Electrical Engineering Department

Dr. Mouaaz Nahas

Courses: 8022305, 8022310 & 8023305
General Revision on Mathematics
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Contents
1. Trigonometric Identities ......................................................................................................... 2
1.1. Product formulas .............................................................................................................. 2
1.2. Sum or difference of two angles ...................................................................................... 2
1.3. Reduction formulas .......................................................................................................... 2
2. Signal Energy and Power ........................................................................................................ 3
3. L’Hopital’s Rule ..................................................................................................................... 4
4. Signal Time-Operations .......................................................................................................... 5
4.1. Time shifting .................................................................................................................... 5
4.2. Time scaling..................................................................................................................... 6
4.3. Time inversion (reversal) ................................................................................................. 6
5. Unit Impulse (Dirac Delta) Function ...................................................................................... 9
6. Unit Step Function (u-Function) ........................................................................................... 10
7. Complex Numbers ................................................................................................................ 11
7.1. Cartesian (rectangular) and polar forms ........................................................................ 11
7.2. Euler’s relation............................................................................................................... 12
7.3. Useful properties ............................................................................................................ 12
8. Rectangular and Triangular Functions .................................................................................. 13
8.1. Rectangular function ...................................................................................................... 13
8.2. Triangular function ........................................................................................................ 13
9. The Function sinc(x) ............................................................................................................. 14
10. Fourier Series ........................................................................................................................ 15
10.1. From Oppenheim’s Book (Signals and Systems): ......................................................... 15
10.2. From Lathi’s Book (3rd Edition): ................................................................................... 17
11. Fourier Transform ................................................................................................................. 18
11.1. Definition ....................................................................................................................... 18
11.2. Main Fourier Transform Pairs ....................................................................................... 19
12. Convolution Theorem ........................................................................................................... 21
12.1. Definition ....................................................................................................................... 21
12.2. Convolution properties .................................................................................................. 21

|Page 1
1. Trigonometric Identities

1.1. Product formulas

1 1
sin 𝑎 cos 𝑏 = [sin(𝑎 + 𝑏) + sin(𝑎 − 𝑏)] cos 𝑎 sin 𝑏 = [sin(𝑎 + 𝑏) − sin(𝑎 − 𝑏)]
2 2
1 1
cos 𝑎 cos 𝑏 = [cos(𝑎 − 𝑏) + cos(𝑎 + 𝑏)] sin 𝑎 sin 𝑏 = [cos(𝑎 − 𝑏) − cos(𝑎 + 𝑏)]
2 2

If 𝑏 = 𝑎:
1 1
sin 𝑎 cos 𝑎 = [sin(2𝑎) + sin(0)] = sin 2𝑎 = cos 𝑎 sin 𝑎
2 2
1
cos 𝑎 cos 𝑎 = cos2 𝑎 = [1 + cos 2𝑎]
2
1
sin 𝑎 sin 𝑎 = sin2 𝑎 = [1 − cos 2𝑎]
2

1.2. Sum or difference of two angles

sin(𝑎 ± 𝑏) = sin 𝑎 cos 𝑏 ± cos 𝑎 sin 𝑏 cos(𝑎 ± 𝑏) = cos 𝑎 cos 𝑏 ∓ sin 𝑎 sin 𝑏

1.3. Reduction formulas

sin(−𝜃) = − sin 𝜃 cos(−𝜃) = cos 𝜃

sin(𝜃) = − sin(𝜃 − 𝜋) cos(𝜃) = − cos(𝜃 − 𝜋)
tan(−𝜃) = − tan 𝜃 tan(𝜃) = tan(𝜃 − 𝜋)
𝜋 𝜋
∓ sin 𝜃 = cos (𝜃 ± ) ± cos 𝜃 = sin (𝜃 ± )
2 2

𝜋
Recall that cosine leads sine by , as shown below:
2

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|Page 2
2. Signal Energy and Power

Signal Energy Signal Power

∞ 𝑇/2
For real- 1
valued signal 𝐸𝑔 = ∫ 𝑔2 (𝑡) 𝑑𝑡 𝑃𝑔 = lim ∫ 𝑔2 (𝑡) 𝑑𝑡
𝑇→∞ 𝑇
𝒈(𝒕): −∞ −𝑇/2

∞ 𝑇/2
For complex- 1
valued signal 𝐸𝑔 = ∫ |𝑔(𝑡)|2 𝑑𝑡 𝑃𝑔 = lim ∫ |𝑔(𝑡)|2 𝑑𝑡
𝑇→∞ 𝑇
𝒈(𝒕): −∞ −𝑇/2

As time goes to ±∞, the signal Periodic signal, or a signal that has
Condition:
amplitude approaches zero some statistical regularity

Examples:

𝐸 < ∞ (finite) 𝐸=∞

Notes:
𝑃=0 𝑃 < ∞ (finite)

For a sinusoidal signal (that is periodic):

𝑔(𝑡) = 𝐴 cos(𝜔0 𝑡 + 𝜃)
𝐴2
⇒ 𝑃𝑔 =
2
For a sum of sinusoidal signals:
∞

𝑔(𝑡) = ∑ 𝐴𝑛 cos(𝜔𝑛 𝑡 + 𝜃𝑛 )
𝑛=1
∞
1
⇒ 𝑃𝑔 = ∑ 𝐴𝑛 2
2
𝑛=1

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3. L’Hopital’s Rule

𝑓(𝑥) 0 ∞
If lim 𝑔(𝑥) gives “indeterminate Form” (i.e. undefined value) or , then:
𝑥→𝑐 0 ∞

𝑓(𝑥) 𝑓̀ (𝑥)
lim = lim
𝑥→𝑐 𝑔(𝑥) 𝑥→𝑐 𝑔̀ (𝑥)

𝑓́ (𝑥) 0 ∞
If lim 𝑔́ (𝑥) results in or , then:
𝑥→𝑐 0 ∞

𝑓(𝑥) 𝑓̀ (𝑥)
lim = lim
𝑥→𝑐 𝑔(𝑥) 𝑥→𝑐 𝑔̀̀ (𝑥)

and so on …

The following table shows the list of determinate and indeterminate forms.

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4. Signal Time-Operations

4.1. Time shifting

𝜙(𝑡 + 𝑇) ⇒ left-shift by 𝑇 𝜙(−𝑡 + 𝑇) ⇒ right-shift by 𝑇

𝜙(𝑡 − 𝑇) ⇒ right-shift by 𝑇 𝜙(−𝑡 − 𝑇) ⇒ left-shift by 𝑇

Please don’t be confused. There are two shifting operations:

𝜙(𝑡 ± 𝑇) ⇒ Time shifting ⇒ left-shift / right-shift of signal timing (horizontal shifting).
𝜙(𝑡) ± 𝐴 ⇒ Amplitude shifting ⇒ up-shift / down-shift of signal amplitude (vertical shifting).

Example:

Let (𝑡) = 𝑡 , sketch 𝜙(𝑡 + 𝑇), 𝜙(𝑡 − 𝑇), 𝜙(−𝑡 + 𝑇) and 𝜙(−𝑡 − 𝑇).

Solution:

Left-shift Right-shift

Right-shift Left-shift

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4.2. Time scaling

If 𝑎 > 1:
𝑡
𝜙(𝑎𝑡) ⇒ Time-compression by 𝑎 𝜙 ( 𝑎 ) ⇒ Time-expansion by 𝑎

Please don’t be confused. There are two scaling operations:

𝜙(𝑎𝑡) ⇒ Time scaling ⇒ compression / expansion of signal timing (horizontal scaling).
𝑎𝜙(𝑡) ⇒ Amplitude scaling ⇒ compression / expansion of signal amplitude (vertical scaling).

Example:
𝑡
Let (𝑡) = 𝑡 , sketch 𝜙(2𝑡) and 𝜙 ( 2 ).

Solution:

Compression Expansion

4.3. Time inversion (reversal)

𝜙(−𝑡) ⇒ Rotation of 𝜙(𝑡) by 1800 around the vertical axis.

Please don’t be confused. There are two inversion operations:

𝜙(−𝑡) ⇒ Time inversion ⇒ Mirror image around the vertical axis.
−𝜙(𝑡) ⇒ Amplitude inversion ⇒ Mirror image around the horizontal axis.

Example:

Let (𝑡) = 𝑡 , sketch 𝜙(−𝑡).

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Solution:

Linear function with slope = Time reversal (rotation

1 and passes through the around the vertical axis)
origin

Example:
𝑡
Given 𝑥(𝑡), sketch 𝑥 (4 − 2).

Solution:

Method (1):

Let:
𝑡
𝑥 (4 − ) = ∅(𝑡)
2
By rearranging the terms in the expression:
𝑡
𝑥 (− + 4) = ∅(𝑡)
2
Subtracting 4 from the time in both sides:
𝑡
𝑥 (− ) = ∅(𝑡 − 4)
2
Multiplying the time by 2 in both sides:
𝑥(−𝑡) = ∅(2𝑡 − 8)
Inverting the time in both sides:
⇒ 𝑥(𝑡) = ∅(−2𝑡 + 8)

|Page 7
 ⇒ 𝑥(0) = ∅(−2 × 0 + 8) = ∅(8)
𝑥(1) = ∅(−2 × 1 + 8) = ∅(6)
𝑥(2) = ∅(−2 × 2 + 8) = ∅(4)

Method (2):

𝑡
𝑥 (− + 4)
2
⇒ 𝑥(𝑡) is:
1. Left-shifted by 4
2. Expanded by 2
3. Time inverted

2 and 3 can be swapped, but 1 should be done first (i.e. the signal must be shifted first).

Method (3):

𝑡 1
𝑥 (− + 4) = 𝑥 (− (𝑡 − 8))
2 2
⇒ 𝑥(𝑡) is:
1. Time inverted
2. Expanded by 2
3. Right-shifted by 8

1 and 2 can be swapped, but 3 should be done last (i.e. shifting must be performed at the end).

𝑡
Please apply Method (2) and Method (3), and compare with above graph for ∅(𝑡) = 𝑥 (4 − 2).

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5. Unit Impulse (Dirac Delta) Function

Continuous-time: Discrete-time:
Symbol: 𝛿(𝑡) 𝛿[𝑛] or 𝛿(𝑛)
𝛿(𝑡) = 0 for 𝑡 ≠ 0
∞
0 for 𝑛 ≠ 0
Definition: 𝛿(𝑛) = {
∫ 𝛿(𝑡) 𝑑𝑡 = 1 1 for 𝑛 = 0
−∞

Graph:

𝑛 is integer time, so
𝛿(𝑡) ≠ 1 at 𝑡 = 0
Notes: 𝛿(𝑛) is undefined at non-integer time
In fact, at 𝑡 = 0, 𝛿(𝑡) = ∞
instants, e.g. 𝛿(0.5) ≠ 0, it is undefined.
 ∅(𝑡) 𝛿(𝑡) = ∅(0) 𝛿(𝑡)  𝑥(𝑛) 𝛿(𝑛) = 𝑥(0) 𝛿(𝑛)
 ∅(𝑡) 𝛿(𝑡 − 𝑇) = ∅(𝑇) 𝛿(𝑡 − 𝑇)  𝑥(𝑛) 𝛿(𝑛 − 𝑛0 ) = 𝑥(𝑛0 ) 𝛿(𝑛 − 𝑛0 )
Properties: ∞
 ∫−∞ ∅(𝑡) 𝛿(𝑡) 𝑑𝑡 = ∅(0)
∞
 ∫−∞ ∅(𝑡) 𝛿(𝑡 − 𝑇) 𝑑𝑡 = ∅(𝑇)

Note that 𝛿(𝑡) is used to sample any continuous-time signal in the analog-to-digital conversion
process using the periodic “impulse train” function 𝛿𝑇0 (𝑡) (as will be studied later).

𝛿𝑇0 (𝑡) = ∑ 𝛿(𝑡 − 𝑘𝑇0 )

𝑘=−∞

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|Page 9
 6. Unit Step Function (u-Function)

Continuous-time: Discrete-time:
Symbol: 𝑢(𝑡) 𝑢[𝑛] or 𝑢(𝑛)
1 for 𝑡 ≥ 0 1 for 𝑛 ≥ 0
Definition: 𝑢(𝑡) = { 𝑢(𝑛) = {
0 for 𝑡 < 0 0 for 𝑛 < 0

Graph:

 ∅(𝑡) 𝑢(𝑡) ⇒ values of ∅(𝑡) at 𝑡 ≥ 0  𝑥(𝑛) 𝑢(𝑛) ⇒ values of 𝑥(𝑛) at

 ∅(𝑡) 𝑢(−𝑡) ⇒ values of ∅(𝑡) at 𝑡 ≤ 0 𝑛≥0
Properties:
 ∅(𝑡) 𝑢(𝑡 − 𝑇) ⇒ values of ∅(𝑡) at 𝑡 ≥ 𝑇 :
 ∅(𝑡) 𝑢(𝑡 + 𝑇) ⇒ values of ∅(𝑡) at 𝑡 ≥ −𝑇 :
𝑡
Relation- 𝑛
𝑢(𝑡) = ∫ 𝛿(𝜏) 𝑑𝜏
ship with 𝑢(𝑛) = ∑ 𝛿(𝑚)
delta −∞
𝑚=−∞
𝑑𝑢
function = 𝛿(𝑡) 𝛿(𝑛) = 𝑢(𝑛) − 𝑢(𝑛 − 1)
𝑑𝑡

Note that:
𝑛

𝑢(𝑛) = ∑ 𝛿(𝑚)
𝑚=−∞

is called the “running sum” of 𝛿(𝑛), and:

𝛿(𝑛) = 𝑢(𝑛) − 𝑢(𝑛 − 1)
is called the “first difference” of 𝑢(𝑛).

Example:

Express the signum function sgn(𝑡) in terms of 𝑢(𝑡).

Solution

The signum function shown aside can be expressed as:

sgn(𝑡) = 2𝑢(𝑡)– 1
Also: sgn(𝑡) = 𝑢(𝑡)– 𝑢(– 𝑡)
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| P a g e 10
7. Complex Numbers

7.1. Cartesian (rectangular) and polar forms

Cartesian (rectangular) form:

𝑧 = 𝑥 + 𝑗𝑦
Polar form:
𝑧 = 𝑟 𝑒 𝑗𝜃
where:
𝑥: is the real part of 𝑧.
𝑦: is the imaginary part of 𝑧.
𝑟: is the magnitude (or modulus) of 𝑧.
𝜃: is the angle (or phase) of 𝑧.

Given 𝑥 and 𝑦 values of 𝑧:

𝑟 = √𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 = |𝑧|
and:
𝑦 𝑦 𝑥
𝜃 = tan−1 ( ) = sin−1 ( ) = cos−1 ( )
𝑥 √𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 √𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2
Given 𝑟 and 𝜃 values of 𝑧:
𝑥 = 𝑟 cos 𝜃
and:
𝑦 = 𝑟 sin 𝜃
For the complex number:
1
𝑧=
𝑥 + 𝑗𝑦
The magnitude is:
1
𝑟= = |𝑧|
√𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2
and the angle is:
𝑦
𝜃 = −tan−1 ( )
𝑥
Prove the last two formulas.

| P a g e 11
7.2. Euler’s relation

𝑒 𝑗𝜃 = cos 𝜃 + 𝑗 sin 𝜃 …………………………….. (7.1)

𝑒 −𝑗𝜃 = cos 𝜃 − 𝑗 sin 𝜃 …………………………….. (7.2)
By adding (7.1) and (7.2), we obtain:
1
cos 𝜃 = (𝑒 𝑗𝜃 + 𝑒 −𝑗𝜃 )
2
By subtracting (7.2) from (7.1), we obtain:
1
sin 𝜃 = (𝑒 𝑗𝜃 − 𝑒 −𝑗𝜃 )
2

7.3. Useful properties

 𝑒 𝑗𝜋/2 = 𝑗
 𝑒 −𝑗𝜋/2 = −𝑗
1, 𝑛 even
 𝑒 ±𝑗𝑛𝜋 = 𝑓(𝑥) = {
−1, 𝑛 odd
 (𝑟𝑒 𝑗𝜃 )𝑘 = 𝑟 𝑘 𝑒 𝑗𝑘𝜃
 (𝑟1 𝑒 𝑗𝜃1 ) (𝑟2 𝑒 𝑗𝜃2 ) = 𝑟1 𝑟2 𝑒 𝑗(𝜃1 +𝜃2 )
𝑟1 𝑒 𝑗𝜃1 𝑟
 = 𝑟1 𝑒 𝑗(𝜃1 −𝜃2 )
𝑟2 𝑒 𝑗𝜃2 2

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| P a g e 12
8. Rectangular and Triangular Functions

8.1. Rectangular function

𝜏
𝑡 𝑡 1, |𝑡| ≤
rect ( ) = ∏ ( ) = { 2
𝜏 𝜏 𝜏
0, |𝑡| >
2

Example:
𝑡
Express the rectangular function rect ( ) in terms of 𝑢(𝑡).
𝜏

Solution

The rectangular function can be expressed as:

𝑡 𝜏 𝜏
rect ( ) = 𝑢 (𝑡 + ) − 𝑢 (𝑡 − )
𝜏 2 2
Also:
𝑡 𝜏 𝜏
rect ( ) = 𝑢 (𝑡 + ) 𝑢 ( − 𝑡)
𝜏 2 2
Also:
𝑡 𝜏 𝜏
rect ( ) = 𝑢 ( − 𝑡) − 𝑢 (− − 𝑡)
𝜏 2 2

8.2. Triangular function

2 𝜏
𝑡 1 − |𝑡|, |𝑡| ≤
△( )={ 𝜏 2
𝜏 𝜏
0, |𝑡| >
2

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| P a g e 13
9. The Function sinc(x)

The common definition of the sinc(𝑥) function shown below is:

sin 𝑥
sinc(𝑥) =
𝑥

At 𝑥 = 0:
sin(0) 0
sinc(0) = =
0 0
Using L’Hopital’s rule:
sin 𝑥 cos 𝑥
sinc(0) = lim = lim = cos 0 = 1
𝑥→0 𝑥 𝑥→0 1

Therefore, at 𝑥 = 0, the function 𝑎 sinc(𝑥) = 𝑎 (for any value of 𝑎).

To find the points intersecting the 𝑥 axis:

sinc(𝑥) = 0
sin 𝑥
⇒ =0
𝑥
⇒ sin 𝑥 = 0
⇒ 𝑥 = sin−1(0)
⇒ 𝑥 = 0, ±𝜋, ±2𝜋, ±3𝜋, …
But 𝑥 = 0 should be excluded since at 𝑥 = 0, sinc(𝑥) = 1, so:
⇒ 𝑥 = ±𝜋, ±2𝜋, ±3𝜋, …
⇒ 𝑥 = ±3.1416, ±6.2832, ±9.4248, …

Note that some references define the sinc(𝑥) function as:

sin 𝜋𝑥
sinc(𝑥) =
𝜋𝑥
In this case, the function intersects the 𝑥 axis at 𝑥 = ±1, ±2, ±3, … (Prove this mathematically?)
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| P a g e 14
10. Fourier Series

10.1. From Oppenheim’s Book (Signals and Systems):

Any periodic signal 𝑥(𝑡) can be represented as linear combinations of a set of basic complex
exponential signals (or sinusoids). That is:
∞ ∞
2𝜋
𝑥(𝑡) = ∑ 𝑎𝑘 𝑒 𝑗𝑘𝜔0 𝑡 = ∑ 𝑎𝑘 𝑒 𝑗𝑘( 𝑇 )𝑡 𝑘 = 0, ±1, ±2, …
𝑘=−∞ 𝑘=−∞

(10.1)

1 1 2𝜋
𝑎𝑘 = ∫ 𝑥(𝑡)𝑒 −𝑗𝑘𝜔0 𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = ∫ 𝑥(𝑡)𝑒 −𝑗𝑘( 𝑇 )𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑘 = 0, ±1, ±2, …
𝑇 𝑇
𝑇 𝑇

(10.2)
Note that:
 Equation (10.1) is called “Synthesis Equation”.
 Equation (10.2) is called “Analysis Equation”.
 The set {𝑎𝑘 } are called “Fourier Series Coefficients of 𝑥(𝑡)”. They are also called “Spectral
Coefficients of 𝑥(𝑡)”.
 The integral in Equation (10.2) is taken over one period.
 𝑎0 is the average value of 𝑥(𝑡) over one period, that is:

1
𝑎0 = ∫ 𝑥(𝑡) 𝑑𝑡
𝑇
𝑇

(10.3)
Recall that:
1
𝑓0 =
𝑇
is the fundamental (cyclic) frequency of 𝑥(𝑡) in Hz.
and:
2𝜋
𝜔0 = 2𝜋𝑓0 =
𝑇
is the fundamental (radian) frequency of 𝑥(𝑡) in radians per second (rad/s). Also:
2𝜋
𝑇=
𝜔0
is the fundamental period in second.

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Generally, the period of any harmonic function (component) is:
2𝜋
𝑇= 𝑘 = 0, ±1, ±2, …
|𝑘|𝜔0
The following table shows the frequency and period of each harmonic component in any periodic
signal 𝑥(𝑡):
Frequency Period Harmonic
𝒌: Description:
(𝒌𝝎𝟎 ): (𝟐𝝅⁄|𝒌|𝝎𝟎 ): Component:
0 0 0 𝑎0 DC Component
1 𝜔0 2𝜋⁄𝜔0 𝑎1 𝑒 𝑗𝜔0 𝑡 First Harmonic Component
−1 −𝜔0 2𝜋⁄𝜔0 𝑎−1 𝑒 −𝑗𝜔0 𝑡 First Harmonic Component
2 2𝜔0 𝜋 ⁄ 𝜔0 𝑎2 𝑒 𝑗2𝜔0 𝑡 Second Harmonic Component
−2 −2𝜔0 𝜋 ⁄ 𝜔0 𝑎−2 𝑒 −𝑗2𝜔0𝑡 Second Harmonic Component
: : : : :
𝑁 𝑁𝜔0 𝜋⁄𝑁𝜔0 𝑎𝑁 𝑒 𝑗𝑁𝜔0 𝑡 𝑁th Harmonic Component
−𝑁 −𝑁𝜔0 𝜋⁄𝑁𝜔0 𝑎−𝑁 𝑒 −𝑗𝑁𝜔0 𝑡 𝑁th Harmonic Component

If {𝑎𝑘 } are real ⇒ 𝑎𝑘 = 𝑎−𝑘

If {𝑎𝑘 } are complex ⇒ 𝑎𝑘 = 𝑎−𝑘 ∗ or 𝑎𝑘 ∗ = 𝑎−𝑘
For any real periodic signal:
∞

𝑥(𝑡) = 𝑎0 + 2 ∑ Re {𝑎𝑘 𝑒 𝑗𝑘𝜔0 𝑡 }

𝑘=1

If {𝑎𝑘 } are real:

∞

𝑥(𝑡) = 𝑎0 + 2 ∑ 𝑎𝑘 cos(𝑘𝜔0 𝑡)
𝑘=1

If {𝑎𝑘 } are complex ⇒ 𝑎𝑘 = 𝐴𝑘 𝑒 𝑗𝜃𝑘 (in polar form), then:

∞

𝑥(𝑡) = 𝑎0 + 2 ∑ 𝐴𝑘 cos(𝑘𝜔0 𝑡 + 𝜃𝑘 )
𝑘=1

If 𝑎𝑘 = 𝐵𝑘 + 𝑗𝐶𝑘 (in Cartesian form), then:

∞

𝑥(𝑡) = 𝑎0 + 2 ∑[𝐵𝑘 cos(𝑘𝜔0 𝑡) − 𝐶𝑘 sin(𝑘𝜔0 𝑡)]

𝑘=1

Note that:
 If 𝑥(𝑡) is even ⇒ 𝑎𝑘 are real.
 If 𝑥(𝑡) is odd ⇒ 𝑎𝑘 are complex which only has imaginary parts (real parts are zero).
 If 𝑥(𝑡) is neither even nor odd ⇒ 𝑎𝑘 are complex (both real and imaginary parts exist).

| P a g e 16
10.2. From Lathi’s Book (3rd Edition):

Trigonometric Fourier Series:

∞

𝑔(𝑡) = 𝑎0 + ∑[𝑎𝑛 cos 𝑛𝜔0 𝑡 + 𝑏𝑛 sin 𝑛𝜔0 𝑡]

𝑛=1

where:
𝑡1 +𝑇0
1 2𝜋
𝑎0 = ∫ 𝑔(𝑡)𝑑𝑡 𝜔0 =
𝑇0 𝑇0
𝑡1

and:
𝑡1 +𝑇0
2
𝑎𝑛 = ∫ 𝑔(𝑡) cos 𝑛𝜔0 𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑛 = 1, 2,3, …
𝑇0
𝑡1
𝑡1 +𝑇0
2
𝑏𝑛 = ∫ 𝑔(𝑡) sin 𝑛𝜔0 𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑛 = 1, 2,3, …
𝑇0
𝑡1

Exponential Fourier Series:

∞

𝑔(𝑡) = ∑ 𝐷𝑛 𝑒 𝑗𝑛𝜔0 𝑡
𝑛=−∞

where:

1
𝐷𝑛 = ∫ 𝑔(𝑡) 𝑒 −𝑗𝑛𝜔0 𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑇
𝑇0

Note that Oppenheim’s and Lathi’s sets of equations provide the same results (despite the apparent
differences in their formulas).
In comparing between the two equation sets, one can show that:
 𝑎0 is exactly the same in both books.
 For Exponential Fourier Series:
𝑎𝑘 = 𝐷𝑛
 For Trigonometric Fourier Series:
𝑎𝑛 = 2𝐵𝑘
𝑏𝑛 = −2𝐶𝑘
=====================================================================

| P a g e 17
11. Fourier Transform

11.1. Definition

From Oppenheim’s Book (Signals and Systems):

∞
1
𝑥(𝑡) = ∫ 𝑋(𝑗𝜔) 𝑒 𝑗𝜔𝑡 𝑑𝜔
2𝜋
−∞

(11.1)
∞

𝑋(𝑗𝜔) = ∫ 𝑥(𝑡) 𝑒 −𝑗𝜔𝑡 𝑑𝑡

−∞

(11.2)
Note that:
 Equation (11.1) is called “Synthesis Equation”. It is also called: “Inverse Fourier Transform
of 𝑋(𝑗𝜔)”.
 Equation (11.2) is called “Analysis Equation”. It is also called: “Fourier Transform of
𝑥(𝑡)”, “Fourier Integral of 𝑥(𝑡)”, and “Spectrum of 𝑥(𝑡)”; since it shows the frequency
spectrum (range of frequencies and their relative power) of the signal 𝑥(𝑡).
 Fourier Transform is a special case of Fourier Series for non-periodic signals where 𝑇 goes
to infinity, that is:
As → ∞ ⇒ 𝜔0 = 2𝜋⁄𝑇 → 0 , 2𝜔0 → 𝜔0 , 3𝜔0 → 2𝜔0 and so on. Thus, the discrete
frequency 𝑛𝜔0 is replaced by a continuous frequency 𝜔 and the summation is replaced by
an integral.

Fourier Transform can also be presented in terms of frequency 𝑓 as:

∞

𝑥(𝑡) = ∫ 𝑋(𝑓) 𝑒 𝑗2𝜋𝑓𝑡 𝑑𝑓

−∞

(11.3)
∞

𝑋(𝑓) = ∫ 𝑥(𝑡) 𝑒 −𝑗2𝜋𝑓𝑡 𝑑𝑡

−∞

(11.4)
Similarly, equations (11.3) and (11.4) represent the “Inverse Fourier Transform of 𝑋(𝑓)” and
“Fourier Transform of 𝑥(𝑡)”, respectively.

| P a g e 18
11.2. Main Fourier Transform Pairs

𝒙(𝒕): 𝑿(𝒋𝝎): 𝑿(𝒇):

1 1
𝑒 −𝑎𝑡 𝑢(𝑡)
𝑎 + 𝑗𝜔 𝑎 + 𝑗2𝜋𝑓
1 1
𝑒 𝑎𝑡 𝑢(−𝑡)
𝑎 − 𝑗𝜔 𝑎 − 𝑗2𝜋𝑓
2𝑎 2𝑎
𝑒 −𝑎|𝑡|
𝑎2 + 𝜔 2 𝑎2 + (2𝜋𝑓)2
𝛿(𝑡) 1 1

1 2𝜋𝛿(𝜔) 𝛿(𝑓)

𝑒 𝑗𝜔0 𝑡 2𝜋𝛿(𝜔 − 𝜔0 ) -----

𝑒 𝑗2𝜋𝑓0 𝑡 ----- 𝛿(𝑓 − 𝑓0 )

cos 𝜔0 𝑡 𝜋[𝛿(𝜔 + 𝜔0 ) + 𝛿(𝜔 − 𝜔0 )] -----

1
cos 2𝜋𝑓0 𝑡 ----- [𝛿(𝑓 + 𝑓0 ) + 𝛿(𝑓 − 𝑓0 )]
2
sin 𝜔0 𝑡 𝑗𝜋[𝛿(𝜔 + 𝜔0 ) + 𝛿(𝜔 − 𝜔0 )] -----
1
sin 2𝜋𝑓0 𝑡 ----- 𝑗 [𝛿(𝑓 + 𝑓0 ) + 𝛿(𝑓 − 𝑓0 )]
2
1 1
𝑢(𝑡) 𝜋𝛿(𝜔) + 𝜋𝛿(𝑓) +
𝑗𝜔 𝑗2𝜋𝑓
2 2
sgn(𝑡)
𝑗𝜔 𝑗2𝜋𝑓
𝑡 𝜔𝜏
rect ( ) 𝜏 𝑠inc ( ) 𝜏 𝑠inc(𝜋𝑓𝜏)
𝜏 2
𝑊 𝜔
sinc(𝑊𝑡) rect ( ) -----
𝜋 2𝑊
𝑓
2𝐵 sinc(2𝜋𝐵𝑡) ----- rect ( )
2𝐵
𝑡 𝜏 𝜔𝜏 𝜏 𝜋𝑓𝜏
△( ) 𝑠inc 2 ( ) 𝑠inc 2 ( )
𝜏 2 4 2 2
𝑊 𝑊𝑡 𝜔
sinc 2 ( ) △( ) -----
2𝜋 2 2𝑊
𝑓
𝐵 sinc 2 (𝜋𝐵𝑡) ----- △( )
2𝐵
∞ ∞ ∞
2𝜋 1
∑ 𝛿(𝑡 − 𝑛𝑇) 𝜔0 ∑ 𝛿(𝜔 − 𝑛𝜔0 ) , 𝜔0 = 𝑓0 ∑ 𝛿(𝑓 − 𝑛𝑓0 ) , 𝑓0 =
𝑇 𝑇
𝑛=−∞ 𝑛=−∞ 𝑛=−∞

| P a g e 19
Note that:
 Recall that signals which do not satisfy the three Dirichlet’s conditions cannot have Fourier
Transforms (they are very few signals). What are Dirichlet’s conditions?
 𝑊 = 2𝜋𝐵 is the bandwidth in rad/s.
 You can find a set of rules to move between 𝑋(𝑗𝜔) and 𝑋(𝑓) instead of performing the
whole integral again (think about this).
 If 𝑥(𝑡) is even ⇒ 𝑋(𝑗𝜔) is a real function of 𝜔 (e.g. 𝑒 −𝑎|𝑡| , cos 𝜔0 𝑡).
 If 𝑥(𝑡) is odd ⇒ 𝑋(𝑗𝜔) is a complex function of 𝜔 which only has an imaginary part (e.g.
𝑒 −𝑎𝑡 𝑢(𝑡), sin 𝜔0 𝑡).
 If 𝑥(𝑡) is neither even nor odd ⇒ 𝑋(𝑗𝜔) is a complex function of 𝜔 (e.g. 𝑢(𝑡)).
 Try to sketch 𝑥(𝑡) and 𝑋(𝑗𝜔) for each case (refer to Signal Analysis course).
=====================================================================

| P a g e 20
12. Convolution Theorem

12.1. Definition

The convolution of two signals 𝑔1 (𝑡) and 𝑔2 (𝑡), denoted by 𝑔1 (𝑡) ∗ 𝑔2 (𝑡), is defined as:
∞

𝑔1 (𝑡) ∗ 𝑔2 (𝑡) = ∫ 𝑔1 (𝜏) 𝑔2 (𝑡 − 𝜏) 𝑑𝜏

−∞

Notice that since the integral is with respect to the dummy variable 𝜏, the integral result will be a
function of 𝑡.

12.2. Convolution properties

𝐹 𝐹
If 𝑔1 (𝑡) ↔ 𝐺1 (𝜔) or 𝐺1 (𝑓), and 𝑔2 (𝑡) ↔ 𝐺2 (𝜔) or 𝐺2 (𝑓), then:

Time convolution:
𝐹
𝑔1 (𝑡) ∗ 𝑔2 (𝑡) ↔ 𝐺1 (𝜔) 𝐺2 (𝜔)
or:
𝐹
𝑔1 (𝑡) ∗ 𝑔2 (𝑡) ↔ 𝐺1 (𝑓) 𝐺2 (𝑓)

Frequency convolution:

𝐹 1
𝑔1 (𝑡) 𝑔2 (𝑡) ↔ 𝐺 (𝜔) ∗ 𝐺2 (𝜔)
2𝜋 1
or:
𝐹
𝑔1 (𝑡) 𝑔2 (𝑡) ↔ 𝐺1 (𝑓) ∗ 𝐺2 (𝑓)

Common example:

The DSB-SC AM modulation:

𝐹 1
𝜑𝐷𝑆𝐵−𝑆𝐶 (𝑡) = 𝑚(𝑡) cos 𝜔𝑐 𝑡 ↔ 𝛷𝐷𝑆𝐵−𝑆𝐶 (𝜔) = [𝑀(𝜔 − 𝜔𝑐 ) + 𝑀(𝜔 + 𝜔𝑐 )]
2

| P a g e 21
More clearly:
𝐹 1
𝑚(𝑡) cos 𝜔𝑐 𝑡 ↔ 𝑀(𝜔) ∗ 𝐹{cos 𝜔𝑐 𝑡}
2𝜋
The convolution in the right-hand side of the last equation gives:
1
[𝑀(𝜔 − 𝜔𝑐 ) + 𝑀(𝜔 + 𝜔𝑐 )]
2
that is shown in the following figure:

Another simple example:

𝐹
𝑔(𝑡) 𝑒 𝑗𝜔0 𝑡 ↔ 𝐺(𝜔 − 𝜔0 )

Recall that:

If 𝑔1 (𝑡) is band-limited to 𝐵1 Hz and 𝑔2 (𝑡) is band-limited to 𝐵2 Hz, then:

 Bandwidth of 𝑔1 (𝑡) + 𝑔2 (𝑡) is the higher bandwidth of the two; i.e. 𝑀𝑎𝑥(𝐵1 , 𝐵2 ).
 Bandwidth of 𝑔1 (𝑡) 𝑔2 (𝑡) is the sum of the two; i.e. 𝐵1 + 𝐵2 (from the convolution
properties since the Fourier Transform of 𝑔1 (𝑡) 𝑔2 (𝑡) is 𝐺1 (𝑓) ∗ 𝐺2 (𝑓).
 Bandwidth of 𝑔1 2 (𝑡) is …………………? (think about it)
 Bandwidth of 𝑔1 𝑛 (𝑡) is …………………? (think about it)
 Bandwidth of 𝑔1 (𝑡) − 𝑔2 (𝑡) is …………………? (think about it)
 Bandwidth of 𝑔1 (𝑡) ∗ 𝑔2 (𝑡) is …………………? (think about it)
=====================================================================
END
=====================================================================

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