Developmental Psychology Copyright 2007 by the American Psychological Association

2007, Vol. 43, No. 1, 1–12 0012-1649/07/$12.00 DOI: 10.1037/0012-1649.43.1.1

First-Time Mothers’ Expectations of Parenthood: What Happens When

Optimistic Expectations Are Not Matched by Later Experiences?
Kate Harwood, Neil McLean, and Kevin Durkin
University of Western Australia

Becoming a parent is a major developmental transition of adulthood. Individuals often have optimistic
expectations about parenthood, yet this transition also presents a number of challenges. The authors
investigated whether new parents have overly optimistic expectations about parenthood and, if they do,
how this influences their adjustment to this role. The sample consisted of 71 first-time mothers who
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completed questionnaires during pregnancy and at 4 months postpartum. The study assessed women’s
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expectations of caring for their infant and the influence parenthood would have on their well-being and
their relationships with others. Most women’s expectations were matched or exceeded by their parenting
experiences. However, where experiences were negative relative to expectations, there was greater
depression symptomatology and poorer relationship adjustment.

Keywords: transition to parenthood, mothers, expectations

Previous research has found that parenting is a valued and
desired role for many (Langdridge, Connolly, & Sheeran, 2000;
Woollett & Parr, 1997). Often, parents-to-be have reported that
they expect their impending role to bring feelings of enjoyment,
pleasure, and excitement (Delmore-Ko, Pancer, Hunsberger, &
Pratt, 2000; Green & Kafetsios, 1997). The research reported here
focused on how optimistic expectations influence psychological
adjustment during the transition to parenthood, with a particular
focus on how these expectations influence maternal mood and the
marital relationship.
Psychological Effects of Optimistic Expectations
Optimism, that is, expecting desired outcomes will occur and
aversive outcomes will not occur, has been associated with posi-
tive mood states, reduced negative affect, and adaptive behavior
(Fournier, de Ridder, & Bensing, 2002; Oettingen & Mayer, 2002;
Peterson & Seligman, 1984; Scheier & Carver, 1985; Taylor &
Brown, 1988, 1994). In contrast, negative expectations have been
associated with depressed mood, increased stress, and poorer ad-
justment to change (DeVellis & Blalock, 1992; Hull & Mendolia,
1991; Jackson, Pancer, Pratt, & Hunsberger, 2000; Peterson &
Vaidya, 2001; Riskind, Rholes, Brannon, & Burdick, 1987; Tripp,
Catano, & Sullivan, 1997). Similarly, positive expectations about
parenthood have been associated with positive adjustment to the
Kate Harwood, Neil McLean, and Kevin Durkin, School of Psychology,
University of Western Australia, Crawley, Western Australia, Australia.
Kevin Durkin is now at the Department of Psychology, University of
Straythclyde, Glasgow, United Kingdom.
This research was made possible through the cooperation and partici-
pation of staff and patients at Bentley Hospital, Joondalup Health Campus,
and Osborne Park Hospital.
Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to Kate
Harwood, who is now at Perth Clinic, 29 Havelock Street, West Perth,
Western Australia 6005, Australia. E-mail: kateh@perthclinic.com.au
role, and negative expectations have been associated with poorer
adjustment (Coleman, Nelson, & Sundre, 1999; Green & Kafet-
sios, 1997; Kach & McGhee, 1982; Wylie, 1979).
Taylor and Brown (1988, 1994) suggested that optimism pro-
motes favorable outcomes even when optimism takes the form of
unrealistically positive expectations, that is, when an individual
expects that she or he is more likely than others to experience
desired outcomes and less likely than others to experience aversive
outcomes. Expectations that appear to be overly optimistic have
been associated with positive psychological adjustment in individ-
uals in romantic relationships (Murray & Holmes, 1997), college
students completing research projects (Buehler, Griffin, & Ross,
1994; Wright, 2000), and individuals coping with chronic and
terminal illnesses (Leedham, Meyerowitz, Muirhead, & Frist,
1995; Taylor et al., 1992).
Expectations and Experiences in Early Parenthood
Although it may be beneficial for expectant parents to be opti-
mistic about their impending role, early parenthood does not
consist solely of positive experiences. New parents are faced with
an array of challenges, including sleep deprivation, mastering
infant caregiving tasks, and substantial lifestyle changes (Feeney,
Hohaus, Noller, & Alexander, 2001; Woollett & Parr, 1997).
Therefore, it seems likely that some new parents’ expectations will
be disconfirmed if they are unrealistically optimistic and fail to
anticipate more difficult aspects of parenthood. This raises the
question of how disconfirmed expectations, particularly when ex-
periences are not as positive as expected, influence adjustment
during the transition to parenthood.
A number of studies in which support has been found for the
psychological benefits of positive expectations have not made a
direct comparison between expectations and experiences (e.g.,
Fournier et al., 2002; Green & Kafetsios, 1997; Leedham et al.,
1995). In these cases, it is not possible to determine whether the
expectations were confirmed or disconfirmed or whether discon-
firmed expectations influenced adjustment. Other studies have

1
 2 HARWOOD, MCLEAN, AND DURKIN
found that disconfirmed expectations are associated with a more
difficult adjustment to parenthood. Belsky (1985) measured cou-
ples’ expectations of how parenthood would influence different
aspects of their marriage and found that, on average, the couples
had optimistic expectations. However, when experiences were not
as positive as expected, there was a decline in marital satisfaction.
Similarly, Ruble and colleagues (Hackel & Ruble, 1992; Ruble,
Fleming, Hackel, & Stangor, 1988) found that when women over-
estimated the amount of assistance they would receive from their
partners, there was a decline in marital satisfaction.
These studies, then, demonstrated that discrepancies between
expectancies and experiences in the transition to parenthood are
associated with diminished marital satisfaction. Although these
interpersonal dimensions are clearly important, the transition has
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still wider implications. Becoming a parent bears, potentially, on
individuals’ personal satisfaction, sense of self and well-being,
relations with other family members and friends, adjustment to
role change, and levels of stress. Kalmuss, Davidson, and Cush-
man (1992) addressed some of these issues in a study that focused
on a broad range of women’s expectations. In comparison to
reported experiences 12 months after the birth, women had overly
optimistic expectations about their relationship with their partner,
family, friends, physical well-being, parenting competence, and
the extent to which their partners would assist with caregiving.
Disconfirmation of overly optimistic expectations was associated
with poorer adjustment to parenthood (Kalmuss et al., 1992).
However, the conclusions that can be drawn from these findings
are limited by the measures used. No standardized measures were
used to assess adjustment outcomes, making it difficult to ascertain
the reliability or validity of the results obtained. The main outcome
variable was the participants’ perceptions of ease of transition to
parenthood: the sum of women’s responses on three 4-point scales
measuring perceived ease of transition to parenthood, satisfaction
with life, and stress levels. Levels of stress and satisfaction were
not measured in the prenatal testing phase, meaning that it is not
possible to determine what contribution prenatal levels of stress
and life satisfaction made to postnatal levels of these variables.
Thus, whereas this study examined a broader range of expecta-
tions, further research, with measures that have established reli-
ability and validity, is needed to advance understanding of the
links between disconfirmed expectations and adjustment to par-
enthood.
Efficacy Beliefs
Just as optimistic expectations about the future have been linked
to positive psychological adjustment, so have people’s expecta-
tions that they will be able to carry out the behaviors necessary to
bring about desired outcomes. Self-efficacy beliefs influence be-
havioral, cognitive, and affective responses across a wide range of
domains (e.g., Bandura, Barbaranelli, Caprara, & Pastorelli, 1996;
Bandura, Reese, & Adams, 1982; Jensen, Turner, & Romano,
1991; Lackner, Carosella, & Feuerstein, 1996; Stockman & Alt-
maier, 2001). Individuals with high self-efficacy beliefs have
confidence in their own abilities and are more likely to conceive
problems as surmountable challenges rather than as threats or
uncontrollable events, experience less negative emotional arousal
when engaged in challenging tasks, and persevere in the face of
difficulties (Bandura, 1997). Individuals with low self-efficacy
beliefs are more likely to experience significant levels of self-
doubt and anxiety when they encounter adversity, assume more
responsibility for failure than success, perceive environmental
demands to be threatening, avoid challenges, and cope dysfunc-
tionally with problems (Bandura, 1997).
Generalized self-efficacy beliefs have been shown to have a
powerful effect on psychological well-being during times of ad-
aptation and change. During these times, high self-efficacy beliefs
are a psychological resource buffering the effects of environmental
stressors, whereas low self-efficacy beliefs are a psychological
vulnerability (Cozzarelli, 1993; Fournier et al., 2002; Maciejewski,
Priegerson, & Mazure, 2000; Major et al., 1990). For example,
migrants with high self-efficacy were more likely to view their
difficulties associated with their migration as a challenge, whereas
those with low self-efficacy beliefs were more likely to view their
situation as a threat (Jerusalem & Mittag, 1995). The impact of
these self-efficacy beliefs on adjustment was more significant than
the effects of sociocultural variables, such as being employed or
having a partner.
During the transition to parenthood, individuals’ self-efficacy
beliefs may play two important roles. First, expectant parents with
a high sense of parenting efficacy are likely to have optimistic
expectations about their lives as parents. Although research in
other domains has found evidence for a relationship between
efficacy beliefs and outcome expectations, this relationship has not
been investigated during the transition to parenthood. Second, if
the experience of parenthood is not as positive as expected, then a
high sense of efficacy might buffer any adverse effects of expect-
ancy disconfirmation. Women with a high sense of efficacy seem
better able to cope with some of the challenges of early parent-
hood, such as an infant who cries frequently or poor social support
(Cutrona & Troutman, 1986; Teti & Gelfand, 1991). Women with
high-perceived parenting efficacy also report better relationship
quality, greater confidence in parenting, greater satisfaction with
their infants, and less dysphoria than women with lower perceived
parenting efficacy (Olioff & Aboud, 1991; Reece & Harkless,
1998). Given these findings, it is possible that those who have a
positive sense of their own efficacy will cope with the challenge of
experiences that are less positive than expected more effectively
than women who have low levels of parenting efficacy.
The Present Study
In the present study, we examined the parenting expectations of
a group of first-time expectant mothers. The participants reported
their expectations of parenthood during their pregnancy and then
their experiences of parenthood approximately 4 months after the
birth of their infants. We examined expectations across a wider
range of domains than has been tapped previously, namely, wom-
en’s expectations of parenting and their infants and their expecta-
tions about the influence of parenthood on their relationships with
their partners, their own well-being, and their social functioning. In
addition, women completed measures of relationship adjustment,
mood, parenting efficacy beliefs, and social support at both phases
of the study.
The first aim of the study was to establish whether there were
discrepancies between expectations and experiences. It was pre-
dicted that women would have positive expectations about parent-
hood and that experiences of parenthood would not be as positive
 FIRST-TIME MOTHERS’ EXPECTATIONS OF PARENTHOOD
as expected. The second aim was to establish whether parenting
expectations were associated with prenatal psychological adjust-
ment. The hypothesis was that optimistic expectations would be
associated with positive psychological adjustment during preg-
nancy. Psychological adjustment was assessed via measures of
mood, perceptions of social support, parenting efficacy, and rela-
tionship adjustment. It was predicted that women with optimistic
expectations about parenthood would also have good relationship
adjustment, high perceived social support, high parenting self-
efficacy beliefs, and fewer symptoms of depression.
The third aim was to examine whether disconfirmed expecta-
tions influence adjustment to parenthood and whether parenting
efficacy beliefs moderate this relationship. Postnatal mood and
postnatal relationship adjustment were selected as measures of
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postnatal adjustment, as these are two factors that have been
widely reported to be influenced by the transition to parenthood
(e.g., Belsky, Lang, & Rovine, 1985; Belsky, Spanier, & Rovine,
1983; Gotlib, Whiffen, Wallace, & Mount, 1991; Matthey, Bar-
nett, Ungerer, & Waters, 2000). The hypothesis was that experi-
ences that were positive relative to expectations would have a
favorable effect on adjustment, whereas experiences that were
negative relative to expectations would have a negative effect on
adjustment and that parenting efficacy beliefs would moderate this
relationship. It was predicted that women with a high sense of
parenting efficacy would cope more effectively with disconfirmed
expectations. In contrast, women with a low sense of efficacy
would find this kind of expectancy disconfirmation difficult.
Method
Participants
All of the participants were required to be cohabiting with their
partner, pregnant with their first child, and at least 18 years of age.
Most of the participants were recruited from antenatal classes at
public hospitals, with some recruited from the rooms of a private
obstetrician in a major Australian city. Women who attend the
antenatal classes provided by the public hospital system in Aus-
tralia tend not to have private health insurance for obstetric care
and rely on the public health care system for this care. These
women tend to be in low- to middle-income families. Women at
the classes were given a brief presentation introducing the re-
search, and those interested in participating were given a pack
containing the questionnaire and further information to take home.
This introductory presentation was given to 20 different classes,
and the number of women attending these classes varied between
about 10 and 30 women. From these classes, 172 women took
packs home.
Eighty-seven women completed and returned the initial ques-
tionnaire. Of these women, 72 completed the second questionnaire.
Participants who had experienced a traumatic birth (stillbirth,
premature birth, or infant death) were not approached to participate
at Time 2 (n ⫽ 5). Ten participants could not be contacted at Time
2. Comparisons of women who only completed the pregnancy
questionnaire and those who completed both questionnaires did
not reveal any significant differences between the two groups on
any of the variables measured at Time 1. One participant com-
pleted both questionnaires but had substantial proportions of miss-
ing data and was dropped from subsequent analyses, leaving a final
3
sample size of 71. The average age of the participants was 27.7
years (SD ⫽ 4.47). The average age of the women’s partners was
29.14 years (SD ⫽ 4.88). The majority of the participants were
married (60.9%), with the remainder in de facto relationships. The
couples had been living together for an average of 3.76 years
(SD ⫽ 2.73). The majority of participants described their ethnic
background as Australian (64.6%), with a further 15.4% from the
United Kingdom, and 7.6% from continental Europe. The remain-
der of the participants were originally from New Zealand, Iran,
Samoa, and Canada.
Procedure
Participants were given the questionnaires at their antenatal
classes or antenatal obstetric appointments. They were asked to
complete the questionnaires at home and return them via mail
within 2 weeks. Reminder calls were made to participants who did
not return their questionnaire within that time period. The median
for weeks pregnant when completing the first questionnaire was
34.0 weeks, with a range of 24 –39 weeks. Participants were
recontacted 4 months after their estimated delivery date. They
were sent the second questionnaire via the mail and asked to return
it within 2 weeks. As before, reminder calls were made to those
who did not return their questionnaire within that time period. At
the time of completing the second questionnaire, the average age
of the women’s infants was 18.30 weeks (SD ⫽ 2.83), with a range
of 12–25 weeks. The questionnaires also contained the measures
outlined below.
Measures
Each of the scales listed below was administered at Time 1 and
Time 2.
Edinburgh Postnatal Depression Scale (EPDS; Cox, Holden, &
Sagovsky, 1987). The EPDS, a 10-item scale designed as a
screening tool for postnatal depression, was used as a mood
measure. Cox et al. (1987) found that the scale had satisfactory
sensitivity and specificity for its designed purpose and that it was
sensitive to change in the severity of depression over time. The
scale has good internal reliability, with a Cronbach’s alpha of .87.
In addition, the EPDS is a valid and reliable measure of dysphoria
in antenatal as well as postnatal populations (Green & Murray,
1994). The EPDS had good specificity and predictive value in an
Australian sample (Boyce, Stubbs, & Todd, 1993). The reliability
alphas for the EPDS in the prenatal and postnatal phases were .81
and .85, respectively.
Parenting Sense of Competence Scale (PSOC; Gibaud-Wallston
& Wandersman, 1978; as cited in Johnston & Mash, 1989). The
PSOC is a 16-item measure designed to measure parenting self-
efficacy and satisfaction and is based on a scale developed by
Gibaud-Wallston and Wandersman. Johnston and Mash (1989)
found that the Efficacy scale has good internal consistency (Cron-
bach’s ␣ ⫽ .76) and found a significant inverse relationship
between participants’ scores on the PSOC and perceptions of child
behavior problems. Cutrona and Troutman (1986) found that ef-
ficacy scores were correlated with a general measure of self-
esteem and that the scores mediated the effects of infant temper-
ament and social support on postpartum depression in mothers of
 4 HARWOOD, MCLEAN, AND DURKIN
infants. The Cronbach’s alphas for the PSOC in the present study
were .85 in the prenatal phase and .87 in the postnatal phase.
Dyadic Adjustment Scale (DAS; Spanier, 1976). The DAS was
used to measure the quality of the parents’ relationship. The
32-item instrument is widely used, and factor analysis suggests
that it measures four aspects of the relationship: dyadic satisfac-
tion, dyadic cohesion, dyadic consensus, and affectional expres-
sion. The DAS has excellent internal consistency, with a Cron-
bach’s alpha of .94. The scale correlates with the Locke-Wallace
Marital Adjustment Scale (Locke & Wallace, 1959), providing
evidence for concurrent validity, and is able to discriminate be-
tween married and divorced couples (Spanier, 1976). The reliabil-
ity alphas for the DAS in the prenatal and postnatal phases of the
present study were .90 and .93, respectively.
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Social Provisions Scale (Cutrona & Russell, 1987). This scale
was used to assess social support. This 24-item measure is de-
signed to assess six components, or provisions, of social support
identified by Weiss (1974). The provisions are receiving a sense of
security and safety from others, sharing common interests and
concerns, feeling responsible for the well-being of another person,
having one’s skills and abilities recognized by others, being able to
rely on the assistance of others under any circumstances, and being
able to receive advice from trustworthy and authoritative individ-
uals. The coefficient alpha for the internal reliability of the entire
Social Provisions Scale is .91 (Cutrona & Russell, 1987). The
scales have adequate test–retest reliability, and good construct and
concurrent reliability have been reported (Cutrona, 1984; Cutrona
& Russell, 1987). The alphas for the Social Provisions Scale in the
present study were .88 in both the prenatal and the postnatal
phases.
Parenting Expectations measure. This 55-item measure was
developed in an earlier study of this research project in order to
assess the parenting expectations of first-time mothers across a
broad range of domains (Harwood, 2004). Some items on this
scale were generated specifically for this research, and others were
adapted from items used or concepts measured in previous work
(Affonso & Sheptak, 1989; Belsky, 1985; Kalmuss et al., 1992;
Levy-Shiff, Goldshmidt, & Har-Even, 1991; Ruble et al., 1990;
Wylie, 1979). The scale was developed in a sample of 87 Austra-
lian women who were pregnant with their first child. The concur-
rent reliability of the scale was established using the Pregnancy
and Baby scale of the Maternal Adjustment and Maternal Attitudes
Questionnaire (MAMA; Kumar, Robson, & Smith, 1984), which
assesses antenatal attitudes toward mothering and pregnancy. The
Pearson’s product–moment correlation was .64 ( p ⬍ .01). The
reliability of the scale was established using Cronbach’s alpha,
which for the final 55 items was .94.
The measure contains four subscales: The Infant Expectations
subscale pertains to a woman’s expectations about caring for her
infant (e.g., “I will enjoy my baby’s company”; “Caring for a baby
will be very difficult”). The Partner Expectations subscale assesses
expectations about the effect of parenthood on the relationship
with a partner (e.g., “My partner will help out more with household
chores”; “I will feel more distant from my partner”). The Social
Expectations subscale taps the woman’s expectations about how
parenting will influence her social functioning, including her re-
lationships with family, friends, and colleagues (e.g., “I will have
an increased appreciation for family tradition”; “There will be
unwanted interference from other people in my life”). Finally, the
Self-Expectations subscale assesses a woman’s expectations of
how parenthood will affect her physical and psychological well-
being (e.g., “I will feel confined to the house”; “I will have a
feeling of fulfillment”). Responses are provided on a 7-point scale
ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 7 (strongly agree). The
postnatal version of the expectations measure is the same as the
prenatal version except that the items are phrased in the present
tense rather than in the future tense.
In the measure development sample, the reliabilities of the four
subscales were .76 for Infant Expectations, .87 for Self-
Expectations, .80 for Partner Expectations, and .76 for Social
Expectations. In the present study, the reliability alphas of the four
subscales in the prenatal phase were Infant Expectations, .71;
Self-Expectations, .86; Partner Expectations, .82; and Social Ex-
pectations, .75. In the postnatal phase, the reliability alphas were
Infant Expectations, .77; Self-Expectations, .82; Partner Expecta-
tions, .89; and Social Expectations, .73.
Results
The data analysis addressed the three major aims of this study.
First, we addressed whether there was a difference between pre-
natal expectations and experiences and whether scores on adjust-
ment measures changed across the transition to parenthood. The
second aim was to establish whether there was a relationship
between prenatal measures of adjustment and expectations of
parenthood. The third aim was to examine whether discrepancies
between expectations and experiences influenced postnatal adjust-
ment and whether efficacy beliefs moderated this relationship.
Differences Between Prenatal and Postnatal Measures
The prenatal and postnatal means for the expectation variables
and the adjustment variables were compared using t tests. These
results are displayed in Table 1. It was hypothesized that women’s
expectations would be optimistic in comparison to their postnatal
reports of their experiences. Negatively worded items on the
expectation and experiences measures were reverse coded so that
high scores on these variables reflect optimistic expectations and
positive experiences, respectively. The lowest possible and highest
possible scores for each of the expectation categories were as
follows: Infant Expectations subscale, 11–77; Partner Expectations
subscale, 11–77; Self-Expectations subscale, 20 –140; and Social
Expectations subscale, 13–91. The means for each of the expec-
tation categories were toward the positive end of the scale. Con-
trary to the hypothesis, when expectation scores were compared
with experience scores, experiences matched or were more posi-
tive than expectations. For the Partner Expectations scores and the
Social Expectations scores, there were no significant differences
between expectations and experiences. For the Infant Expectation
scores and Self-Expectations scores, mean experiences were sig-
nificantly higher than mean expectations, indicating that women’s
experiences were more positive than expected.
Table 2 displays the Pearson product–moment correlation coef-
ficients between the expectation subscales at the prenatal and the
postnatal test phases. The expectation measures (pre) and the
experience measures (post) were significantly correlated so com-
posite expectation and experience scores were calculated and used
in subsequent analyses. The mean for the expectations measure
 FIRST-TIME MOTHERS’ EXPECTATIONS OF PARENTHOOD 5

Table 1
Means, Cross-Time Correlation Coefficients, and t-Test Results for Expectations and Adjustment
Measures at Prenatal and Postnatal Test Phases

Phase

1 Prenatal 2 Postnatal

Variable M SD M SD r12 t(70)

Expectation
Infant 60.55 6.74 65.36 7.28 .39** ⫺5.23***
Partner 60.96 7.81 59.64 10.49 .54** 1.22
Self 102.21 12.91 108.05 12.62 .51** 3.89***
Social 64.96 8.21 65.23 7.56 .44** ⫺0.64
Adjustment
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Parenting efficacy 30.20 4.80 32.35 4.93 .46** ⫺3.59***

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Social provisions 81.63 7.12 81.85 7.85 .47** ⫺0.25

Depression 6.62 3.87 5.11 3.79 .64** 3.91***
Relationship adjustment 123.89 11.85 120.18 14.86 .71** 2.97***

Note. Because of the multiple t tests, a more stringent significance level of .0056 was calculated using
Bonferroni’s correction.
**
p ⬍ .01. *** p ⬍ .001.

was 288.72 (SD ⫽ 31.14), and the postnatal experience mean was
298.71 (SD ⫽ 30.35). This difference was significant, t(70) ⫽
⫺2.79, p ⬍ .01, indicating that, on average, women’s experiences
were more positive than their expectations. However, for 35.2% of
women, experiences were less positive than expected. The distri-
bution of the discrepancies between expectations and experiences
is displayed in Figure 1.
The prenatal and postnatal means for the adjustment measures
are displayed in Table 1. There was a significant increase in mean
parenting efficacy scores from the prenatal to the postnatal test
phase and a significant decrease in mean depression scores. The
mean for postnatal relationship adjustment scores was significantly
lower than the mean for prenatal relationship adjustment scores
(for which higher scores indicate better relationship adjustment).
There was no significant difference between the means on the
social provisions measure.
parenthood. For this analysis, the overall expectation measure was
used as the dependent variable, and the independent variables were
social support, depression, relationship adjustment, and parenting
efficacy beliefs. The bivariate correlations between these variables
and the results from the regression analysis are displayed in Table
3. The results of the regression analysis were significant, but only
two of the independent variables made significant contributions to
the regression equation. High scores on the relationship adjustment
measure (for which high scores are indicative of positive relation-
ship adjustment) and high efficacy scores were associated with
higher expectation scores. Social support scores and, notably,
scores on the depression measure did not make a significant
contribution to the regression equation.

The Relationship Between Prenatal Adjustment and

Parenting Expectations
Multiple regression analysis was used to test the hypothesis that
prenatal psychosocial adjustment would predict expectations of

Table 2
Pearson Product–Moment Correlation Coefficients for
Expectation Categories and Experience Categories

Category 1 2 3 4

Expectation
1. Infant expectations —
2. Partner expectations .69** —
3. Self-expectations .79** .58** —
4. Social expectations .73** .53** .74** —
Experience
1. Infant —
Figure 1. Frequency distribution of discrepancies between prenatal ex-
2. Partner .26* —
3. Self .56** .52** — pectation scores and postnatal experience scores. A discrepancy of 0
4. Social .30* .39** .59** — indicates that expectations matched experiences; a discrepancy ⬎ 0 indi-
cates that experiences were more positive than expected; a discrepancy ⬍
*
p ⬍ .05. **
p ⬍ .01. 0 indicates that experiences were more negative than expected.
 6 HARWOOD, MCLEAN, AND DURKIN

Table 3
Summary of Multiple Regression Analysis and Pearson Product–Moment Correlation
Coefficients for Variables Predicting Prenatal Expectations (n ⫽ 71)

Variable 1 2 3 4 5 B SE ␤

1. Prenatal expectations (DV) —

2. Social support .24* — 0.55 0.42 .12
3. Depression ⫺.14 ⫺.15 — 0.49 0.80 .06
4. Relationship adjustment .51** .28** ⫺.35** — 1.06** 0.27 .40**
5. Parenting efficacy .50** .03 ⫺.10 .21* — 2.72** 0.61 .42**

Note. R ⫽ .44 ( p ⬍ .01). DV ⫽ dependent variable.

2
*
p ⬍ .05. ** p ⬍ .01.
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The Effect of Disconfirmed Expectations and Parenting depressed mood). A further prediction was that efficacy would
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Efficacy Beliefs on Adjustment to Parenthood
The third aim of this study was to examine the effect of discon-
firmed expectations on adjustment. This necessitated an examina-
tion of how the discrepancies between expectation scores and
experience scores related to scores on measures of mood and
relationship adjustment. The most straightforward way of achiev-
ing this would be to subtract expectation scores from experience
scores to produce a discrepancy score for each participant and then
use this as the independent variable in a regression analysis.
However, this method is problematic. Change scores contain vari-
ance attributable to two sources, namely, the pre score and the
change from pre to post scores (Cohen & Cohen, 1983). It is
impossible to determine whether any effect observed is the result
of variations in the expectation scores, the experience scores, or a
combination of both. To overcome these problems, Cohen and
Cohen recommended using residualized scores for which the vari-
ance associated with the pre scores is partialed out of the post
scores. In this case, standardized residual scores were calculated
by using a regression analysis in which expectation scores served
as the independent variable and experience scores as the dependent
variable. This created residualized expectation scores, which were
used as an independent variable representing the discrepancy be-
tween expectations and experiences within the subsequent analy-
ses. High scores on the residualized expectation variable indicate
that experience scores were high relative to expectation scores, and
low scores indicate that experience scores were low relative to
expectation scores.
It was predicted that high residualized expectation scores would
be associated with an improvement in relationship adjustment and
a decrease in depressed mood (for which high scores indicate
moderate the effect of disconfirmed expectations, whereby the
relationship between residualized expectation scores and adjust-
ment measures would be weaker for women with a high sense of
efficacy than for women with a low sense of efficacy. These
predictions were tested with two hierarchical regression analyses.
The first hierarchical regression analysis examined the effect of
disconfirmed expectations and efficacy on relationship adjustment.
The second hierarchical regression analysis examined the effect of
disconfirmed expectations and efficacy on mood. In each case, the
dependent variable was either postnatal relationship adjustment or
postnatal mood. In line with the recommendations of Baron and
Kenny (1986) for testing moderator relationships, all of the vari-
ables were standardized, and the independent variables were en-
tered in the following order: (a) prenatal relationship adjustment in
the first regression and prenatal mood in the second regression, (b)
the residualized expectation scores, (c) postnatal efficacy, and (d)
the interaction of the residualized expectation scores and postnatal
efficacy. The Pearson product–moment correlation coefficients for
the variables used in these analyses are displayed in Table 4.
Postnatal relationship adjustment. The results of the hierar-
chical regression examining the relationship between residualized
expectation scores and relationship adjustment and the presence of
a moderator effect for efficacy beliefs are displayed in Table 5.
The residualized expectation scores made significant contributions
to the regression equations after prenatal relationship adjustment
had been entered into the equation. Low residualized expectation
scores, indicating experiences were negative relative to expecta-
tions, were associated with a decline in relationship adjustment.
High residualized expectation scores, indicating that experiences
were positive relative to expectations, were associated with im-

Table 4
Pearson Product–Moment Correlation Coefficients for Independent and Dependent Variables
(DVs) Used in the Hierarchical Regression Analyses

Variable 1 2 3 4 5 6

1. Postnatal relationship adjustment (DV) —

2. Postnatal depression (DV) ⫺.56** —
3. Prenatal relationship adjustment .71** ⫺.24* —
4. Prenatal depression ⫺.50** .64** ⫺.35** —
5. Residualized expectation scores .56** ⫺.60** .19 ⫺.29** —
6. Postnatal parenting efficacy .09 ⫺.22** .16 .03 .28** —
*
p ⬍ .05. **
p ⬍ .01.
 FIRST-TIME MOTHERS’ EXPECTATIONS OF PARENTHOOD 7

Table 5 Postnatal mood. The results of the hierarchical regression

Results of the Hierarchical Regressions Examining the examining the relationship between the residualized expectation
Relationship Between Postnatal Adjustment Variables and the scores and mood and the test of a moderator effect for efficacy
Residualized Expectation Scores (n ⫽ 71) beliefs are displayed in Table 5. The residualized expectation
scores were a significant predictor of postnatal depression scores
Independent variable ⌬R2 ␤ B SE
after controlling for prenatal depression scores. Here, higher re-
Dependent variable: Postnatal relationship adjustmenta sidualized expectation scores, indicating that experiences were
positive relative to expectations, were associated with a decrease in
Prenatal relationship adjustment .51** .63** 0.63 .07
depression scores. Parenting efficacy did not make a significant
Residualized expectation scores .19** .45** 0.46 .07
Postnatal efficacy beliefs .02* ⫺.14* ⫺0.14 .07 contribution once prenatal depression scores and the residualized
Efficacy ⫻ Residualized expectation scores had been entered into the equation. However,
Expectation Scores .01 .10 0.12 .08 the product of the efficacy scores and residualized expectation
Dependent variable: Postnatal mood b scores was a significant predictor, indicating that there was a
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moderator effect.
This document is copyrighted by the American Psychological Association or one of its allied publishers.

Prenatal mood .41** .53** 0.53 .08 The moderator effect was interpreted by following the guide-
Residualized expectation scores .19** ⫺.35** ⫺0.36 .08
lines recommended by Aiken and West (1991), that is, by
Postnatal efficacy beliefs .01 ⫺.14 ⫺0.14 .08
Efficacy ⫻ Residualized testing the simple slopes for significance. The simple slopes are
Expectation Scores .04* ⫺.20* ⫺0.22 .08 plotted in Figure 2. The simple slope for the residualized
expectation scores was significant when parenting efficacy
Note. ␤, B, and SE statistics represent figures at the final step, when all
variables were entered into the equation. scores were high (one standard deviation above the mean), B ⫽
R total ⫽ .73, F(1, 66) ⫽ 43.69, p ⬍ .001. b R2 total ⫽ .65, F(1, 66) ⫽
a 2 ⫺0.58, t(68) ⫽ ⫺5.76, p ⬍ .01. However, the simple slope was
30.51, p ⬍ .01. not significant when parenting efficacy scores were low (one
*
p ⬍ .05. ** p ⬍ .01. standard deviation below the mean), B ⫽ ⫺0.14, t(68) ⫽
⫺1.03, p ⫽ .31. These results indicate that when efficacy scores
proved relationship adjustment. Postnatal efficacy scores also were high, experiences that were less positive than expectations
made a significant contribution to the regression equation, were associated with increased depression. When efficacy
whereby high efficacy scores were associated with improved re- scores were low, there was not a significant relationship be-
lationship adjustment. However, the interaction between residual- tween expectancy disconfirmation and depressed mood. This
ized expectation scores and efficacy scores did not make a signif- finding is at odds with the hypothesis, which predicted a stron-
icant contribution to the regression equation, meaning that there ger relationship between postnatal mood and disconfirmed ex-
was not a significant moderator effect. pectations when efficacy was low.

0.8
Predicted Depression Scores

0.6

0.4
(Standardized)

0.2
Low Efficacy
0
High Efficacy
-0.2

-0.4

-0.6

-0.8

-1
-1 1

Residualized Expectation Scores

(Standard Deviation Units)

Figure 2. The simple slope of residualized expectation scores predicting postnatal mood at varying levels of
parenting efficacy. High residualized expectation scores indicate that experience scores were high relative to
expectation scores. Low residualized expectation scores indicate that experience scores were low relative to
expectation scores.
 8 HARWOOD, MCLEAN, AND DURKIN
Discussion
Differences Between Prenatal and Postnatal Measures
The hypothesis that expectations would be more positive than
experiences was not supported by the results: On average, women
reported positive expectations and positive experiences. They ex-
pected to experience positive aspects of parenthood and to avoid
negative aspects. In two expectation categories, women’s reported
experiences exceeded their already optimistic expectations. The
first of these categories was infant expectations, which assessed
women’s expectations about their relationship with their infant and
the nature of parenting an infant. Previous research has not exam-
ined expectations about the infant in detail, instead choosing to
focus on the marital relationship. The second category in which
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This document is copyrighted by the American Psychological Association or one of its allied publishers.
women’s experiences exceeded their expectations was self-
expectations, tapping the extent to which parenthood would influ-
ence their own well-being. This is another area that has been given
limited attention in previous research (e.g., Belsky, 1985; Hackel
& Ruble, 1992; Ruble et al., 1988). In the present study, it appears
that women were pleasantly surprised by how much they enjoyed
caring for their infant and by the positive effect parenthood had on
their own well-being.
In the present study, women gave their postpartum reports of
their parenting experiences approximately 4 months after the birth.
This time frame may have allowed the mothers to recover from the
birth, become familiar with caretaking tasks, form a bond with
their infant, and adjust to their new routines, all of which poten-
tially contributed to their positive reports. In future research,
investigators may want to ask women about their postnatal expe-
riences at differing intervals after the birth. The earliest that
previous research has assessed women’s postnatal experiences in
comparison to prenatal expectations has been 3 months after the
birth (Belsky, 1985). The disparity between expectations and ex-
periences may be particularly large in the early postnatal weeks
when women are still familiarizing themselves with their infant
and their new role. Indeed, in the course of this research, some new
mothers anecdotally reported that, although they were enjoying
parenthood 4 months after the birth, they had found it far more
difficult in the very early stages.
New mothers’ postnatal reports of how parenthood influenced
their relationship with their partner and their family and friends
matched their expectations, indicating that they were fairly realis-
tic about how parenthood would influence their relationships with
others. These findings differ from previous work, which has found
that women had overly optimistic expectations about the way
parenthood would influence their marital relationship and their
relationships with others (Belsky, 1985; Hackel & Ruble, 1992;
Kalmuss et al., 1992; Ruble et al., 1988). The earlier work was
conducted in the United States of America, whereas the present
study was conducted in Australia. One possible explanation may
be that cultural differences contribute to the inconsistencies be-
tween the findings of this study and those of previous work. An
alternative or additional consideration is that the research reported
here was conducted some 15–20 years after the earlier investiga-
tions. During this time, there have been changes in women’s
childbearing behavior in many industrialized nations (Caldwell,
Caldwell, & McDonald, 2002). There may have been a corre-
sponding change in women’s and, perhaps, men’s expectations of
parenthood. It is important to note that our results do indicate that
some earlier findings are not universally generalizable, and future
researchers could usefully document patterns of relationships
among these variables in other contexts.
The results from the prenatal and postnatal measures of adjust-
ment indicate that the women generally coped well with the
transition to parenthood. The prenatal and postnatal averages on
the mood measure were within the range that is indicative of an
absence of depression, and these scores improved across the tran-
sition to parenthood—the postnatal mean was significantly lower
than the prenatal mean. The prenatal and postnatal relationship
adjustment means were indicative of good relationship adjustment.
However, consistent with previous research (Belsky et al., 1985,
1983; Shapiro, Gottman, & Carrère 2000; Wallace & Gotlib,
1990), there was a small yet significant decline in the relationship
adjustment scores across the transition to parenthood. This pattern
was not universal, and there was more variation in the postnatal
relationship adjustment scores than in the prenatal relationship
adjustment scores. The extent to which expectancy discrepancies
contribute to postnatal relationship adjustment is discussed in
subsequent sections of the present article. Other factors that con-
tribute to postnatal relationship adjustment are the way that cou-
ples divide household labor and the way parenthood changes the
nature of the time that couples spend together (Levy-Shiff, 1994;
Monk et al., 1996; Shapiro et al., 2000; Terry, McHugh, & Noller,
1991).
The Relationship Between Prenatal Adjustment and
Parenting Expectations
The second hypothesis of this study was that optimistic parent-
ing expectations would be associated with positive prenatal psy-
chological adjustment. Two measures of prenatal psychological
adjustment were significantly associated with prenatal expecta-
tions: parenting efficacy beliefs and prenatal relationship adjust-
ment. Women who were happy in their relationships and confident
in their ability to care for an infant had optimistic expectations of
parenthood. Bandura (1997) has argued that people’s expectations
about their own capabilities predict how optimistic they are about
outcomes relevant to these expectations. Consistent with this view,
women who believed they were capable of parenting were opti-
mistic about the nature of parenthood.
The results also reflect that, in situations in which an individu-
al’s behavior is not the only determinant of outcomes, self-efficacy
is not the sole predictor of outcome expectations. The association
between expectations and relationship adjustment suggests that in
the prenatal phase, women’s perception of their relationship with
their partner was an important factor in influencing the level of
optimism they had about their parenting role. Social support was
not a significant predictor of prenatal expectations. It is possible
that for the women in this study, all of whom had partners, the
support of others was relatively unimportant compared with the
support of their partner. Within a sample of single, pregnant
women, the support of others may take on greater importance
when they are formulating their expectations of parenthood.
The most surprising finding was the lack of a significant rela-
tionship between scores on the depression measure and parenting
expectations. This is at odds with both this study’s predictions and
previous findings (DeVellis & Blalock, 1992; Hull & Mendolia,
1991; Peterson & Vaidya, 2001; Riskind et al., 1987; Tripp et al.,
 FIRST-TIME MOTHERS’ EXPECTATIONS OF PARENTHOOD
1997). It is also incongruent with theories of depression that posit
a link between mood and expectations (e.g., Beck, 1976). The low
levels of prenatal depression may provide a partial explanation for
this finding. It is likely that few, if any, of the women in this study
were depressed during the prenatal test phase. Most participants’
scores were in the normal range on the EPDS (Cox et al., 1987),
with only a few scores in the range associated with a greater
incidence of depression. Nonetheless, this surprising result war-
rants further investigation. Given the large amount of evidence
pointing to a relationship between expectations and depression, it
is probable that recruiting a sample that included both depressed
and nondepressed women would find a relationship between pre-
natal mood and prenatal expectations.
Taken together, the results indicate that women’s perceptions of
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their current life circumstances and their parenting ability operate
as a guide for their expectations. If they believe their relationship
is strong and they are capable of carrying out the tasks of parent-
hood, then they expect a relatively smooth transition to parent-
hood. There are similarities between these results and those of
previous work, which have found an association between optimis-
tic expectations and positive adjustment (Fournier et al., 2002;
Leedham et al., 1995; Murray & Holmes, 1997).
The Effect of Disconfirmed Expectations and Parenting
Efficacy Beliefs on Adjustment
The third hypothesis was that there would be a significant
association between expectancy disconfirmation and postnatal ad-
justment, whereby expectations that were disconfirmed in a neg-
ative direction would be associated with poorer adjustment to
parenthood. This part of the hypothesis was supported. However,
it was also predicted that parenting efficacy beliefs would moder-
ate this relationship and, consequently, that the relationship would
be stronger when parenting efficacy beliefs were low. There was
mixed support for this part of the hypothesis.
Consistent with the hypothesis, experiences that were negative
relative to expectations were associated with a decline in relation-
ship adjustment and with a decline in depressed mood. These
associations were significant after controlling for the contribution
of prenatal relationship adjustment and prenatal mood, respec-
tively. The expectancy discrepancy results suggest that women
who have less favorable than expected experiences have greater
difficulty adjusting to their new role. At the other end of the
continuum, experiences that were positive relative to expectations
were associated with reduced depression and enhanced relation-
ship adjustment. These results suggest that the effect of having
overly optimistic expectations disconfirmed in a negative direction
is not innocuous and reflect the negative impact of unrealistic
optimism in the face of challenging circumstances. However, these
findings also indicate that optimism that is matched or exceeded by
expectations is associated with positive psychological adjustment.
These results, along with those in the previous section, indicate
that although optimistic expectations may be associated with pos-
itive psychological adjustment, they can prove detrimental if ex-
periences are not as positive as expected.
It was hypothesized that parenting efficacy beliefs would mod-
erate the impact of disconfirmed expectations. Parenting efficacy
was construed as a moderator in this study because it was hypoth-
esized that women’s postnatal perceptions of their efficacy as a
9
parent would influence their ability to cope with the challenge of
experiences that were more difficult than anticipated. Previous
research has demonstrated that individuals with high perceived
efficacy cope with challenges more effectively than individuals
with low perceived efficacy (Cozzarelli, 1993; Fournier et al.,
2002; Jerusalem & Mittag, 1995; Maciejewski et al., 2000; Major
et al., 1990).
In the regression analyzing the relationship between discon-
firmed expectations and relationship adjustment, there was a sig-
nificant association between parenting efficacy and postnatal re-
lationship adjustment, but parenting efficacy did not moderate the
effects of expectancy discrepancies. Parenting efficacy predicted
postnatal relationship adjustment after the effects of prenatal rela-
tionship adjustment scores and expectancy discrepancies were
statistically controlled. However, the pattern of results was sur-
prising in that women who believed they were highly efficacious
parents had less positive relationship adjustment, whereas lower
efficacy scores were associated with more positive relationship
adjustment.
For the relationship between disconfirmed expectations and
postnatal mood, efficacy moderated the effect of disconfirmed
expectations. For women with a lower sense of efficacy, there was
a nonsignificant relationship between mood and disconfirmed ex-
pectations. For women with a higher sense of parenting efficacy,
there was a significant relationship between mood and discon-
firmed expectations such that those whose experiences were neg-
ative relative to expectations had higher scores on the depression
measure.
This pattern of findings between efficacy and adjustment to
parenthood was contradictory to predictions, and a possible expla-
nation for it is the high efficacy mean observed in this sample.
There were relatively few women in the sample with low parenting
efficacy beliefs. The distribution of postnatal scores on the efficacy
measure indicates that most women had moderate to very high
efficacy beliefs 4 months after the births of their infants. The mean
efficacy score reflects agreement with all the statements on the
efficacy measure, including feeling that being a parent is manage-
able, feeling that any problems are easily solved, feeling thor-
oughly familiar with the role, and having all the skills necessary to
be a good mother. A low efficacy score, one standard deviation
below the mean, also reflected agreement with most items on the
scale, albeit weaker agreement than was seen for the mean score.
Given that the efficacy scores are skewed toward the high end of
the scale, the results seem to speak to the nature of the relationship
between disconfirmed expectations and adjustment for women
with moderate efficacy versus women with high efficacy, rather
than reflecting the intended comparison of women with high and
low levels of parenting efficacy.
It may have been particularly discouraging for highly effica-
cious women to find that parenthood was not as positive as
expected. Although the women thought they were doing as well as
they thought was possible in the parenting role, some aspects of
parenthood had been less positive than they had anticipated. This
incongruity may have resulted in increased negative affect. For
those with a moderate sense of efficacy, it may have been easier to
accommodate these expectancy discrepancies. Their perceptions of
their own efficacy indicated that they did not feel that they were
struggling with the parenting role, but they did not see their
efficacy as at its ceiling. One possibility, albeit speculative, is that
 10 HARWOOD, MCLEAN, AND DURKIN
moderately efficacious mothers believed that although parenthood
was not as positive as expected, it would improve as their efficacy
increased. Therefore, expectancy disconfirmation may not have
been as distressing for these women.
Overall, the results relating to parenting efficacy during the
transition to parenthood were surprising. Further investigation is
needed, but the findings do provide some support for the view that
extreme efficacy may lead individuals to overestimate the ade-
quacy of their skills when coping with challenging circumstances
(Haaga & Stewart, 1992). If the early experience of parenting
proves more challenging than expected, then this may be particu-
larly unsettling for those women who entered parenthood with
what may have been unrealistically high expectations of their own
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parenting capability.
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Implications
Taylor and Brown (1988, 1994) have argued that unrealistically
optimistic expectations are associated with positive psychological
adjustment in the face of challenging circumstances. The results of
the present study suggest that realistic rather than unrealistic
expectations are adaptive in the context of the transition to par-
enthood. Previous studies have found benefits for optimistic ex-
pectations but have not compared these expectations with later
experiences, meaning that it was not possible to determine whether
there were any adverse effects if these expectations were proven
overly optimistic (Fournier et al., 2002; Green & Kafetsios, 1997;
Leedham et al., 1995). This study made a direct comparison
between expectations and reported experiences. Here, optimistic
expectations were associated with positive psychological adjust-
ment during pregnancy. When these expectations were exceeded
by more positive experiences, they were also associated with
positive postnatal adjustment. However, cases in which expecta-
tions were proven overly optimistic appeared to be associated with
poorer psychological adjustment. It should be noted that these
adverse effects were not produced by large discrepancies. Gener-
ally, those that had expectations disconfirmed had experiences that
were only marginally less positive than expected. This contrasts
with the view that modest discrepancies between overly optimistic
expectations and experiences are relatively harmless (Armor &
Taylor, 1998).
At a practical level, these results provide good news about the
transition to parenthood. The results indicate that many first-time
mothers are optimistic about parenthood, and, on average, these
expectations are matched or exceeded by experiences 4 months
after the birth. Furthermore, optimism during pregnancy appears to
be associated with good psychological adjustment at a time when
women face a number of challenges. One implication of these
findings is that optimism appears to be beneficial during the
transition to parenthood. The caveat is that the optimism should be
realistic. These findings highlight the importance of understanding
the factors that contribute to the disconfirmation of expectations.
This study did not use more objective measures of parenting
experiences, such as a measure of infant temperament, to supple-
ment women’s subjective reports. Inclusion of a measure like this
may have provided greater understanding of why some women’s
experiences were less positive than their expectations. Future work
could usefully build on the present findings by identifying factors
that contribute to the disconfirmation of overly optimistic expec-
tations.
These results have implications for education and counseling
interventions provided to people who are expecting their first
child. Whereas naturally there is a strong focus on preparing
parents for childbirth during pregnancy, it may be beneficial to
provide more education about the rewards and challenges of early
parenthood (Delmore-Ko et al., 2000). The message that counsel-
ors can convey to expectant parents is a positive one—that for
most new mothers, their experiences of parenthood are more
positive than their already optimistic expectations. Greater prenatal
parenting education may allow individuals to be more aware of the
potential rewards and challenges of parenthood and formulate
expectations that are both optimistic and realistic for their situa-
tion.
The small sample size and homogeneity of the sample may limit
the generalizability of the results. All of the participants were
married or in de facto relationships and Caucasian Australian or of
European origin, and caution is needed when generalizing these
results to other samples. Furthermore, only a small minority of
women in this study faced significant difficulties during the tran-
sition to parenthood. Relatively few women had scores on the
mood measure that were indicative of depression, and although
there were declines in relationship adjustment scores, most people
still scored within a range characteristic of good adjustment. Yet,
even with these protective factors, expectancy disconfirmation had
a significant effect on adjustment. The participants in the present
research were self-selected, and this may have contributed to the
overall positive adjustment of the sample. Those who were facing
difficulties or were experiencing particularly difficult pregnancies
may have been disinclined to volunteer for this research during an
already testing and busy time. It is possible that unrealistic opti-
mism may have even more detrimental effects in women who face
greater challenges during the transition to parenthood such as
single mothers, those who have a child requiring ongoing medical
attention, adolescent mothers, or those with a low income or a
history of depression (Helstrom & Blechman, 1998). Although this
study focused on the expectations of first-time mothers, other
research has found that men also experience depression and other
difficulties adjusting to parenthood (Matthey et al., 2000). Future
research could usefully investigate whether disconfirmed expecta-
tions also play a role in their adjustment to parenthood.
In conclusion, we examined in the present study a wider range
of parenting expectations than did previous research. The findings
suggest that women have optimistic expectations about parent-
hood, and often these expectations are matched by experiences.
However, when experiences are not as positive as expected, there
is a negative effect on adjustment. This suggests that optimism is
associated with positive adjustment during pregnancy, but if later
experiences indicate that this early optimism is unrealistic, then it
is hazardous for psychological adjustment. If prospective parents
hold expectations about the transition to parenthood for which the
contrast between expectations and experiences is going to be
reasonably apparent to the individual, then it is more advantageous
to be realistically optimistic than unrealistically optimistic.
 FIRST-TIME MOTHERS’ EXPECTATIONS OF PARENTHOOD
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Received July 9, 2004
Revision received March 26, 2006
Accepted April 20, 2006 䡲