LESSON 12

STATISTICAL TREATMENT
STATISTICS

A body of knowledge and techniques used in collecting, organizing, presenting, analyzing, and interpreting data.

It is a prerequisite in any research that the researcher has sufficient knowledge of various statistical techniques.

TWO BRANCHES OF STATISTICS

1. Descriptive statistics

Involves tabulating, depicting, and describing the collected data. The data are summarized to reveal overall
patterns and make them manageable.

2. Inferential statistics

Involves generalizations about the population through a sample drawn from it. Also includes hypothesis testing.

Concerned with higher degree of critical judgement and advanced mathematical modes such as parametric (interval and
ratio) and non-parametric (nominal and ordinal) statistical tools.

LEVELS OF MEASUREMENT OF VARIABLES

1. Nominal data

Used for labelling variables, without any quantitative value. These data are considered as the simplest level.

Examples:

Gender – male, female

Address

2. Ordinal data

These are attributes of variables that can be placed as one is higher than the other. Used for ranking purposes.

It is the order of the values of what’s important and significant, but the differences between each one is not
really known.

Examples:

Likert scales (description)

Educational attainment

3. Interval data

These are attributes of variables where the distance from one number to the other has meaning.

The order is known, and also the exact differences between the values.

But no true zero, and no ratio.

Examples:

Scores of the test

Means, and weighted means

Differences in temperature

Likert scale (Quantity)

4. Ratio data

These data tells the order, the exact differences between values, and has true zero. A true zero means absence
of the measured variable.
 Examples:

Income

Weight

Height

Age

DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS

1. Frequency distribution

2. Percentage

3. Measure of central tendencies (mean, median, mode)

Frequency distribution and percentage

Educational attainment Frequency distribution Percentage

Elementary undergraduate 3 4.28

Elementary graduate 7 10.00

High school undergraduate 7 10.00

High school graduate 10 14.29

College undergraduate 15 21.43

College graduate 28 40.00

(n – 1)/n
(5 – 1)/5 = 0.80
(4 – 1)/4 = 0.75
INFERENTIAL STATISTICS

Parametric tests

These test require normal distribution. The level of measurements must either be interval or ratio.

 T-test – Used to compare the difference between two groups. Can be used for groups composed of 30
members or less.
 Z-test – used to compare the difference between two groups. Can be used for groups composed of more than
30 members.
 ANOVA or Analysis of variance – Used to compare the difference between two or more groups.
 Pearson product-moment coefficient of correlation (Pearson's r) – it is the index of relationship between two
variables.

.0 1– 0.19 Negligible

0.20 – 0.39 Low

0.40 – 0.59 Substantial

0.60 – 0.79 High

0.80 – 1.0 Very High

 Regression analysis – Used in predicting the value of y, given the value of x.

Non-parametric tests

Does not require normal distribution of scores. It can be utilized when the data are nominal or ordinal.

 Chi-square – Test of difference between the observed and expected frequencies.

 Spearman’s Rank order Correlation Coefficient (Spearman’s rho)- Measures the strength and direction of
association between two variables. It is the non-parametric version of Pearson’s r.

HYPOTHESES TESTING

• A procedure consisting of pertinent steps, whose major objective is to be able to make a decision based on the
data gathered.

Steps in hypotheses testing

1. State the hypotheses

2. Specify the level of significance. (1% or 5%)

3. Compute the test statistic

4. Make a decision (reject or do not reject the null)

5. We will refer to p < .05 as the criterion for deciding to reject the null hypothesis. When the p value is less than or
equal 5% (p ≤ .05), we reject the null hypothesis.

In writing a Statistical analysis, the following must be included:

• The program or software used in data analysis.

• The type of test

• The purpose of using the test

• The definition of the test with proper citation