ENHANCING SCHOOL SAFETY

USING A THREAT ASSESSMENT MODEL

An Operational Guide for

Preventing Targeted School Violence

National Threat Assessment Center

July 2018
UNITED STATES SECRET SERVICE

This guide was prepared by the staff of the

U.S. Secret Service National Threat Assessment Center (NTAC)

Lina Alathari, Ph.D. Diana Drysdale, M.A.

Chief Lead Social Science Research Specialist

Ashley Blair, M.A. Jeffrey McGarry, M.A.

Social Science Research Specialist Social Science Research Specialist

Catherine Camilletti, Ph.D. Amanda Snook, Ph.D.

Social Science Research Specialist Social Science Research Specialist

Steven Driscoll, M.Ed.

Social Science Research Specialist

National Threat Assessment Center

U.S. Secret Service
U.S. Department of Homeland Security

July 2018

This publication is in the public domain. Authorization to copy and distribute this
publication in whole or in part is granted. However, the U.S. Secret Service star insignia
may not be used in any other manner without advance written permission from the
agency. While permission to reprint this publication is not necessary, when quoting,
paraphrasing, or otherwise referring to this report, the citation should be: National Threat
Assessment Center. (2018). Enhancing school safety using a threat assessment model:
An operational guide for preventing targeted school violence. U.S. Secret Service,
Department of Homeland Security.

Enhancing School Safety Using a Threat Assessment Model An Operational Guide for Preventing Targeted School Violence
CONTENTS

MESSAGE FROM THE DIRECTOR . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . IV

INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

CREATING A COMPREHENSIVE TARGETED VIOLENCE PREVENTION PLAN . . 2

Step 1. Establish a multidisciplinary threat assessment team. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Step 2. Define concerning and prohibited behaviors. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
Step 3. Create a central reporting mechanism. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
Step 4. Determine the threshold for law enforcement intervention. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
Step 5. Establish assessment procedures. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
Investigative Themes:
Motives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
Communications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
Inappropriate interests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
Weapons access . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
Stressors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
Emotional and developmental issues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
Desperation or despair . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
Violence as an option . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
Concerned others . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
Capacity to carry out an attack . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
Planning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
Consistency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
Protective factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
Step 6. Develop risk management options. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
Step 7. Create and promote safe school climates. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
Step 8. Conduct training for all stakeholders. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21

CONCLUSION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23

ADDITIONAL RESOURCES FOR SCHOOLS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24

Threat assessment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
School safety and violence prevention . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
Emergency management and response to school violence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
Creating safe and positive school climates. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
Prevention and intervention of bullying . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
Mental health. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
UNITED STATES SECRET SERVICE
MESSAGE FROM THE DIRECTOR
Since the creation of the U.S. Secret Service in 1865, the
agency has evolved to meet changing mission demands
and growing threats in our nation. To ensure we remain
on the forefront, the U.S. Secret Service’s National Threat
Assessment Center (NTAC) was created in 1998 to provide
guidance and training on threat assessment both within
the U.S. Secret Service and to others with criminal justice
and public safety responsibilities. Today, the highly skilled
men and women of the U. S. Secret Service lead the field
of threat assessment by conducting research on acts of
targeted violence and providing training using the agency’s
established threat assessment model for prevention.
Our agency is dedicated to expanding research and
understanding of targeted violence, including those that
impact our nation’s schools. Since the creation of the U.S.
Secret Service’s NTAC, we have provided 450 in-depth
trainings on the prevention of targeted school violence to
over 93,000 attendees including school administrators,
teachers, counselors, mental health professionals, school
resource officers, and other public safety partners. Our
agency, through our local U.S. Secret Service field offices,
continues to coordinate and provide this training to our
community partners.
The tragic events of the February 14, 2018 shooting at
Marjory Stoneman Douglas High School in Parkland, Florida,
and the May 18, 2018 shooting at Santa Fe High School in
Santa Fe, Texas, demonstrated the ongoing need to provide
leadership in preventing future school attacks. As such,
the U.S. Secret Service, along with many of our partners,
Enhancing School Safety Using a Threat Assessment Model An Operational Guide for Preventing Targeted School Violence
have redoubled our efforts and are poised to continue
enhancing school safety. Keeping our school children safe
requires the shared commitment from states, school boards,
and communities with the ability to dedicate resources
to this critical issue. In the wake of these tragedies, the
U.S. Secret Service has launched an initiative to provide
updated research and guidance to school personnel,
law enforcement, and other public safety partners on the
prevention of school-based violence. I am pleased to
release this operational guide, Enhancing School Safety
Using a Threat Assessment Model, as the first phase of this
initiative.
As we have seen in recent months, the pain of each act
of targeted violence in our nation’s schools has had a
powerful impact on all. With the creation and distribution of
this operational guide, the U.S. Secret Service sets a path
forward for sustainable practices to keep our children safe,
extending our expertise in the field of threat assessments
to provide school officials, law enforcement personnel, and
other public safety professionals with guidance on “how
to” create a Targeted Violence Prevention Plan. This guide
will serve as an important contribution to our partners on
the Federal Commission on School Safety - the Department
of Homeland Security, the Department of Education, the
Department of Health and Human Services and the Office
of the Attorney General. I am proud of the continued efforts
of the U.S. Secret Service, and we remain committed to the
prevention of targeted violence within our nation’s schools
and communities.
Randolph D. Alles
Director
iv

INTRODUCTION
When incidents of school violence occur, they leave a
profound and lasting impact on the school, the community,
and our nation as a whole. Ensuring safe environments
for elementary and secondary school students, educators,
administrators, and others is essential. This operational
guide was developed to provide fundamental direction on
how to prevent incidents of targeted school violence, that is,
when a student specifically selects a school or a member of
the school community for harm. The content in this guide is
based on information developed by the U.S. Secret Service,
Protective Intelligence and Assessment Division, National
Threat Assessment Center (NTAC).
Over the last 20 years, NTAC has conducted research,
training, and consultation on threat assessment and the
prevention of various forms of targeted violence. Following
the tragedy at Columbine High School in April 1999, the
Secret Service partnered with the Department of Education
on a study that examined 37 incidents of targeted violence
that occurred at elementary and secondary schools (i.e.,
K-12). The goal of that study, the Safe School Initiative
(SSI), was to gather and analyze accurate and useful
information about the thinking and behavior of students who
commit these types of acts. The findings of the SSI, and an
accompanying guide, served as the impetus for establishing
threat assessment programs in schools. In 2008, the
agencies collaborated again and released a report that
further explored one of the key SSI findings, namely, that
prior to most attacks, though other students had information
about the attackers’ plans, most did not report their
concerns to an adult. The findings of this report, known as
the Bystander Study, highlighted the importance of creating
safe school climates to increase the likelihood that students
will speak up in order to prevent an attack.1
1
All publications related to studies conducted by the U.S. Secret Service, National Threat Assessment Center (NTAC) are available from
https://www.secretservice.gov/protection/ntac/.
1
“ There is no
profile of
a student
attacker. ”
The information gleaned from these studies underscores
the importance of establishing a threat assessment
process in schools to enhance proactive targeted violence
prevention efforts. The goal of a threat assessment
is to identify students of concern, assess their risk for
engaging in violence or other harmful activities, and
identify intervention strategies to manage that risk. This
guide provides actionable steps that schools can take to
develop a comprehensive targeted violence prevention
plan and create processes and procedures for conducting
threat assessments on their campus. These steps serve
as minimum guidelines and may need to be adapted
for a particular school or district’s unique resources and
challenges. For institutions that already have prevention
plans or threat assessment capabilities in place, these
guidelines may provide additional information to update
existing protocols, or to formalize the structures of reporting,
gathering information, and managing risk.
When establishing threat assessment capabilities within
K-12 schools, keep in mind that there is no profile of
a student attacker. There have been male and female
attackers, high-achieving students with good grades as well
as poor performers. These acts of violence were committed
by students who were loners and socially isolated, and
those who were well-liked and popular. Rather than
focusing solely on a student’s personality traits or school
performance, we can learn much more about a student’s
risk for violence by working through the threat assessment
process, which is designed to gather the most relevant
information about the student’s communications and
behaviors, the negative or stressful events the student has
experienced, and the resources the student possesses to
overcome those setbacks and challenges.
UNITED STATES SECRET SERVICE

CREATING A COMPREHENSIVE TARGETED

VIOLENCE PREVENTION PLAN

Ensuring the safety of our schools involves multiple

components, including physical security, emergency
management, and violence prevention efforts in the form
of a threat assessment process. This process begins with
establishing a comprehensive targeted violence prevention
plan. The plan includes forming a multidisciplinary
threat assessment team, establishing central reporting
mechanisms, identifying behaviors of concern, defining the
threshold for law enforcement intervention, identifying risk
management strategies, promoting safe school climates,
and providing training to stakeholders. It can also help
schools mitigate threats from a variety of individuals,
including students, employees, or parents.

This guide provides basic instructions for schools on

creating a targeted violence prevention plan, the focus
of which is to decrease the risk of students engaging
in harm to themselves or the school community. These
recommendations serve as the starting point on a path
to implementation that will need to be customized to the
specific needs of your school, your student body, and your
community. When creating these plans, schools should
consult with legal representatives to ensure that they comply
with any applicable state and federal laws or regulations.

Enhancing School Safety Using a Threat Assessment Model An Operational Guide for Preventing Targeted School Violence 2
 “ ...meet on
Step 1. a regular
Establish a multidisciplinary threat assessment team basis... ”

The first step in developing a comprehensive targeted violence prevention plan is to

establish a multidisciplinary threat assessment team (hereafter referred to as the “Team”)
of individuals who will direct, manage, and document the threat assessment process.
The Team will receive reports about concerning students and situations, gather additional
information, assess the risk posed to the school community, and develop intervention and
management strategies to mitigate any risk of harm. Some considerations for establishing
a Team include:

• Some schools may pool their resources and have a single Team that serves
an entire district or county, while other districts may choose to have a While the information in this
separate Team for each school. guide refers to this group
as a Threat Assessment
• Teams should include personnel from a variety of disciplines within the Team, schools can choose
school community, including teachers, guidance counselors, coaches, an alternative name. For
school resource officers, mental health professionals, and school example, some schools
administrators. The multidisciplinary nature of the Team ensures that have opted to use the
varying points of view will be represented and that access to information label “Assessment and
and resources will be broad. Care Team” to encourage
involvement from those who
• The Team needs to have a specifically designated leader. This position is might be concerned about
usually occupied by a senior administrator within the school. a student, and to focus on
getting a student access
• Teams should establish protocols and procedures that are followed for to needed resources and
each assessment, including who will interview the student of concern; who supports. Other schools
will talk to classmates, teachers, or parents; and who will be responsible for have chosen to refer to
documenting the Team’s efforts. Established protocols allow for a smoother this group as a “Behavioral
assessment process as Team members will be aware of their own roles and Intervention Team” to
responsibilities, as well as those of their colleagues. focus on a spectrum of
concerning behaviors
• Team members should meet whenever a concerning student or situation that a student may be
has been brought to their attention, but they should also meet on a regular exhibiting. Finally, some
basis to engage in discussions, role-playing scenarios, and other team- schools have continued
building and learning activities. This will provide members of the Team with to refer to their groups as
opportunities to work together and learn their individual responsibilities so “Threat Assessment Teams”
that when a crisis does arise, the Team will be able to operate more easily to highlight the heightened
as a cohesive unit. sense of concern about a
student who is identified.

3
UNITED STATES SECRET SERVICE
Step 2.
Define prohibited and concerning behaviors
Schools need to establish policies defining prohibited
behaviors that are unacceptable and therefore warrant
immediate intervention. These include threatening or
engaging in violence, bringing a weapon to school, bullying
or harassing others, and other concerning or criminal
behaviors. Keep in mind that concerning behaviors occur
along a continuum. School policies should also identify
behaviors that may not necessarily be indicative of violence,
but also warrant some type of intervention. These include
a marked decline in performance; increased absenteeism;
withdrawal or isolation; sudden or dramatic changes in
behavior or appearance; drug or alcohol use; and erratic,
depressive, and other emotional or mental health symptoms.
Enhancing School Safety Using a Threat Assessment Model An Operational Guide for Preventing Targeted School Violence
• If these behaviors are observed or reported to the Team,
schools can offer resources and supports in the form of
mentoring and counseling, mental health care, tutoring, or
social and family services.
• The threshold for intervention should be relatively low
so that Teams can identify students in distress before their
behavior escalates to the point that classmates, teachers,
or parents are concerned about their safety or the safety
of others. It is much easier to intervene when the concern
is related to a student’s struggle to overcome personal
setbacks, such as a romantic breakup, than when there
are concerns about threats posed to others.
• During the assessment process, Teams may identify
other concerning statements and actions made by
the student that may not already be addressed in their
policies. Gathering information about these behaviors
will help the Team assess whether the student is at risk for
attacking the school or its students and identify strategies
to mitigate that risk.
4
CREATING A COMPREHENSIVE TARGETED VIOLENCE PREVENTION PLAN

“ ...reports will
Step 3. be acted
Create a central reporting mechanism upon...”

Students may elicit concern from those around them in a

variety of ways. They may make threatening or concerning Many reporting
statements in person, online, or in text messages; they may mechanisms employed
engage in observable risky behavior; or they may turn in by K-12 schools resemble
assignments with statements or content that is unusual or nationwide criminal
bizarre. When this occurs, those around the student need a reporting apps. The online
method of reporting their concerns to the Team. and phone reporting
capabilities of these types
• Schools can establish one or more reporting of apps allow individuals
mechanisms, such as an online form posted on the across the country,
school website, a dedicated email address or phone including students,
number, smart phone application platforms, or another parents, and teachers, to
mechanism that is accessible for a particular school report crimes and other
community. concerning behaviors
in their communities
• Students, teachers, staff, school resource officers, and and schools. Some
parents should be provided training and guidance on reporting mechanisms are
recognizing behaviors of concern, their roles and developed specifically for
responsibilities in reporting the behavior, and how to use by students in K-12
report the information. school settings. These
programs allow students,
• Teams need to be sure that a team member proactively parents, and teachers
monitors all incoming reports and can respond to anonymously report
immediately when someone’s safety is concerned. threats, bullying, and other
situations that make them
• Regardless of what method schools choose to receive feel unsafe or fear for the
these reports, there should be an option for passing safety of a peer to trained
information anonymously, as students are more likely to experts who respond
report concerning or threatening information when they appropriately.
can do so without fear of retribution for coming forward.

• The school community should feel confident that team

members will be responsive to their concerns, and that
reports will be acted upon, kept confidential, and
handled appropriately.

5
UNITED STATES SECRET SERVICE

Step 4.
Determine the threshold for law enforcement intervention

The vast majority of incidents or concerns that are likely to be reported can be handled by school personnel using school or
community resources. For example, the most common types of reports submitted to Safe2Tell Colorado during the 2016-
2017 school year were related to suicide, bullying, drugs, cutting (self-harm), and depression.2 Some of these common
reports may not require the involvement of law enforcement. Those that do warrant law enforcement intervention include
threats of violence and planned school attacks, which constituted Safe2Tell’s sixth and seventh most common types of
reports, respectively.

• Reports regarding student behaviors involving weapons,
threats of violence, physical violence, or concerns
about an individual’s safety should immediately be
reported to local law enforcement. This is one reason
why including a school resource officer or local law
enforcement officer on the Team is beneficial.
• If a school resource officer is not available to serve on
the Team, schools should set a clear threshold for times
and situations when law enforcement will be asked to
support or take over an assessment. For example, it
might be necessary to have law enforcement speak with
a student’s parent or guardian, search a student’s person
or possessions, or collect additional information about the
student or situation outside the school community during
the assessment.

2
Data 2 Report 2016-2017. (n.d.). Safe2Tell Colorado. Retrieved on June 20, 2018, from https://safe2tell.org/sites/default/files/u18/End%20of%20
Year%202016-2017%20Data2Report.pdf

Enhancing School Safety Using a Threat Assessment Model An Operational Guide for Preventing Targeted School Violence 6
CREATING A COMPREHENSIVE TARGETED VIOLENCE PREVENTION PLAN

Step 5.
Establish assessment procedures

Teams need to establish clearly defined processes and procedures to guide their assessments. Note that any safety
concerns should be immediately addressed before the procedures described below take place. When followed, the
procedures should allow the Team to form an accurate picture of the student’s thinking, behavior, and circumstances to
inform the Team’s assessment and identify appropriate interventions.

• Maintain documentation to keep track of when reports
come in; the information that is gathered; when, where,
and how it was obtained; who was interviewed; the
behaviors and circumstances of the student of concern;
and the intervention strategies taken. Documentation
requirements, such as forms and templates, should be
included in the plan to ensure standardization across
cases.
• Use a community systems approach. An effective
approach for gathering information to assess a
student of concern is to identify the sources that
may have information on the student’s actions and
circumstances. This involves identifying the persons
with whom the student has a relationship or frequently
interacts and the organizations or platforms that may
be familiar with the student’s behaviors. Students exist
in more than one system and they come in contact with
people beyond their classmates and teachers at school.
Gathering information from multiple sources ensures that
Teams are identifying concerning behaviors, accurately
assessing the student’s risks and needs, and providing
the appropriate interventions, supports, and resources.
• Examine online social media pages, conduct
interviews, review class assignments, and consider
searching the student’s locker or desk. Team
members should also review academic, disciplinary,
law enforcement, and other formal records that may be
related to the student. When reviewing school records,
be sure to determine whether the student has been the
subject of previous reports to school officials, especially if
the student has a history of engaging in other concerning
or threatening behaviors. Also determine if the student
received any intervention or supports and whether
those were beneficial or successful. The Team may
be able to draw on information from previous incidents
and interventions to address the current situation for the
student. This factor further emphasizes the importance
of the Team’s documentation to ensure the accuracy and
availability of information regarding prior contacts the
student of concern may have had with the Team.

Family Law Enforcement

Social Judicial

Neighbors Teachers
Student
Online Classmates
Hobbies Employment

7
UNITED STATES SECRET SERVICE

Step 5 continued.
Key Themes to Guide
Establish assessment procedures Threat Assessment Investigations

• Build rapport that can facilitate information-gathering
efforts. By demonstrating that their goal is to support
individuals who may be struggling, while ensuring that the
student and the school are safe, Teams may be better able
to build a positive relationship with a student of concern
and the student’s parents or guardians. When Teams have
established this rapport, parents or guardians may be more
likely to share their own concerns, and the student may be
more forthcoming about frustrations, needs, goals, or plans.
• Evaluate the student’s concerning behaviors and
communications in the context of his/her age and social
and emotional development. Some students’ behaviors
might seem unusual or maladaptive, but may be normal
for adolescent behavior or in the context of a mental or
developmental disorder. To ensure that these students are
being accurately assessed, collect information from diverse
sources, including the reporting party, the student of concern,
classmates, teammates, teachers, and friends. Consider
whether those outside of their immediate circle, such as
neighbors or community groups, may be in a position to share
information regarding observed behaviors.
U.S. Secret Service research identified the following
themes to explore when conducting a threat
assessment investigation:
• The student’s motives and goals
• Concerning, unusual, or threatening
communications
• Inappropriate interest in weapons, school
shooters, mass attacks, or other types of violence
• Access to weapons
• Stressful events, such as setbacks, challenges, or
losses
• Impact of emotional and developmental issues
• Evidence of desperation, hopelessness, or
suicidal thoughts and gestures
• Whether the student views violence as an option
to solve problems
• Whether others are concerned about the
student’s statements or behaviors

• Capacity to carry out an attack

• Evidence of planning for an attack

• Consistency between the student’s statements

and actions

• Protective factors such as positive or prosocial

influences and events

Enhancing School Safety Using a Threat Assessment Model An Operational Guide for Preventing Targeted School Violence 8
CREATING A COMPREHENSIVE TARGETED VIOLENCE PREVENTION PLAN
Investigative themes
Teams should organize their information gathering around Students may have a variety of motives that place them at
several themes or areas pertaining to the student’s
actions, circumstances, and any other relevant
threat assessment factors. Addressing each theme is
necessary for a complete assessment and may uncover
other avenues of inquiry to help determine whether the
student is at risk for engaging in violence. Using the
themes to identify where the student might be struggling
will help the Team identify the most appropriate resources.
Keep in mind, there is no need to wait until the Team
has completed all interviews or addressed every theme
before taking action. As soon as an area for intervention
is identified, suitable management strategies should be
enacted.
9
Motives
risk for engaging in harmful behavior, whether to themselves
or others. If you can discover the student’s motivation for
engaging in the concerning behavior that brought him/her
to the attention of the Team, then you can understand more
about the student’s goals. The Team should also assess how
far the student may be willing to go to achieve these goals,
and what or who may be a potential target. Understanding
motive further allows the Team to develop management
strategies that can direct the student away from violent
choices.
On February 12, 2016, a 15-year-old female student fatally
shot her girlfriend while they were sitting under a covered
patio at their high school and then fatally shot herself. In
several notes found after the incident, the student explained
that she carried out her attack because her girlfriend had
recently confessed that she was contemplating ending their
relationship. She also wrote in her notes that she hated who
she was and that learning her girlfriend wanted to end their
relationship “destabilized” her.
UNITED STATES SECRET SERVICE

Step 5 continued.
Establish assessment procedures, Investigative themes

Communications

Look for concerning, unusual, bizarre, threatening, or
violent communications the student made. The student’s
communications may reveal grievances held about
certain issues or a possible intended target. They
may allude to violent intentions or warn others to stay
away from school at a certain time. They may reveal
information relevant to the other investigative themes by
making reference to feelings of hopelessness or suicide,
a fascination with violence, interest in weapons, or other
inappropriate interests. These statements might be made
in person to classmates, teammates, or friends; in writing
on assignments or tests; and/or via social media, text
messages, or photo or video-sharing sites.
Earlier NTAC research that examined attacks on schools
found that not every student directly threatened their
target prior to attack, but in a majority of incidents
(81%), another person was aware of what the student
was thinking or planning.3 It is important for Teams to
remember that a student who has not made threatening
statements may still be at risk for engaging in violence.
Whether or not the student made a direct threat should not
be the lone indicator of concern.
On October 24, 2014, a 15-year-old male student opened
fire on five of his closest friends as they were having lunch
in the school cafeteria, killing four of them, and then fatally
shot himself. In the months prior to his attack, the student
sent a number of text messages to his ex-girlfriend
indicating he was considering suicide and posted
videos on Snapchat that mentioned suicide. Two people
confronted the student about his concerning statements,
but he told them he was just joking or having a bad
moment. The student also posted a number of Twitter
messages indicating he was having trouble overcoming a
setback, posting in one Tweet, “It breaks me… It actually
does… I know it seems like I’m sweating it off… But I’m
not.. And I never will be able to…”

3
U.S Secret Service and U.S Department of Education. (May 2002). Threat
assessment in schools: A guide to managing threatening situations and to
creating safe school climates. Retrieved April 5, 2018, from https://www.
secretservice.gov/data/protection/ntac/ssi_guide.pdf.

Enhancing School Safety Using a Threat Assessment Model An Operational Guide for Preventing Targeted School Violence 10
CREATING A COMPREHENSIVE TARGETED VIOLENCE PREVENTION PLAN
Inappropriate interests
Gather information about whether the student has shown
an inappropriate or heightened interest in concerning
topics such as school attacks or attackers, mass
attacks, or other types of violence. These interests
might appear in the student’s communications, the books
the student reads, the movies the student watches, or
the activities the student enjoys. The context of the
student’s interests is an important factor to consider.
For example, a student’s interest in weapons may not
be concerning if the student is a hunter or is on the
school’s rifle team, with no evidence of an inappropriate
or unhealthy fixation on weapons. In other situations,
the context surrounding a student’s interest in weapons
could be of concern. For example, if a student is fixated
on past school shooters or discusses what firearm would
be best to use in a mass attack.
On October 21, 2013, a 12-year-old male student
took a handgun to his middle school and opened
fire, injuring two classmates and killing a teacher. He
then fatally shot himself. In the months leading up to
his attack, the student conducted numerous internet
searches for violent material and content, including
“Top 10 evil children,” “Super Columbine Massacre Role
Playing Game,” ”shoot,” “guns,” “bullets,” “revenge,”
“murder,” “school shootings,” and “violent game.” He
also searched for music videos of and songs about
school shootings. On his cell phone, the student had
saved photos of violent war scenes and images of the
Columbine High School shooters. He also enjoyed
playing video games, doing so for several hours each
night. Of his 69 video games, 47 were first-person
shooter or similar games.
11
Weapons access
In addition to determining whether the student has any
inappropriate interests or fascination with weapons, the
Team should assess whether the student has access to
weapons. Because many school attackers used firearms
acquired from their homes, consider whether the family
keeps weapons at home or if there is a relative or friend
who has weapons. Sometimes parents who keep weapons
at home incorrectly assume that their children are unaware
of where they are stored or how to access them. If there
are weapons at home, the Team should determine if they
are stored appropriately and if the student knows how to
use them or has done so in the past. The Team should
also remember that firearms are not the only weapons to
be concerned about. Even though many school attackers
have used firearms in carrying out their attacks, explosives,
incendiary devices, bladed weapons, or combinations of
these weapons have been used in past attacks.
On April 29, 2014, a 17-year-old male student was arrested
after a concerned citizen called police when she observed
the student acting suspiciously around a storage unit
and thought he might be attempting to break into one.
Responding officers discovered bomb-making material
and other weapons inside the unit the student had asked a
friend’s mother to rent for him. The student later confessed
to an extensive plot that involved murdering his parents
and sister, setting a diversionary fire, planting explosive
devices at his high school, targeting students and the
school resource officer for harm, and engaging in gunfire
with responding police officers before committing suicide.
The student admitted that at some point he became
fascinated with chemicals, explosives, and weapons and
began researching how to build his own explosive devices.
He created his own channel on YouTube to post videos that
showed him detonating his devices and included a written
commentary about each video.
UNITED STATES SECRET SERVICE
Step 5 continued.
Establish assessment procedures, Investigative themes
Stressors
All students face stressors such as setbacks, losses,
and other challenges as part of their lives. While many
students are resilient and can overcome these situations,
for some, these stressors may become overwhelming and
ultimately influence their decision to carry out an attack
at school. Gather information on stressors the student is
experiencing, how the student is coping with them, and
whether there are supportive friends or family who can
help the student overcome them. Assess whether the
student experienced stressors in the past that are still
having an effect, such as a move to a new school, and
whether there might be additional setbacks or losses in
the near future, like a relationship that might be ending.
Enhancing School Safety Using a Threat Assessment Model An Operational Guide for Preventing Targeted School Violence
Stressors can occur in all areas of a student’s
life, including at school with coursework, friendships,
romantic relationships, or teammates; or outside of school
with parents, siblings, or at jobs. Many students can
experience bullying, a stressor which can take place
in person at school or online at home. Teams should
intervene and prevent bullying and cyberbullying of a
student who has been brought to their attention. More
broadly, administrators should work to address any
concerns regarding bullying school-wide and ensure their
school has a safe climate for all students.
On November 12, 2008, a 15-year-old female student
fatally shot a classmate while students were changing
classes. The attacker fled to a restaurant across the
street from her high school and phoned 9-1-1 to turn
herself in to police. Prior to her attack, she faced a
number of stressors in her life, mostly outside of school.
As an infant, her college-aged parents abandoned her
and she was raised largely by her grandparents. At the
age of six years, she was sexually molested by a family
member; and at age 12, she was raped by an uncle. She
did have some contact with her birth parents, but her
mother was reportedly abusive and suffered from severe
mental illness; and her father began serving a 25-year
prison sentence for murder around the time she was 14
years old. At her high school, she was lonely, appeared
to struggle to connect with others, and had behavior
problems.
12
CREATING A COMPREHENSIVE TARGETED VIOLENCE PREVENTION PLAN
Emotional and developmental issues
Anxiety, depression, thoughts of suicide, and other mental
health issues are important factors to consider when
conducting an assessment. Keep in mind that students
with emotional issues or developmental disorders might
behave in a way that is maladaptive, but might not
be concerning or threatening because the behavior
is a product of their diagnosis. Behaviors exhibited
by a student with a diagnosed disorder need to be
evaluated in the context of that diagnosis and the
student’s known baseline of behavior. If the student
is experiencing feelings related to a diagnosable mental
illness, such as depression, then the Team needs to
consider the effect of these feelings on their behaviors
when assessing the student’s risk of engaging in harm to
self or others.
On January 18, 1993, a 17-year-old male student fatally
shot his English teacher and a school custodian at
his high school and held classmates hostage before
surrendering to police. The student had recently turned
in a poem to his English teacher for an assignment that
discussed his thoughts of committing homicide or suicide.
The student had failed in at least three prior suicide
attempts, including one the night before his attack.
Although the student entered a plea of guilty but mentally
ill at trial, ultimately he was convicted and sentenced to
life in prison.
13
Desperation or despair
Assess whether the student feels hopeless, desperate,
or out of options. Determine if the student has had
thoughts about or engaged in behaviors that would
indicate the student’s desperation. The Team should
determine whether the student has felt this way before,
how the student managed those feelings then, and
whether those same resources for coping are available
to the student now. Consider whether the student has
tried addressing the problems in a positive way, but was
unable to resolve them, thereby leading to a sense of
hopelessness about their situation.
On February 1, 1997, a 16-year-old male student used
a shotgun to fire on fellow students in the common area
of his high school prior to the start of the school day.
He killed one student and the principal and injured two
additional students. Prior to his attack, the student had
been bullied and teased by several classmates, including
the student killed. At some point prior to his attack, the
student asked the principal and dean of students for help
with the bullying he was experiencing. They intervened,
and though the situation improved temporarily, the teasing
and bullying soon resumed. The student asked the
principal for help a second time, but this time the principal
advised him to just ignore the bullies. The student tried,
but felt like the victimization worsened and he began to
feel hopeless that it would ever end. After his attack, the
student explained that he felt as though he had asked the
“proper people” for assistance, but he was denied help,
so he decided that bringing a gun to school would scare
his tormentors and get them to leave him alone. When
some friends learned of the plan, they told him that he had
to use the weapon to shoot people or the bullying would
continue. The student decided he would have to fire the
weapon at people in order to end his torment.
UNITED STATES SECRET SERVICE
Step 5 continued.
Establish assessment procedures, Investigative themes
Violence as an option
Some students, who are feeling hopeless and out of
options, may think violence is the only way to solve a
problem or settle a grievance. The Team should look
to see whether the student thinks violence is acceptable
or necessary, if the student has used violence in the
past to address problems, and whether the student has
thought of alternative ways to address the grievances.
The Team should also assess whether peers, or others,
support and encourage the student to use violence as a
means to an end. If possible, connect the student with
more positive, prosocial role models who discourage
violence and identify more acceptable ways to solve
problems.
On March 25, 2011, a 15-year-old male student fired two
shots at a classmate, wounding him in the abdomen.
After firing the weapon, the student fled the scene and
dropped the gun in a field. He was arrested about an
hour after the incident. The student had a history of
being involved in numerous physical altercations with
other students throughout his 6th, 7th, and 8th grade
school years. Additionally, he tried to start a fight with
the targeted victim, and once threatened him with
a chain. About three weeks prior to the attack, the
student threatened to blow up the school. Days prior to
the incident, the student, who was angry at the targeted
victim, told a friend that he planned to kill him.
Enhancing School Safety Using a Threat Assessment Model An Operational Guide for Preventing Targeted School Violence
Concerned others
In previous incidents, many students made statements or
engaged in behaviors prior to their attacks that elicited
concern from others in their lives. Assess whether parents,
friends, classmates, teachers, or others who know the
student are worried about the student and whether they
have taken any actions in response to their concerns.
Gather information on the specific behaviors that caused
worry or fear. These could include behaviors that may
have elicited concerns about the safety of the student or
others, such as unusual, bizarre or threatening statements;
intimidating or aggressive acts; indications of planning for
an attack; suicidal ideations or gestures; or a fixation on
a specific target. Other behaviors that elicit concern
may not necessarily be indicative of violence, but do
require that the Team assess the behavior and provide
appropriate supports. Examples of these behaviors include
alcohol or drug use; behavior changes related to academic
performance, social habits, mood, or physical appearance;
conflicts with others; and withdrawal or isolation.
On December 7, 2017, a 21-year-old male shot and
killed two students at his former high school before
fatally shooting himself. Prior to his attack, a number of
individuals had expressed concern regarding his behaviors
and statements. Sometime in 2012, other users of an online
forum were concerned after the student made threats about
attacking his school. In March 2016, federal investigators
met with the student after he made comments in an online
chat room about wanting to find an inexpensive assault
rifle he could use for a mass shooting. At the time, a family
member told the investigators that the student was troubled
and liked to make outlandish statements. At some point
prior to his attack, the student posted content supportive of
the attacks at Columbine High School in an online forum,
upsetting many of the forum’s users.
14
CREATING A COMPREHENSIVE TARGETED VIOLENCE PREVENTION PLAN
Capacity to carry out an attack
Determine whether the student’s thinking and behavior
is organized enough to plan and execute an attack and
whether the student has the resources to carry it out.
Planning does not need to be elaborate and could be
as simple as taking a weapon from home and inflicting
harm on classmates at school. Other student attackers
may develop more complex and lengthier plans. At the
very least, carrying out an attack requires that the student
has access to a weapon and the ability to get that weapon
to school undetected.
On January 14, 2014, a 12-year-old male student used
a shotgun with a sawed-off stock to fire three rounds of
birdshot at fellow students gathered in their middle school
gymnasium prior to the start of the school day. He injured
two students and a security guard before surrendering
to a teacher. The student began talking about his attack
plans as early as November 2013, saying that he wanted
to fire a weapon in the air to make people take him
seriously. According to reports, his father owned a pistol
and a shotgun. In January 2014, the student wrote in
his diary that he wanted to use his father’s pistol for his
attack, but was unable to locate it so he used the shotgun
instead. The morning of the attack, the student was
driven to school by a family member so he hid his shotgun
in a duffel bag, claiming it contained items for his gym
class.
15
Planning
Targeted attacks at school are rarely sudden or
impulsive acts of violence. The Team should assess
whether the student has made specific plans to harm
the school. The student might create lists of individuals
or groups targeted for violence, or research tactics and
materials needed to carry out the attack. The student may
conduct surveillance, draw maps of the planned location,
and test security responses at school. He/she may write
out detailed steps and rehearse some aspects of a plan,
such as getting to the school, the timing of the attack,
or whether to attempt escape, be captured, or commit
suicide. The student may also acquire, manufacture, or
practice with a weapon.
On December 13, 2013, an 18-year-old male student
entered his high school with a shotgun, a large knife,
bandoliers with ammunition, and a number of homemade
Molotov cocktails. He opened fire on two female students,
fatally shooting one. He then entered the school library
and opened fire on a faculty member there, who was able
to escape through a back door. The student then set fire
to a shelf of books in the library with one of his Molotov
cocktails before fatally shooting himself. The student
spent three months planning his attack, starting a diary
on his computer in September 2013 to detail his plans.
There he wrote that he wanted to choose a day during
final exams so that the largest number of students would
be present. Over the next few months, he planned how
and where he would enter the school, including where
he would initiate the attack, and purchased the firearm
and ammunition he would use. On the morning of the
incident, the student purchased a four-pack of glass soda
bottles and used these to create the Molotov cocktails he
deployed during the attack.
UNITED STATES SECRET SERVICE
Step 5 continued.
Establish assessment procedures, Investigative themes
Consistency
The Team should corroborate the student’s statements
to determine that they are consistent with the student’s
actions and behaviors and with what other people say
about the student. When inconsistencies are identified,
the Team should then try to determine why that is the
case. For example, the student might say that he/she is
handling a romantic break-up well, but posts on social
media indicate the student is struggling to move on, and
friends report that the student is more upset or angry
about the break-up than reported. Determine whether
the inconsistency is because the student is deliberately
hiding something or if the inconsistency stems from
another underlying issue. For example, a depressed
student may claim that they are isolated, even if they
regularly go out with a large group of students. If the
inconsistency is deliberate, it is important to determine
why the student feels the need to conceal his/her actions.
The concealment may be as simple as a fear of facing
punishment for some other inappropriate behavior, or it
may be related to hidden plans for a violent act.
On June 10, 2014, a 15-year-old male student brought
a rifle, handgun, nine magazines with ammunition, and
a knife into the boy’s locker room at his high school. He
had taken the weapons from his brother’s locked gun
case in his home. Once at school, he changed into all
black clothing, and donned a helmet, face mask, and a
non-ballistic vest. He then fatally shot one student and
wounded a teacher. After being confronted by staff and
law enforcement, the student fatally shot himself in a
bathroom. Prior to his attack, the student was an ordained
deacon at his church and was appointed president of the
deacon’s quorum. He participated in youth night at the
church, Boy Scouts, youth basketball, and track. Friends
described him as friendly and outgoing. He was also a
member of the Junior Reserve Officers’ Training Corps
Enhancing School Safety Using a Threat Assessment Model An Operational Guide for Preventing Targeted School Violence
(JROTC) and was fascinated with guns and the military.
Despite his outward appearance, some time prior to his
attack, he wrote in a journal about his plans to kill his
classmates and spoke harshly about “sinners,” which
included people who smoked cigarettes and took the
Lord’s name in vain.
Protective factors
A thorough threat assessment requires
understanding the full picture of a
student’s behaviors and environment,
which also includes accounting for the positive and
prosocial influences on the student’s life. The Team
should identify factors that may restore hope to a student
who feels defeated, desperate, or in a situation that is
impossible to overcome. This includes determining
whether the student has a positive, trusting relationship
with an adult at school. This could be a teacher, coach,
guidance counselor, administrator, nurse, resource officer,
or janitor. A trusted adult at school in whom the student
can confide and who will listen without judgment can
help direct a student toward resources, supports, and
options to overcome setbacks. Learn who the student’s
friends are at school and if the student feels emotionally
connected to other students. A student may need help
developing friendships that they can rely on for support.
Positive situational or personal factors might help to
deter a student from engaging in negative or harmful
behaviors. Changes in a student’s life, such as having
a new romantic relationship or becoming a member of
a team or club, might discourage any plan to engage in
violence. The Team could also use activities or groups the
student wants to take part in as motivation for the student
to engage in positive and constructive behaviors, such as
attending class, completing assignments, and adhering to
a conduct or behavior code.
16
CREATING A COMPREHENSIVE TARGETED VIOLENCE PREVENTION PLAN
Step 6.
Develop risk management options
Once the Team has completed a thorough assessment
of the student, it can evaluate whether the student is at
risk for self-harm or harming someone else at school.
Concern may be heightened if the student is struggling
emotionally, having trouble overcoming setbacks or losses,
feeling hopeless, preoccupied with others who engaged
in violence to solve problems, or has access to weapons.
Remember, the Team is not attempting to predict with
certainty if violence will happen. Instead, evaluate the
presence of factors that indicate violence might be a
possibility. Teams can then develop risk management
strategies that reduce the student’s risk for engaging in
violence and make positive outcomes for the student more
likely.
• Each student who comes to the Team’s attention will
require an individualized management plan. The
resources and supports the student needs will differ
depending on the information gathered during the
assessment.
• Often, the Team will determine that the student is not
currently at risk for engaging in violence, but requires
monitoring or is in need of guidance to cope with
losses, develop resiliency to overcome setbacks, or learn
more appropriate strategies to manage emotions.
• Resources to assist the student could take the form
of peer support programs or therapeutic counseling to
enhance social learning or emotional competency, life
skills classes, tutoring in specific academic subjects, or
mental health care. Most programs and supports will be
available within the school, but the Team may need to
also access community resources to assist with
managing the student.
17
• Sometimes management involves suspension or expulsion
from school. When this is necessary, Teams and school
administrators should consider how it might affect their
ability to monitor the student. Removing a student
from school does not eliminate the risk to the school
community. Several school attacks have been carried
out by former students who had been removed from the
school or aged out of their former school. A suspended
or expelled student might become isolated from positive
peer interactions or supportive adult relationships
at school. Teams should develop strategies to stay
connected to the suspended or expelled student to
determine whether the student’s situation is deteriorating
or the behaviors of concern are escalating so that they
can respond appropriately.
Management plans should remain in place until the Team
is no longer concerned about the student or the risk for
violence. This is accomplished by addressing the following
basic elements that can reduce the likelihood a student will
engage in violence and provide support and resources for
those in need.
• Notify law enforcement immediately if a student is
thinking about or planning to engage in violence, so
that they may assist in managing the situation.
• Make efforts to address the safety of any potential
targets by altering or improving security procedures for
schools or individuals and providing guidance on how to
avoid the student of concern.
UNITED STATES SECRET SERVICE
Step 6 continued.
Develop risk management options
• Create a situation that is less prone to violence by
asking the family or law enforcement to block the student’s
access to weapons, while also connecting the student to
positive, prosocial models of behavior. Another option
may involve removing the student from campus for a
period of time, while maintaining a relationship with the
student and the student’s family.
• Remove or redirect the student’s motive. Every
student’s motive will be different, and motives can be
redirected in a variety of ways. These strategies may
include bullying prevention efforts or offering counseling
for a student experiencing a personal setback.
• Reduce the effect of stressors by providing resources
and supports that help the student manage and overcome
negative events, setbacks, and challenges.
Enhancing School Safety Using a Threat Assessment Model An Operational Guide for Preventing Targeted School Violence
In one recent case, a school principal described a situation
when a student was suspended from his high school for
drug possession. Soon after, a fellow student discovered
a concerning video he posted online and notified school
personnel. A school administrator met with the student and
his father. While the administrator had no immediate safety
concerns about the student, he was aware that the student
was experiencing a number of stressors. The student’s
parents were divorced and he was living with his father, who
was diagnosed with a terminal illness and was receiving
frequent medical treatments. His mother was dealing with
a mental illness, was a source of embarrassment to him,
and was unlikely to be able to serve as his guardian after
his father’s passing. He was also recently removed from
the wrestling team, and due to his suspension, banned
from attending the matches. While suspended, the student
was required to attend tutoring sessions in lieu of school,
but was unable to make his sessions because he was
transporting his father to medical appointments. The
administrator reported that he would have alerted their
school resource officer and local sheriff’s office if he had
safety concerns about the student, but instead the school
worked with community services to provide access to
resources and supports, including transportation services
for his father to his medical appointments so the student
could attend tutoring sessions, and counseling and support
services that would assist the student after his father’s
passing. The school also worked with the student and his
father to develop a plan for the student to return to campus
and remain on track to graduate.
18
CREATING A COMPREHENSIVE TARGETED VIOLENCE PREVENTION PLAN
Step 7.
Create and promote safe school climates
A crucial component of preventing targeted violence at
schools relies on developing positive school climates built
on a culture of safety, respect, trust, and social and
emotional support. Teachers and staff in safe school
environments support diversity, encourage communication
between faculty and students, intervene in conflicts, and
work to prevent teasing and bullying. Students in safe
school climates feel empowered to share concerns with
adults, without feeling ashamed or facing the stigma of
being labeled a “snitch.” Administrators can take action to
develop and sustain safe school climates.
• Help students feel connected to the school, their
classmates, and teachers. This is an important first
step to creating school climates that are supportive,
respectful, and safe. Encourage teachers and staff to
build positive, trusting relationships with students by
actively listening to students and taking an interest in what
they say.
19
• Break down “codes of silence” and help students
feel empowered to come forward and share concerns
and problems with a trusted adult. At one school,
administrators used a faculty meeting to identify students
who lacked a solid connection with an adult at school.
They provided faculty with a roster of enrolled students
and asked them to place a mark next to students with
whom they had a warm relationship. For students without
a mark next to their name, popular, well-liked teachers
and staff were asked to reach out and develop positive
connections with them.
• Help students feel more connected to their classmates
and the school. One teacher asked her elementary
students to write down names of classmates they wanted
to sit next to. If a student’s name did not appear on
anyone’s list, the teacher placed that student’s desk next
to a friendly or outgoing classmate in an effort to help the
student develop friendships. This effort could be easily
adapted with middle or high school-aged students by
asking students to identify one or two classmates they
would like to be partnered with for a project and assigning
any student not named on a list to be partnered with a
friendly or outgoing classmate.
• Adults can also help students identify clubs or teams at
school they can join or encourage them to start their own
special interest group.
UNITED STATES SECRET SERVICE

Step 7 continued.
Create and promote safe school climates

Schools can also support positive school climates by

implementing school-wide Positive Behavioral Interventions
and Supports (PBIS) programs. These programs actively
teach students what appropriate behavior looks like in a
variety of settings, including in the classroom, with their
friends, or among adults. Teachers frequently praise
prosocial behavior they observe and encourage students’
good behavior. PBIS can improve academic outcomes for
schools and has been shown to reduce the rates of school
bullying.4

While teachers and staff can foster relationships and

connectedness among the student body, students
themselves have a role to play in sustaining safe school
climates. They should be actively engaged in their schools,
encouraged to reach out to classmates who might be lonely
or isolated, and empowered to intervene safely when they
witness gossiping, teasing, and bullying.

Following an averted attack at a high school, the school

principal sent a note home to students and parents about
the incident. He used the note to explain what had been
reported, the steps the school had taken to avert the attack,
and praise for the students who had alerted school officials
about concerning and threatening statements they saw
online. In the note, he also asked parents to encourage their
students to speak up if they ever felt concerned about a
classmate’s behavior, explaining that students’ “cooperation
[with school officials] is important for everybody’s safety.”

4
Lee, A.M.I. (n.d.). PBIS: How schools can support positive behavior.
Understood.org. Retrieved on April 5, 2018, from https://www.understood.
org/en/learning-attention-issues/treatments-approaches/educational-
strategies/pbis-how-schools-support-positive-behavior.

Enhancing School Safety Using a Threat Assessment Model An Operational Guide for Preventing Targeted School Violence 20
CREATING A COMPREHENSIVE TARGETED VIOLENCE PREVENTION PLAN
Step 8.
Conduct training for all stakeholders
The final component of a comprehensive targeted
violence prevention plan is to identify training needs for all
stakeholders, including faculty, staff, and administrators;
students; parents; and school resource officers or local law
enforcement. School safety is everyone’s responsibility.
Anyone who could come forward with concerning
information or who might be involved in the assessment
process should be provided with training. Effective training
addresses the goals and steps of an assessment, the type
of information that should be brought forward, and how
individuals can report their concerns. It might be beneficial
for staff and students to hear presentations, see videos, and
role-play scenarios so they have a thorough understanding
of their responsibilities and the steps they can take to keep
their school safe. Each audience will require a slightly
different message, but some stakeholders may also
benefit from attending training together, such as parents
and students, or school faculty/staff and law enforcement
personnel. When developing a training program, consider
how frequently each stakeholder will receive training, and
whether to vary the delivery method of trainings. Also, each
audience may have unique needs.
21
“ School safety
is everyone’s
responsibility.”
Faculty, staff, and administrators. Every adult at school
needs training related to threat assessment and violence
prevention, including administrative, maintenance,
custodial, and food service staff. Training can include
who should be notified when concerning or threatening
information is discovered, what information should be
brought forward, how school staff might learn about
information, and the steps school staff can take to safely
intervene with concerning or threatening situations.
Providing training on other topics, such as suicide
awareness and prevention, conflict resolution, mental health,
and developmental disabilities, might also allow school
faculty, staff, and administrators to foster positive school
climates.
Students. Students need training on the threat assessment
process, where to report concerns, and what information
they should bring forward. Students also need assurances
that they can make a report to the Team or another trusted
adult anonymously, that their information will be followed-
up on, and will be kept confidential. Training can also
educate students about other actionable steps they can
take to cultivate a safe school climate, including ways they
can safely intervene with bullying, gossip, or name-calling.
Messaging should demonstrate to students that there is a
big difference between “snitching,” “ratting,” or “tattling,”
and seeking help. While snitching is informing on someone
for personal gain, here, students are encouraged to come
forward when they are worried about a friend who is
struggling, or when they are trying to keep someone from
getting hurt. Remind students that if they are concerned
about a classmate or friend, they need to keep speaking out
until that person gets the help they need. Finally, maintaining
a safe school climate includes providing students with
training or lessons to acquire skills and abilities to manage
emotions, resolve conflicts, cope with stress, seek help, and
engage in positive social interactions.
UNITED STATES SECRET SERVICE
Step 8 continued.
Conduct training for all stakeholders
Parents. Parents should also be trained on the threat
assessment process at their child’s school and their role in
that process. They should be clear on who to call, when,
and what information they should be ready to provide.
Parents can also benefit from training that helps them
recognize when children and teenagers may be in emotional
trouble or feeling socially isolated. Training can also reduce
the stigma around mental, emotional, or developmental
issues and provide information on available resources and
when they should seek professional assistance.
Law enforcement and school resource officers. Not
every school will have a school resource officer, but schools
can still develop relationships with local law enforcement
agencies and personnel. Schools can encourage local
officers to co-teach classes at the school, serve as coaches
or assistant coaches of sports teams, and work with parents
and teachers at after-school events. In some communities
without school resource officers, local law enforcement
Enhancing School Safety Using a Threat Assessment Model An Operational Guide for Preventing Targeted School Violence
agencies have encouraged officers to “adopt a school,”
stopping by the school to greet and become familiar with
students and teachers, eating lunch on campus, or doing
paperwork in an office at the school.
Like parents and teachers, local law enforcement and
school resource officers need to be aware of the school’s
threat assessment process and their own responsibilities
once a threat is identified. Training for law enforcement and
school resource officers should also provide familiarity with
emergency response procedures the school has in place
and the layout of the campus. Officers and school staff
might benefit from attending training together so that all
parties are aware of the point at which local law enforcement
should be involved in an investigation. This would also allow
officers to get to know administrators, teachers, counselors,
facilities and maintenance personnel, and other school staff.
It is much easier to work through an emergency situation
when schools and law enforcement are already familiar with
each other and their procedures.
22

CONCLUSION
Despite having a comprehensive targeted violence
prevention plan in place, and despite a school and Team’s
best efforts at prevention, incidents of targeted school
violence may still occur. It is critical to develop and
implement emergency response plans and procedures
and provide training on them to all stakeholders. The
U.S. Department of Homeland Security recommends
that emergency response plans be developed with input
from local law enforcement and first responders.5 For
example, procedures should be developed for reporting
emergencies, evacuation procedures and routes, use of
emergency notification systems, and information regarding
local hospitals or trauma centers. Law enforcement and
first responders should be apprised of these plans and
procedures and know how to implement them.
5
U.S. Department Homeland Security. (October 2008). Active Shooter: How
to Respond. Homeland Security Active Shooter Preparedness. Retrieved
on May 29, 2018, from https://www.dhs.gov/xlibrary/assets/active_
shooter_booklet.pdf. Interagency Security Committee. (November 2015).
Planning and Response to an Active Shooter: An Interagency Security
Committee Policy and Best Practices Guide. Homeland Security Active
Shooter Preparedness. Retrieved on May 29, 2018, from https://www.
dhs.gov/sites/default/files/publications/isc-planning-response-active-
shooter-guide-non-fouo-nov-2015-508.pdf.
23
“ Everyone
has a
role... ”
Everyone has a role in preventing school violence
and creating safe school climates. The threat
assessment procedures detailed in this guide are
an important component of school safety and
security efforts and have been determined to be
the best-practice in the prevention of targeted school
violence. The model highlights that students can
engage in a continuum of concerning behaviors and
communications, the vast majority of which may not
be threatening or violent. Nevertheless, it encourages
schools to set a low threshold when identifying
students who might be engaging in unusual behavior,
or experiencing distress, so that early interventions
can be applied to reduce the risk of violence or other
negative outcomes.
Threat Assessment
Active Incident Response
UNITED STATES SECRET SERVICE

ADDITIONAL RESOURCES FOR SCHOOLS

This section provides information and links to resources that can help schools create threat assessment teams, establish
central reporting mechanisms, train stakeholders on assessment procedures, and promote safe school climates. It also
provides links to resources related to emergency planning, responses to violence, and mental health. The U.S. Secret
Service provides the listed non-government resources as a public service only. The U.S. government neither endorses
nor guarantees in any way the external organizations, services, advice, or products included in this list. Furthermore, the
U.S. government neither controls nor guarantees the accuracy, relevance, timeliness or completeness of the information
contained in non-government websites.6

Threat assessment
THE NATIONAL THREAT ASSESSMENT CENTER (NTAC). Provides links to best-practices in threat assessment and the
prevention of targeted violence, including resources on conducting threat assessments in K-12 schools, building positive
school climates, and requesting training from NTAC personnel.
https://www.secretservice.gov/protection/ntac/

NATIONAL ASSOCIATION OF SCHOOL PSYCHOLOGISTS (NASP). Provides information and links to research on
conducting threat assessments in K-12 schools.
https://www.nasponline.org/resources-and-publications/resources/school-safety-and-crisis/threat-assessment-at-
school/threat-assessment-for-school-administrators-and-crisis-teams

THE NATIONAL BEHAVIORAL INTERVENTION TEAM ASSOCIATION (NABITA). Provides education, resources, and
supports to campus behavioral intervention team personnel and those who work to provide caring interventions of at-risk
individuals.
https://nabita.org/

THE VIRGINIA STUDENT THREAT ASSESSMENT MODEL. Provides guidelines and resources for schools to conduct
threat assessments of students, including links to research on threat assessment.
https://curry.virginia.edu/faculty-research/centers-labs-projects/research-labs/youth-violence-project/virginia-student-
threat

6
The provided links were active at the time of the publication of this guide. Organizations may have updated or changed their links since
this guide was published.

Enhancing School Safety Using a Threat Assessment Model An Operational Guide for Preventing Targeted School Violence 24
School safety and violence prevention

NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION (NEA). Provides resources, reports, and information about school safety and
violence prevention.
http://www.nea.org/home/16364.htm

INTERNATIONAL ASSOCIATION OF CHIEFS OF POLICE, YOUTH FOCUSED POLICING (YFP). Provides information,
resources, and training to enable law enforcement to work and intervene with children, teens, and young adults. Resources
focus on reducing crimes and victimization among youth populations.
http://www.iacpyouth.org/

NATIONAL ASSOCIATION OF SCHOOL RESOURCE OFFICERS (NASRO). Provides training, information, and resources
to school-based law enforcement officers.
https://nasro.org/

NATIONAL LAW ENFORCEMENT AND CORRECTIONS TECHNOLOGY CENTER, SCHOOL SAFETY RESOURCES.
Provides links to resources and information, including training material, computer software, and videos for law enforcement
officers who work in K-12 schools.
https://www.justnet.org/school_safety.html

CENTER FOR THE STUDY AND PREVENTION OF VIOLENCE (CSPV). Conducts research and provides support to
professionals implementing evidence-based programs that promote positive youth development, reduce problem behaviors,
and prevent violence and other antisocial behaviors.
https://www.colorado.edu/cspv/

THE TEXAS SCHOOL SAFETY CENTER (TXSSC). Provides information and resources related to bullying, school
violence, drugs and tobacco, technology safety, and emergency management.
https://txssc.txstate.edu/

SCHOOL SAFETY ADVOCACY COUNCIL (SSAC). Provides school safety training and services to school districts, law
enforcement organizations, and communities. Provides links to grant opportunities, training courses, and conferences.
http://www.schoolsafety911.org/index.html

25
UNITED STATES SECRET SERVICE

Emergency management and response to school violence

READINESS AND EMERGENCY MANAGEMENT FOR SCHOOLS (REMS) TECHNICAL ASSISTANCE CENTER. National
clearing-house for school safety information. Provides resources, training, and information related to violence prevention,
response, and recovery from incidents of school violence.
https://rems.ed.gov/

GUIDE FOR PREVENTING AND RESPONDING TO SCHOOL VIOLENCE. Provides strategies to consider when creating
safe learning environments and considers the full range of possible violence that can occur in schools.
http://www.theiacp.org/portals/0/pdfs/schoolviolence2.pdf

Creating safe and positive school climates

RESOURCE GUIDE FOR IMPROVING SCHOOL CLIMATE AND DISCIPLINE. Resource guide developed by the U.S.
Department of Education for schools to create nurturing, positive, and safe environments to help boost student achievement
and success.
https://www2.ed.gov/policy/gen/guid/school-discipline/guiding-principles.pdf

SCHOOLS SECURITY TASK FORCE, WHAT MAKES SCHOOLS SAFE? Publication by the New Jersey School Boards
Association to provide guidance and direction on school safety issues. The final report provides recommendations and
resources to ensure the physical and emotional well-being of students.
https://www.njsba.org/news-information/research/school-security-task-force/

POSITIVE BEHAVIORAL INTERVENTIONS AND SUPPORTS (PBIS). Clearinghouse and technical assistance center that
supports schools, school districts, and state agencies to create and implement a multi-tiered approach to social, emotional,
and behavioral support. Provides links to resources, information, and training on PBIS tools and strategies.
https://www.pbis.org/

Enhancing School Safety Using a Threat Assessment Model An Operational Guide for Preventing Targeted School Violence 26
ADDITIONAL RESOURCES FOR SCHOOLS

Prevention and intervention of bullying

STOPBULLYING.GOV. Provides information from government agencies on bullying, cyberbullying, risk factors, responses to
bullying, and prevention efforts.
https://www.stopbullying.gov/

NATIONAL PTA. Provides resources regarding bullying prevention and creating positive school climates.
https://www.pta.org/home/programs/Connect-for-RespectBullying

YOUTH VIOLENCE PROJECT, BULLYING RESOURCES. Provides an aggregate of online and in-print resources for
parents, teachers, and students to intervene, prevent, and respond to bullying.
https://curry.virginia.edu/faculty-research/centers-labs-projects/research-labs/youth-violence-project/bullying/bullying-0

Mental health

NATIONAL ALLIANCE ON MENTAL ILLNESS (NAMI). NAMI is dedicated to assisting those affected by mental illness and
their families. They provide information specific to conditions and symptoms experienced by teens and young adults, as
well as resources for education and advocacy for all those who suffer from mental health symptoms.
https://www.nami.org/
https://www.nami.org/Find-Support/Teens-and-Young-Adults

NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF MENTAL HEALTH (NIMH). Provides links to resources for assistance with mental health and
mental illness, information related to mental health symptoms and disorders, and outreach to various stakeholders.
https://www.nimh.nih.gov/index.shtml
https://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/find-help/index.shtml

MENTAL HEALTH FIRST AID. Provides resources for free and low-cost training on mental health, symptoms of mental
illness, and intervening with those with mental health symptoms.
https://www.mentalhealthfirstaid.org/

27