternate beds of clay Fs and silty-clay Fm facies with minor
intercalations of laminated sand Sm facies suggests deposition under deep water sedimentation
(lacustrine environment) with pulsatory release of coarser facies whereas, clast supported and
imbricated gravel at the basal and top part represents persistent channel deposit under high energy
depositional conditions. In the downstream of Nyoma, sequence of clast supported, imbricated
Gm facies and poorly sorted, disorganized gravel in sandy-muddy matrix Gdm2 facies suggests
aggradation under stream flow and progradation of debris fan. The occurrence of very poorly
sorted angular dominant clast, M facies, as a capping of the sequence suggests glacial advance.
In the upstream of Indus River from Nyoma village the Indus valley is connected with the
broad U-shaped valley that comprises of Pangong Tso Lake in the NW via Chushul. This valley is
filled by around 200m high heaps of very poorly sorted, clast supported disorganized and chaotic
debris M facies forming water divide. This is suggestive of valley obstruction by glacial advance.
The morainic debris is recycled by sluggish drainage or small debris fans developed along slopes
of the water divide and exposed along these Nala cuttings. The deposition of stratified sub-
rounded to sub-angular grit beds at the base suggests alluvial fan progradation. Whereas, clast
supported, imbricated gravel Gm and stratified gritty sand Sm1 facies suggests the sediment
reworking under fluvial environment. The overlying chaotic debris Gdm2 facies represents
destabilization of slope debris in the form of debris flow. In the same area another event of active
channel deposition is recorded at lower level. Here the deposition of poorly sorted, imbricated,
crudely stratified gravel Gm facies indicates deposition by fluvial channel.
In Sector-III & IV, the sedimentology of geomorphic landforms which are well preserved
in the form of lacustrine terraces, moraine ridges, large coalesced alluvial fan (Bajada), and
prelacustrine as well as post lacustrine palaeo-floodplains (terraces) are omnipresent and represent
distinct depositional phases and environments during Late Quaternary. These are representative of

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transitional fluvio-lacustrine, lacustrine (calm water), fluvial, alluvial fan progradation and glacial
processes operated under different climatic domains. Spituk, Shey, Phey, Stakna, Zinchen, Palam
are the most favorable localities where Late Quaternary sedimentary deposits are well archived as
different exposed sections along road cuttings, nala cuttings, fluvial scarp (bluff) etc. and available
for deciphering these palaeoclimatic changes of the area. Among these, Quaternary sections
exposed near Spituk, Shey and Zinchen area are the most appreciable where sequences are
available for correlation and developing complete geomorphic evolution through Late Quaternary
in the 103 to 104 ka scale.
Near Spituk (Fig.-3.11), around 65m thick sedimentary sequence is preserved. Upto 12m
from exposed base of sequence, persistence intercalation of fine to medium grained, grey sand and
silt couplets with planar lamination and feeble rippled sand at places Sm facies, laminated clay
(varved) Fs facies with sand lenses and Fm facies suggests transitional fluvio-lacustrine
depositional environment. The occurrence of pebble containing massive clay Fs1 facies topped by
planar stratified gritty sand Sm1 facies in the upper part also supports the fluvio-lacustrine
condition. The overlying sequence consisting of thick beds of Fs and Fm facies with minor St,
Sm1 facies suggests establishment of lacustrine conditions in the area. In the uppermost part of the
section from ~54m to ~63m, dominant persistence of cross-stratified brownish-grey sand St Facies
with few layers of Fm facies again indicates transitional fluvio-lacustrine environment of
deposition during terminal palaeolake depositional phase. The depositional facies indicates
deposition along fluctuating palaeolake shore area with calm water lacustrine as well shallow
sluggish channel sand deposits. Prominent and sporadic patches of contrasting lacustrine deposits
at several localities in Leh-Spituk area are well correlatable represents palaeolake shoreline. Near
Gompa, thinly laminated, yellow coloured clay Fs facies overlies the clast supported, imbricated
Gm and laminated sandy-silt Fm1 facies indicates pre-lacustrine palaeoflood Indus River flood
plain. And clay facies indicated the deposition under deep and calm water lacustrine environment.
At Shey (Fig.-3.9 to 3.10), thinly laminated clay Fs and laminated silty-sand Sm facies in
the bottom part (Shey-A & B, lower part of Shey-C sections) suggests deposition in lacustrine
environment. Whereas, in the upper 4m of deposit, intercalation of the dominance of planar
stratified gritty layers indicative of shallow fluvial conditions during lake waning phase. The
occurrence of pebbly deposit at top suggest local slope wash or alluvial fan progradation. In the
same locality, section Shey-D, basal Fs facies deposited under calm water lacustrine conditions.

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The association of Sm2 & Fm in lower part of section suggests fluctuating lake conditions and
deposition under shallow water lake and fluvial gritty sheets along palaeolake shore. The
dominance of buff yellow, thinly laminated to massive clay Fs at exposed base of section is
deposited under deeper lacustrine conditions whereas, association of Fs & Fm, Sm1 & Fm
indicative of shallow water lacustrine environment with pulses of sediment fluxes from hill slope.
Near Stakna (Fig.-3.6 to 3.7), association of Gm, Fs, St, Sm1 and Gdm1 facies indicates
deposition along Lake Margin and depositional environment gradually changes from fluvio-
lacustrine to local high energy alluvial fan building conditions. Whereas, in the further upstream,
near Karu village (Fig.-3.5), the deposition of clast supported, imbricated Gm, silty-sand Sm
facies and stratified gritty Sm1 facies association is indicative of entirely fluvial environment. The
angular to sub-angular, stratified Gdm1 facies suggests high energy alluvial fan progradation in
upper section.
In the left bank of Indus River opposite to Spituk-Leh area, Number of tributary streams
descending from slopes of Indus Flysch have developed alluvial fans forming coalesced fan
surface (Bajada). A vertical exposed fluvial scarp near Palam village constitutes poorly sorted,
stratified gravel Gdm1 and Gm2 facies indicating alluvial fan progradation from Indus Flysch.
The high energy alluvial fan deposit is capped by rhythmic layers of Sm & Fs facies suggesting
fluvio- lacustrine environment under calm water conditions over pre-existing fan surface.
Sedimentary deposit near Zinchen village (on the way from Leh to Zinchen), exhibits
dominancy of thinly laminated yellow clay Fs facies in the lower section that indicates deposition
under calm and deep water lacustrine environment. Whereas, occurrence of alternate beds of silt-
sand Sm and clay Fs facies is dominant which signifies deposition under shallow fluvio-lacustrine
environment. The whole fluvio-lacustrine deposit rests over Gdm2 facies deposited through
cohesive debris flow from hill slopes. Another of deposit in further downstream of Indus River in
this area which lies at similar geomorphic level is correlatable to above deposit and suggests
similar fluvio-lacustrine depositional environment with dominant Fs and Gm facies.
Opposite to Phey, on the left bank of Indus, occurrence of continuous beds of Fs and Fm
facies over poorly sorted fan debris (Gdm1 facies) indicates the shoreline of palaeolake in the
area. Three such exposed sections (Fig.-2.22 & 3.23) observed in this area that supports the fluvio-
lacustrine depositional conditions in the form of laminated finer clastics (Fs, Fm & Sm facies) and
showcase the shoreline of palaeolake. On the right bank of Indus near Phey, Tarufu nala, and

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Phyan nala cuttings, heap of Quaternary sediments forms linear ridge that constituted of alternate
very poorly sorted, clast- to matrix support, angular dominant moraine M facies in the base and
upper part and Matrix to clast supported, poorly sorted, disorganized, stratified, gravel with Sub-
rounded to Sub-angular clasts of local lithology indicating alluvial fan environment Gm1 facies
(Fig.-3.14 to 3.18). Along Phyan Nala cutting, occurrence of very poorly sorted, clast- to matrix
support, angular dominant morainic M facies in the form of linear ridge suggests glaciagenic
depositional environment. The surface lies at ~3230m asl. However, another exposed section
along Phyan Nala (section-2) at lower level, St & Gm1facies, exhibits deposition under fluvial
channel bar and alluvial fan environment. The facies characteristics indicates fluvial channel
environment which grades upward to local alluvial fan environment (Fig.-3.16 to 3.17). Along
road cutting in the same area (near Phey) imbricated gravel deposit Gm and St facies further
suggests fluvial depositional environment (Fig.-3.18). Near Pathar Saheb Gurudwara, evidences
of fluvial depositional environment are well preserved in the form of Fm & Gm facies (Fig.3.19).

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