Manual for
Polymers +
Membranes
MATERIALS
SEMI-FINISHED PRODUCTS
FORM-FINDING
DESIGN
KNIPPERS
CREMERS
GABLER
LIENHARD
Jan Cremers, Prof. Dr.-Ing. Architect Carmen Köhler, Dipl.-Ing. (Natural fibre-reinforced polymers and
Faculty of Architecture & Design biopolymers)
Hochschule für Technik Stuttgart Institute of Building Structures & Structural Design (itke),
Faculty of Architecture & Urban Planning, University of Stuttgart
Markus Gabler, Dipl.-Ing.
Institute of Building Structures & Structural Design (itke) Consultants:
Faculty of Architecture & Urban Planning, University of Stuttgart Christina Härter, Dipl.-Ing. (Polymers)
Institute of Polymer Technology (IKT), University of Stuttgart
Julian Lienhard, Dipl.-Ing.
Institute of Building Structures & Structural Design (itke) Andreas Kaufmann, MEng (Complex building envelopes);
Faculty of Architecture & Urban Planning, University of Stuttgart Philip Leistner, Dr.-Ing. (Building physics and energy aspects)
Fraunhofer Institute for Building Physics (IBP), Stuttgart/Holzkirchen
Assistants:
Sabrina Brenner, Cristiana Cerqueira, Charlotte Eller, Manfred Hammer, Alexander Michalski, Dr.-Ing. (Loadbearing structure and form)
Dipl.-Ing.; Petra Heim, Dipl.-Ing.; Carina Kleinecke, Peter Meschendörfer, Chair of Structural Analysis, Technische Universität Munich
Elena Vlasceanu
Mauricio Soto, MA Arch. (Building with textile membranes)
studio LD
Jürgen Troitzsch, Dr. rer. nat. (Building physics and energy aspects)
Fire & Environment Protection Service, Wiesbaden
4
Contents
Part B Materials
Part G Appendix
1 Polymers 30
2 Fibres 48 Statutory instruments, directives,
3 Adhesives and coatings 54 standards 286
4 Natural fibre-reinforced polymers Bibliography 287
and biopolymers 60 Authors 289
Picture credits 290
Abbreviations for polymers 292
Part C Semi-finished products Index 292
Index of names 295
1 Primary products 68
2 Fibre-reinforced polymers 76
3 Semi-finished polymer products 82
4 Foil 94
5 Textile membranes 100
6 Building physics and energy aspects 108
7 Environmental impact of polymers 124
5
Preface
Whereas building with textiles can look back In keeping with the tradition of the Construction
on thousands of years of tradition, plastics, or Manuals series, this volume is devoted to the
rather polymers, represent a comparatively new applications of polymers that shape architecture,
class of materials. So in that respect at first and that includes loadbearing structure, building
glance it might surprise the reader to discover envelope and interior fitting-out. Descriptions of
both topics combined in one book. But this ap- the common material principles – from the twin-
proach is less surprising when we consider the wall sheet to the coated glass-fibre membrane
fact that it was not until the middle of the 20th – run through this book like a common thread. The
century that membranes first found their way into parallels within the group of synthetic materials
architecture – as synthetic fibres and polymer are pointed out in every chapter, emphasized
coatings enabled the production of more dura- irrespective of the differences in the construc-
ble, stronger textiles, which replaced the cotton tional realisation and architectural application.
cloth that had been used for tents up until that It is this approach that distinguishes this publi-
time. It was the development of modern syn- cation because it is more customary to deal with
thetic materials that helped Frei Otto, Walter building with textiles and building with polymers
Bird and others to build their pioneering tensile separately.
surface structures, which quickly attracted
attention and became widespread over the fol- What all synthetic materials have in common is
lowing decades. that they exhibit an extremely wide range of
properties. By choosing a suitable raw material
At first, plastics were developed to provide sub- and modifying it during production and the
stitutes for valuable and scarce natural resources subsequent processing stages, it is possible to
such as ivory, shellac or animal horn, or to re- match a material or product to the respective
place less durable materials such as cotton. requirements very precisely. Such options are
Since the early 1950s, synthetic materials have very often available to the designer, but not al-
been taking over our daily lives, symbolising ways. Part B “Materials” therefore first describes
the dream of a happy future brought about by the basic materials, i.e. primarily polymers and
technical progress. But the public’s opinion of fibres, and their production and processing
polymers started to change quite drastically to- technologies in detail. In doing so, the authors
wards the end of the 20th century. The reasons have attempted to bridge the gap between the
for this were the defects frequently encountered polymers familiar from everyday use and the
with polymers used for buildings and the rising highly efficient polymers employed in the con-
costs, but particularly a growing environmental struction industry. These processes are intrinsic
awareness in which synthetic materials no to an understanding of semi-finished products
longer seemed to play a part. Consequently, and forms of construction involving synthetic
as the historical review in Part A “Polymers and materials. The information goes well beyond
membranes in architecture” shows, the true the current state of the building art in order to do
polymer house has not enjoyed any success so justice to the dynamic developments in this
far. field. For example, materials researchers are
By contrast, the spread of the materials them- currently intensively involved in the search for a
selves throughout the world of everyday artefacts, substitute for oil-based polymers in order to
likewise the building industry, has proceeded reduce the consumption of finite resources and
almost unnoticed. This is why polymers are now allow better recycling of end-of-life materials.
to be found everywhere in buildings, albeit less Natural fibre-reinforced polymers and biopoly-
in visible applications and more in the technical mers therefore have a chapter all to themselves,
and constructional make-up of a building; seals, even though these materials are of only sec-
insulation, pipes, cables, paints, adhesives, coat- ondary importance in the building industry at
ings and floor coverings would all be inconceiv- present and really only play a role in the auto-
able these days without polymers. motive and packagings sectors.
6
The plastics and textile industries make use of membrane structures, however, calls for totally was required for this book. We would therefore
specific technologies for the step from primary different procedures to those we are used to like to thank all those who have supported us:
to semi-finished product, technologies that are with other building materials. A profound under- the consultants from various sectors, the stu-
otherwise unknown in the world of construction. standing of the relationship between force and dents who prepared the drawings and the
Those technologies include very diverse aspects form is crucial here, and this aspect is dealt photographers of the University of Stuttgart’s
such as the processing of fibres to form textiles, with fully in a separate chapter. Werkstatt für Photographie.
the foaming of polymers and also processes like
extrusion and injection-moulding. Following a Practical and descriptive presentations of build- The idea of bringing together polymers and
general review of primary products, Part C “Semi- ing with semi-finished and free-form polymer membranes in one book is not only reflected in
finished products” takes separate looks at rein- products, also foils and textile membranes can the title. The joint work on the chapters by all
forced and unreinforced polymers as well as all be found in Part E “Building with polymers the authors led to a tight interweaving of the
films (often called foils) plus coated and uncoated and membranes”, which for the first time con- diverse fields of knowledge. This Construction
textiles. One special characteristic of all polymers tains a detailed overview of design solutions. It Manual closes a gap in the specialist literature.
is that not only their mechanical, but also their is not just the building technology aspects that We very much hope that it will contribute to an
building physics properties, e.g. permeability to are investigated here, but also the significance increased interest in these materials and, above
light and heat, can be adjusted very specifically. of the materials in the building envelope in terms all, to new applications in architecture.
The ensuing options are explored in detail. of building physics, which explains the attention
The chapter covering the environmental impact given to the options of multi-layer and multi-leaf The authors and publishers
of polymers is a response to the very emotional forms of construction. August 2010
debate about the ecological characteristics of
synthetic materials. In the form of insulating and The projects selected for Part F “Case studies”
sealing materials, polymers in many cases make primarily comply with the criterion of an exem-
an indispensable contribution to ecologically plary integration of polymers or membranes in
efficient building design, and their low weight a way that influences the architecture. The aim
means they have the potential for creating light- was to present a wide selection of building types
weight structures that use their building materials and locations.
efficiently. The disadvantages, however, are the The case studies show that many possibilities –
high energy input required during production, the integration of functions for redirecting day-
the extensive use of fossil fuels and the unsatis- light, generating energy or storing heat, to name
factory recycling of these materials once their but a few – are currently not exploited at all in
useful lives have expired. This chapter makes it buildings or at best are in their early days.
clear that ecological assessments of construc- Technologies already familiar in the automotive
tions made from polymers can have very differ- or aircraft industries, e.g. “smart” structures made
ent outcomes depending on the raw materials, from fibre composites with integral sensors and
the constructional realisation and the architec- actuators, have not yet found their way into the
tural function, and that global statements on construction sector. There is great potential here
this subject are impossible. which will open up many possibilities in archi-
tecture. The development of synthetic materials
Part D “Planning and form-finding” illustrates the is progressing apace. In order to do justice to
similarities, but also the differences, between this fact, the latest results from research, some
the various uses of polymer materials. The struc- of them not yet published, have been incorp-
tural analysis of tensile surface structures and orated in the writing of this book.
rigid polymer designs is normally handled in
totally separate codes of practice and regula- In the past the publications available on poly-
tions. However, this comparative presentation mers have been limited to very specific works
shows that the principles shared by the materials of reference, e.g. for aviation or mechanical
and the resulting similarity between the creep engineering. A compilation of the principles of
and fatigue strength behaviour lead to related the materials with respect to applications in
analysis concepts, even when the constructional architecture has not been undertaken so far,
realisation is totally different. Form-finding for which is why a great deal of preparatory work
7
Part A Polymers and
membranes in architecture
9
Polymers and membranes in
architecture
A1
The discovery and development of polymers suitable solvent and binder that would turn the
nitrocellulose fibres into a workable polymer
Wood rots, metals are expensive, leather be- compound. Alexander Parkes presented a pre-
comes brittle and horn warps! Humankind has cursor, so-called Parkesine, at the 1862 World
for a long time been dreaming of replacing nat- Exposition in London. However, owing to the
ural materials by synthetic ones that are easy to rapid formation of cracks it was not successful.
produce and work, long-lasting and readily It was the American book printer John Wesley
available to everyone. Hyatt who finally developed the technical meth-
It was this dream that tempted the alchemists od for producing celluloid by using camphor as
of past centuries to engage in the weirdest of a solvent. He applied for a patent for his method
experiments. With some success: in the Arabic in 1870. This form of celluloid quickly became
world they distilled blossoms to make perfumes, popular and was used not only for billiard balls,
in China they invented gunpowder and paper. A but also as an imitation for mother-of-pearl, tor-
synthetic resin – obtained by repeated boiling toiseshell and horn for combs and hair acces-
of low-fat cheese and used for medallions and sories, and for toys, spectacles, toothbrushes,
cutlery – was produced in Augsburg in southern false teeth and, ultimately, for films. George
Germany as long ago as the 16th century. One Eastman, the founder of the Kodak company,
of the last great successes of the European started producing roll film made from celluloid
alchemists was the discovery of porcelain. After in 1889 and thus made photography accessible
much experimentation, they finally managed to to the masses.
produce that “white gold” in Meissen in former By the end of the 19th century, manufacturers
East Germany in the 18th century – more than urgently needed a substitute for another expen-
1000 years after China had done it! sive natural product associated with a very costly
production method: silk. It was the French scien-
From alchemy to chemistry tist Hilaire de Chardonnet who managed to pro-
The change from practical alchemy to theoret- duce an artificial silk based on cellulose. But,
ical chemistry took place gradually with the rise although this marked the beginning of the pro-
of the natural sciences in the 17th and 18th duction of synthetic fibres, this form of artificial
centuries. And chemistry became a key science silk brought no long-term success because, like
of the Industrial Revolution in the 19th century: all products made from cellulose, it suffered
the mass production of textiles called for new from the serious disadvantage of being highly
dyes as well as detergents and bleaching flammable.
agents, foundries were looking to improve the
production of metals, mines needed effective Soon after this the Swiss chemist Jacques
and safe lamps. Replacements for scarce and Brandenberger managed to produce an ultra-
expensive natural materials such as ivory, horn, thin transparent foil: cellophane, which is still
shellac, coral and silk were urgently required, used today for packaging.
and so the first steps on the road to modern In order to replace shellac, a resin-like substance
synthetic materials were taken. The offer of a that is obtained in a laborious process from the
prize of US$ 10 000 to the first person who secretions of the lac bug (kerria lacca) and
could produce billiard balls from a synthetic therefore very expensive, the Belgian chemist
replacement for ivory apparently provided the Leo Baekeland developed the first completely
A1 Hermann Staudinger explaining his molecular chain
impetus for the development of celluloid. man-made substance made exclusively from
theory on which modern polymer chemistry is
based. The basic ingredient of celluloid is cellulose, the synthetic raw materials around 1905: Bakelite.
A2 The cover of the first issue of Kunststoffe (plastics), natural polymer that gives plants their stability. The main constituent of Bakelite is phenol, a
Munich, 1911 Adding a mixture of nitric and sulphuric acid al- waste product of coke production which is con-
A3 Radio with Bakelite case, Philips, 1931 ters the consistency of the cellulose and pro- sequently very cheap. Bakelite is an electrical
A4 “Jumo Brevete” desk lamp, France, c. 1945
A5 “Rocking Armchair Rod” (RAR) from the Plastic Shell
duces nitrocellulose, the raw material required insulator and only ignites above a temperature
Group, 1948, Charles and Ray Eames for the production of celluloid. However, it took of 300 °C. It therefore proved to be suitable as
A6 Stacking chair, 1960, Werner Panton a long time and many experiments to find a a shellac substitute and was used primarily as
10
Polymers and membranes in architecture
A2 A3
a thin layer of insulation in the first electrical able clothing, were used for parachutes. The
devices. At last the electrical engineering in- polyester fibres so important for membrane
dustry had the insulating material it had been structures these days were developed in Eng-
searching for. Bakelite thus rendered possible land by J. R. Whinfield and J. T. Dickinson in
the mass production of switches, ignition coils 1940 and given the trade name “Trevira”, also
and radio and telephone equipment (Fig. A 3, originally intended for clothing.
see also “Phenol formaldehyde, phenolic resins”,
p. 46). The oldest of the mass-produced polymers used
these days is polyvinyl chloride, or PVC for short.
Polymer chemistry and industrial production Fritz Klatte, a researcher at the Griesheim-Elektron
The German term for polymers or synthetic mater- chemicals factory near Frankfurt am Main, pa-
ials, Kunststoffe, was used for the first time in tented a method for producing PVC as early as
1911, as the title of a trade journal, and estab- 1912. PVC was intended to replace the highly
lished itself in the following years (Fig. A 2). flammable celluloid. However, the outbreak of
However, the scientific basis for the production the First World War delayed the introduction of
of polymers – polymer chemistry – was first de- large-scale industrial production of PVC and it
veloped in the early decades of the 20th century was not until the 1930s that this polymer could A4
by Hermann Staudinger, professor of chemistry be mass produced for cable sheathing, pipes
in Freiburg and Zurich (Fig. A 1). It was for this and numerous other commodities.
work that he was awarded the Nobel Prize in The majority of polymers appeared in quick
1953. succession in the middle of the 20th century:
In the early years the manufacture of celluloid, • Polymethyl methacrylate (PMMA, acrylic
Bakelite and related materials was based on sheet), 1933
experience, speculation and chance. But a scien- • Polyethylene (PE), 1933
tific basis rendered possible a fully focused • Polyurethane (PUR), 1937
development of synthetic materials: research • Polyamide (PA), 1938
into chemistry was transformed from experiments • Unsaturated polyester (UP), 1941
by creative individuals into strategically planned • Polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE, Teflon), 1941
projects in large research departments. One • Silicone, 1943
example of the latter is nylon, the first completely • Epoxy resin (EP), 1946
synthetically produced and commercially ex- • Polystyrene (PS), 1949
ploited synthetic fibre. It is made from cold-drawn • High-density polyethylene (PE-HD/HDPE),
polyamide and was the result of 11 years of re- 1955
search by the American chemicals group Du- • Polycarbonate (PC), 1956 A5
Pont. Led by Wallace Hume Carothers, who had • Polypropylene (PP), 1957
succeeded in producing neoprene, a synthetic • Ethylene tetrafluoroethylene (ETFE), 1970
rubber, while working at DuPont in 1930, a
230-strong team was involved in the develop- Polymers in furniture and industrial design
ment of this synthetic fibre. When nylon was Polymers are not even 100 years old – a great
launched onto the market in 1938, it was initially contrast to many of the other materials com-
in the form of bristles for toothbrushes and later monly used in the building industry. But the d
for ladies’ stockings. The first four million pairs esign options of these new materials were very
of stockings were sold within a few hours of quickly discovered and so it was not long be-
their appearance in New York stores in 1940! fore they became part of everyday building
Working independently, a team at the I.G.-Farben practice. Shapes that had been impossible in
industrie AG plant in Berlin succeeded in pro- the past were now added to the vocabulary of
ducing a polyamide fibre with a very similar industrial and furniture designers. Examples of
structure in 1939; they called their product this include the French desk lamp “Jumo Brevete”
“Perlon”. During the Second World War, these of 1945 made from Bakelite (Fig. A 4), or the
synthetic fibres, originally created for fashion- range of foodstuffs containers made from
A6
11
Plastics and membranes in architecture
A7 A8 A9
moulded thermoplastic polyethylene launched hollow inside. With their firm but detachable polymers when the price of their raw material
in 1946 by the Tupper Plastics Company, connections and production by means of injec- starts to rise steeply. It is therefore likely that the
founded by former DuPont chemist Earl S. tion moulding, these bricks were a far cry from development of biopolymers from renewable
Tupper. In furniture the first really significant wooden building blocks. By 1958 hollow tubes raw materials will become more and more im-
use of polymers for mass-produced articles had been incorporated inside to stabilise the portant (see “Biopolymers”, pp. 62 – 65). For
began in 1948 with the seat shells of moulded, connection between the bricks. That distinguished example, polylactic acid (PLA) polymers made
glass fibre-reinforced polyester designed by them even more so from the familiar options for from lactic acid are already in wide use in the
Charles and Ray Eames and marketed by the fitting wooden blocks together. packaging industry. Although the market share
Plastic Shell Group (Fig. A 5, p. 11). Irwine and The properties of the material itself were also is currently under 1 %, it is growing rapidly.
Estelle Laverne designed their “Champagne optimised: since 1963 LEGO bricks have been So, whereas the first polymers were made from
Chair” in 1957, with a seat shell of transparent, made from the copolymer acrylonitrile butadiene natural cellulose and the transition to synthetic
moulded acrylic sheet. They were inspired by styrene (ABS). materials based on oil took place only gradually,
the architect and designer Eero Saarinen, who The example of the LEGO brick shows quite 100 years later our newly acquired awareness
two years previously had designed his “Tulip clearly that being able to adjust the material of the finite nature of the earth’s resources is
Chair”. Perhaps the most important piece of properties when designing the material plus triggering a reversal of this process.
polymer furniture ever, the stacking chair, first moulding options can open up totally new con-
appeared in a design by Werner Panton in 1959 figuration and jointing possibilities that go way
(Fig. A 6, p. 11). It was the first chair made from beyond those of conventional materials. The The dream of the polymer house
just a single material – rigid polyurethane foam huge popularity of building kits made from poly-
(from 1970 onwards made from the styrene mers (many others as well as LEGO) led to scores During the Second World War, industry was
thermoplastic ASA/PC, later polypropylene; see of people being subconsciously confronted producing goods almost exclusively for the
also “Thermoplastic moulded items”, p. 91) – with construction options from a very early age armed forces. This situation had an effect on the
using injection moulding and just one mould. It with constructions options other than those of emerging polymers industry – polymer production
was in 1962 that Robin Day devised the “Poly- classical building forms and materials. was mainly confined to parachutes, polyethylene
prop”, an extremely low-cost chair with the first cable sheathing for radar systems and light-
polypropylene injection-moulded seat shell and The spread of polymers weight, scratch-resistant polycarbonate turrets
legs made from bent steel tubes; some 14 million Polymers are these days ubiquitous and produced and cockpits for bombers. To achieve this,
of these chairs have been sold since 1963! in huge quantities. For example, bottles made production capacities had to be stepped up
Polymers were increasingly opening up new from polyethylene terephthalate (PET) have very quickly: in the USA 5000 sheets of poly-
options thanks to the great flexibility of their been in widespread use since the mid-1990s. carbonate were being produced every month
material properties and the emergence of new Returnable, reusable PET bottles, which are in 1937, but by 1940 the number had risen to
production methods (e.g. polymer injection mould- only about one-twelfth the weight of comparable 70 000!
ing), which also permitted new, more economic glass bottles, can be returned and refilled about After the war, these capacities were available
jointing principles to be used – a not insignificant 10 times before they have to be reprocessed for non-military uses once again. The search for
factor. This process of expanding design and (approx. 40 reuses for glass bottles). Worldwide new markets helped polymers to gain a foot-
construction options, which would later become annual PET production amounts to approx. hold in all aspects of everyday life. For example,
so important for the building industry, too, can 40 million tonnes (2007), which accounts for about huge numbers of ladies’ stockings could be
be seen in the development of the LEGO build- one-fifth of all polymers produced, and more produced for the market; the onslaught on
ing bricks system, which began life in the mid- than 125 million PET bottles were produced in American department stores when “nylons”
20th century. Ole Kirk Christiansen, a Danish 2003. The reuse rate, i.e. the proportion of re- finally became available again in the autumn of
joiner who actually made wooden toys, was in- cycled PET bottles as a percentage of the total 1945 is legendary. Stockings, clothes and under-
spired by the children’s building kit “Kiddicraft quantity in circulation, was, for instance, 78 % in wear made from nylon, Perlon or Trevira be-
Self-Locking Building Bricks” (for which the Switzerland in 2008 (more than 35 000 t, or more came incredibly popular in the post-war years.
Englishman Harry Fisher Page had been granted than one billion bottles). And household goods and packagings made
a patent) and began producing very similar The price of the main resource required for the from polyethylene or polypropylene were now
building bricks in 1949, selling them under the production of polymers, i.e. petroleum, has so suddenly appearing in every kitchen. As poly-
name of “Automatic Binding Bricks”, and from far remained comparatively low, a fact that has mers proved successful for everyday items and
1953 onwards under the LEGO brand. The first contributed to the enormous spread of polymer were already being used for furniture, too, it
bricks were made from cellulose acetate, with products throughout the world. But for the future seemed obvious to use them for buildings as
the well-known studs on the top but completely we must ask ourselves how we wish to handle well.
12
Polymers and membranes in architecture
13
Plastics and membranes in architecture
14
Polymers and membranes in architecture
A 14
15
Plastics and membranes in architecture
a b A 15
Development of tensile surface structures in Rome, for example, measured 23 000 m2 in the German Horticulture Show in Kassel in
area, a size that membrane roofs did not 1955 which caused quite a stir because at this
At first sight it seems strange to place building achieve again until the end of the 20th century. time nobody was familiar with the basic forms
with membranes and building with polymers in Although very few records remain, it is very of tensile surface structures (Fig. A 15a).
the same context. Fabric constructions appeared likely that these Roman roofs built to provide Although design, fabrication and erection took
many thousands of years before the first poly- shade were very sophisticated forms of con- only six weeks, this simple roof over a music
mers and therefore are as old as humankind’s struction. They were admired by contemporaries pavilion marked the start of a new era in mem-
attempts to protect itself against adverse weather. but not recorded because at that time they were brane construction. This was the first ever dem-
Only after we take a closer look do the similar- associated wholly with engineering, not archi- onstration of the principle of the opposing curva-
ities reveal themselves. Following the traumatic tecture. The pockets in the grandstands for the ture of the prestressed membrane (see “Curva-
years of the Second World War, visionaries and masts and pylons are the only remaining pieces ture”, pp. 136 – 137). In addition to the music
utopians shook off the shackles of traditions of evidence for their existence. [5] pavilion, Otto erected two other structures in
and started searching for new forms of human This knowledge of tensile surface structures was Kassel: the group of three cushion-like “toad-
co-existence, housing and building. One example essentially preserved up until the middle of the stools” (Fig. A 15b) and a corrugated tent roof,
of this is the work of Frei Otto, whose first light- 20th century. For example, although the Hand- the “Falter” (butterflies), spanning over the van-
weight tensile surface structures expressed a new buch der Architektur (manual of architecture), an tage point at an intersection. All three struc-
understanding of building reflecting the works of extensive encyclopaedia of building published tures were taken down at the end of the show.
nature. He can take credit for introducing the old around 1900, describes circus tents, at the same The success of these lightweight tent roofs led
idea of the tent into contemporary architecture time it declares that “such temporary construc- to a direct follow-up commission for the next
around 1960; tent-like constructions had been tions certainly cannot be classed as belonging German Horticulture Show in Cologne in 1957.
used since ancient times solely as temporary, to the realm of architecture”. [6] There were a Besides the entrance arch, a steel arch just
functional structures and were seen as unimport- few exceptions: the suspended roofs of the 171 mm deep spanning 34 m and supporting a
ant in terms of architecture. Russian engineer Vladimir Shukhov from the membrane which at the same time stabilised
The roofs to Roman stadiums and theatres are late 19th century or the fabric envelope to the the arch against lateral overturning and buck-
good examples. Huge roofs made from light- “Pavillon des Temps Nouveaux” designed in ling (Fig. A 17a), and the smaller “Humped Tent”
weight cotton to provide shade were already in 1937 by Le Corbusier for the World Exposition in (Fig. A 17c), it was primarily the star-shaped
use during the reign of Julius Caesar. They were Paris, but these had very little influence on the membrane over the central “Dance Pavilion” that
made from numerous individual pieces that could history of building and design in general. caught the imagination of visitors (Fig. A 17b).
be moved and gathered together with ropes. The The latter was formed by six masts and a mem-
Romans made use of their experience with sail- The lightweight tensile surface structures of Frei Otto brane 1000 m2 in area, which was made up of
ing ships for the design, construction and oper- All this changed in the middle of the 20th cen- 12 identical segments arranged like a star with
ation of these roofs, a fact that is reflected their tury. Frei Otto set up a small “four-point tent”, alternating high and low points around a central
name: vela (sail). The roof over the Colosseum as it was called, measuring 12.50 ≈ 12.50 m at ring. Originally intended to be used for one
a b A 16
16
Polymers and membranes in architecture
a b c A 17
summer only, the City of Cologne has re-erected 8000 m2. The loadbearing structure consisted Laboratories presented to the world in Buffalo,
the structure almost every year since then be- of a net of 12 mm diameter steel ropes at a New York, in 1946. Over the following two years,
cause of its popularity, which has meant that the spacing of 50 cm. Constance-based Stromeyer a team led by the young aerospace engineer
membrane has had to be renewed several times. & Co. fabricated the net in 9.50 m wide sections Walter Bird designed and built the first pneu-
With its animated roof form, the balanced pro- and shipped it to Montreal. Upon arrival on the matic radome, hundreds of which had been set
portions and the precise design and construc- site the various sections were fitted together on up across Canada and the USA by 1954 (Fig.
tion, this small tent became not only one of the the ground and then lifted into the desired pre- A 18). This structure, originally developed for the
most influential lightweight structures but indeed stressed condition by raising the masts hydraulic- military, was quickly adopted for civilian uses,
one of the most important examples of German ally. A membrane was suspended below the e.g. tennis courts, swimming pools and exhibi-
post-war architecture. It contrasts with the monu- net to provide the actual weatherproof cover- tion halls (Fig. A 19). For Bird it was primarily
mental edifices of the war years and the monoton- ing, attached to the steel ropes via thousands the technical advantages of pneumatic struc-
ous functionalism of the post-war period. It is a of clover leaf-shaped clamping discs. tures for roofing medium-sized buildings that
lightweight, temporary tent based on natural forms The forces in the ropes had been calculated were important, but the great visionaries of this
but at the same time indebted to technical pro- beforehand using elaborate measurement period saw in them a potential for designing new
gress. The designs of Frei Otto seemed to ad- models at a scale of 1:75 at the University of living spaces. Buckminster Fuller, for example,
dress the deep-rooted longing for a new type of Stuttgart’s Institute of Lightweight Structures. developed his idea of a climatic envelope over
building; there is no other explanation for the A full-size trial building was also set up at the Manhattan in 1950, and Frei Otto, who pub-
enormous influence that Frei Otto still exerts to institute and is still in use today. Again, although lished a much heeded systematic study of
this day. originally only intended to be used for one sum- pneumatic structures in 1962, presented his
His structures in Kassel and Cologne had already mer, the German Pavilion in Montreal was re- ideas for a man-made settlement in Antarctica.
demonstrated all the forms of tensile surface tained for a further six years. The cable net Both were of the opinion that air-supported
structure. Encouraged by this successful begin- became the model for the roofs for the Olympic envelopes spanning 2000 m and even more
ning, he and others worked continuously to im- structures in Munich in 1972. would be technically possible. The background
prove the constructional details, the materials and to such visions was supplied by Frei Otto’s
the form-finding methods in the following years. Pneumatic structures contribution to the “how shall we live” Con-
Over the decades it was not just the size of the In the USA the development of building with gress held in 1967: “The classical forms of
structures that grew but also the range of possible membranes was essentially driven by the building will continue to be developed and will
applications. American armed forces’ need for non-metallic use more efficient forms to span ever larger
Frei Otto gained international recognition with protective enclosures for their sensitive radar areas whose possible boundaries must even
his free-form roofscape to the German Pavilion systems. This led, on the one hand, to the today be measured in kilometres. Large spans
at EXPO 1967 in Montreal, which he designed GFRP radomes already described, but, on the permit the unrestricted and adaptable utilisation
together with Rolf Gutbrod (Fig. A 16). It was by other, to a different solution, an air-supported of the enclosed area, unhampered by the con-
far the largest roof he had realised so far – fabric envelope, which Cornell Aeronautical struction. It is possible, for example, to con-
17
Plastics and membranes in architecture
struct large spatial grids made from variable connected to a central fan which in the normal covered by square air-filled cushions each
three-dimensional nets that are not fixed in any- case created a pressure of 1000 Pa, but this measuring 10.80 ≈ 10.80 m. The pneumatically
way, to tension these in the air and – why not? could be increased to 2500 Pa during high prestressed cushions were lightweight, trans-
– accommodate housing units in them. The latest winds. Another important structure was the parent and not affected by the deformations
developments in building technology permit the USA Pavilion designed by the Davis, Brody & and thermal movements of the large steel
realisation of development and intensification Ass. architectural practice in collaboration with structure underneath, which measured 291 ≈
through synchronous change. The city in the the designers Chermayeff, Geismar, de Harak 108 m. The internal overpressure was very low
sea or indeed on the moon, glasshouses in & Ass. and the engineer David H. Geiger. Its and could be increased to cope with strong
Antarctica and many other dreams are no longer cable net-reinforced pneumatic construction winds. The upper membrane consisted of six
utopian, but rather planning predictions.” [7] would later become the model for many large plies of polyester foil, the lower membrane five.
Frei Otto predicted that his plans for a town in single-storey sheds (Fig. A 21). The structure Pneumatically prestressed structures did not
Antarctica would be realised by the early 1980s; was oval in plan with axis dimensions of 142 become as popular in the following years as
he had proved the feasibility of such a project and 83 m and a rise of just 6.10 m. It was the had originally been anticipated because of the
together with Kenzo Tange and Ove Arup. How- addition of a net of 32 wire ropes 48 mm in diam- frequent technical problems during their long-
ever, the project never came to fruition. eter that made the shallow curvature possible. term operation.
The British avant-garde architects belonging to The wire ropes were attached to a peripheral
the Archigram group were also fascinated by concrete compression ring, the weight of which
pneumatic structures. They saw the structures prevented the roof from lifting. With a roof
as an opportunity to create flexible, adaptable, weight < 5 kg/m2, only a small overpressure
movable constructions – a total contrast to bour- was needed. The exhibition area, sunk partly
geois architectural traditions. below the level of the surrounding site, was
The climax of the development of pneumatic entered via air locks. This pavilion was one of
structures could be seen at EXPO 1970 in the larger structures at EXPO 1970, but its sig-
Osaka: from movable canopies to inflated infor- nificance was primarily due to its restrained
mation pavilions and cushion roofs. The best- and ingenious design.
known pneumatic structure was probably the Another first at EXPO 1970 was a roof with
Fuji Pavilion of Yutaka Murata and Mamoru pneumatically prestressed polymers cushions;
Kawaguchi (Fig. A 20). With its spectacular designed by Kenzo Tange and the engineers
forms and colours, its link with pop art was un- Yoshikatsu Tsuboi and Mamoru Kawaguchi,
disguised. The pavilion comprised 16 arch-like this form of construction has in the meantime
tubes 4 m in diameter and 78 m long over a become very important in architecture (Fig.
plan area 50 m in diameter. All the tubes were A 22). The roof consisted of a steel space frame
A 20 a b A 21
a b A 22
18
Polymers and membranes in architecture
Cable nets and membrane roofs for sports stadiums arena in Saragossa, Spain, designed by the
Roofs to large sports facilities have gradually engineers Jörg Schlaich and Rudolf Berger-
become the domain of tensile surface structures mann and completed in 1990 (Fig. A 24). The
over the years. Such amenities require long- primary structure consists of an outer compres-
span constructions that provide shade and pro- sion ring 83 m in diameter and two inner tension
tection from the rain, but otherwise do not usu- rings, spaced apart by vertical props, each
ally have to comply with any other requirements 36 m in diameter. Sixteen radial cables connect
with respect to sound or thermal insulation. the tension and compression rings. The vertical
Lightweight constructions are therefore able to propping at the inner tension rings stiffens and
exploit their full potential. tensions the system. In the outer ring a com-
pressive force ensues that is in equilibrium with
Anchored systems the tensile forces in the inner rings. The com-
The structures developed by Frei Otto were pression ring is mounted on top of the grand-
prestressed by tying back the lightweight roof stand which means the latter essentially carries
surfaces via cables and masts to foundations in only the vertical loads and elaborate anchorages
the ground. One highlight of this form of con- for the tensile forces are unnecessary. A mov-
struction was the roof to the stadium for the able membrane provides a roof to the sand- A 23
1972 Olympic Games in Munich. In terms of covered arena in the middle. When open, the A 20 Exhibition pavilion of the Fuji company at the 1970
both its architectural concept and its construc- membrane is gathered beneath a central hub, World Exposition in Osaka (J), Yukata Murata and
tional details, the roof designed by Günther a principle that Frei Otto had used as early as Mamoru Kawaguchi
Behnisch, Frei Otto and engineers from Leon- 1967 for the roof over the ruins of an abbey in A 21 USA Pavilion at the 1970 World Exposition in
Osaka (J), Davis, Brody & Ass. with David H. Geiger
hardt & Andrä (Jörg Schlaich) is modelled on Bad Hersfeld, Germany. The movable roof is
a Aerial view
the cable net of the German Pavilion for EXPO closed by pulling it along the radial cables at- b Interior (overpressure)
1967 in Montreal, but on a much larger scale. tached to the lower inner tension ring and then A 22 Roof to Festival Plaza at the 1970 World Exposition
Numerous studies and innovations – still rele- tensioned to prevent it flapping in the wind by in Osaka (J), Kenzo Tange, Yoshikatsu Tsuboi and
vant today – were necessary for the realisation: splaying the central hub. As tensioning the Mamoru Kawaguchi
a Aerial view
the covering of acrylic sheets (see Figs. E 5.16 central membrane requires considerably larger b Close-up of polymer cushions
and E 5.17, p. 218), ground anchors, new types forces than the opening and closing operations, A 23 Roof to Gottlieb Daimler Stadium, Stuttgart (D),
of cable, fatigue-resistant clamps, anchorages separate drives are provided for these two 1993, Schlaich, Bergermann & Partner
and saddles of cast steel and, first and foremost, functions. A 24 Bullfighting arena, Saragossa (E), 1990, Schlaich,
Bergermann & Partner
numerical form-finding methods (see “Form-find- Schlaich and Bergermann took the design of
a Aerial view
ing”, pp. 138 – 140) plus computer-assisted the spoked wheel roof one step further for the b Closing the roof over the central arena
drawing and calculation programs, which were conversion of Stuttgart’s light athletics and foot-
being used on a large construction project for ball stadium in 1993 (Fig. A 23). Another form
the first time. of construction would have been impossible
However, the construction of the cable net in because Stuttgart’s mineral water stipulations
Munich also revealed one great disadvantage prevented the use of guy ropes back to the
of such structures: open roofscapes of this size ground – and hence the associated foundations.
require enormous tensile forces which in turn In contrast to the solution employed in Saragossa,
call for elaborate anchorages in the ground. In this system, over an oval plan, consists of two
Munich the gravity foundations for the main compression rings, spaced apart by vertical
cable are the size of small apartment block! props, and one inner tension ring. A total of 40
radial cables every approx. 20 m span between
Spoked wheel systems the inner tension ring, which consists of eight
Another approach is to use constructions based parallel cables each 79 mm in diameter, and the
on complete tension and compression rings compression rings. The radial cables spanning
which are therefore known as spoked wheel up to 58 m divide the roof, a total area of
systems. These are particularly suitable for large 34 000 m2, into 40 segments. Each individual
sports grounds which are often circular or oval membrane segment is itself supported by
in plan. seven compression arches mounted on the
Drawings dating from the 17th century showing lower radial cables. The arches lend the mem- a
reconstructions of ancient roofs over Roman brane sufficient curvature and reduce the un-
arenas indicate suspension systems with a supported spans so that a lightweight, light-
complete tension ring at the inner edge of the permeable, PVC-coated polyester fabric can
roof. The American engineer David H. Geiger be used as the roof covering. This form of con-
developed this idea further for roofing over struction proved to be extremely efficient and
modern sports arenas. His first roof structure of became the prototype for numerous stadium
this type was the gymnastics hall completed in roofs throughout the world designed by Schlaich
1986 ahead of the Olympic Games in Seoul and Bergermann and their partner Knut Göppert.
(1988).
Such closed systems are preferred these days
because, in contrast to the anchored systems,
they need no large foundations to resist the
tensile forces. One example of a spoked wheel
system, which at the same time gives us an
idea of the spatial effect of the covered arenas
of ancient times, is the roof to the bullfighting
b A 24
19
Plastics and membranes in architecture
Tensile surface structures in contemporary architecture Materials in membrane architecture – from natural to
The roof in Stuttgart is representative of the synthetic fibre fabrics and polymer foil
change in notions of form. The coherent, large It was not only cultural contexts and progress
and gently sweeping surface of the roof in Munich in the design and analysis of tensile surface
was dissected into small segments in Stuttgart. structures that determined the development
This transition from the random roofscape em- of building with membranes. Innovations in
bedded in its surroundings to an autonomous, the materials themselves – and primarily the
optimally engineered, modular structure is typi- changeover from natural to synthetic fibres –
cal of the architectonic configuration of tensile played a decisive role. This fact is particularly
survace structures towards the end of the 20th evident in the development of pneumatic
century. structures.
The way in which form is dependent on mechan- The idea for the pneumatic structure, and its
ical principles and the inherent potential to cre- constructional predecessor, was supposedly
ate highly efficient structures exerted a great the first hot-air balloon, built by the Montgolfier
fascination on architects and engineers in the brothers in 1783, and the hydrogen balloon
final years of the 20th century. In some instances flown by Jacques Charles just a short time later.
A 25 the logic of the form and the design is inflated The English researcher and engineer Frederick
by the architectural realisation, a fact that also William Lanchester was certainly one of the first
manifests itself in an expressive display of the to transfer the idea of pneumatics to a building.
construction and its details. A good example of His design for a field hospital supported by just a
this late 20th century movement – so-called minimal overpressure without masts or suspen-
high-tech architecture – is the Inland Revenue sion ropes was patented in 1917. However, this
Centre in Nottingham by Michael Hopkins dating idea remained on the drawing board because
from 1994 (Fig. A 28). no airtight fabrics were available at that time
These days, architects are mostly searching for with which an economically viable hospital
other forms – forms that are not determined by could have been built. It was not until the intro-
engineering and the physical laws of tensile duction of polymer-coated membranes in the
structures. Building with woven fabrics and poly- mid-20th century that Walter Bird was able to
mer foil should fit in with, not dominate, the take up Lanchester’s ideas and build a great
overriding architectural concept. In the ideal many pneumatic structures.
case architects are able to achieve new forms During the 1950s and 1960s experiments were
and still do justice to the logic of the design carried out everywhere with a diverse range of
and material. Examples of this are the Allianz synthetic fabrics made from polyamide (nylon,
A 26 Arena in Munich by the Swiss architects Her- Perlon), polyester (Trevira, Dacron) or acrylic
zog & de Meuron (Fig. D 1.18, p. 142), or the (Dralon) with coatings of synthetic rubber
National Aquatics Centre (“Watercube”) in Bei- (Hypalon, neoprene), PVC or polyurethane.
jing by the Australian architects PTW, to name
but two. Thomas Herzog is also exploring new Frei Otto used fabrics made from natural fibres for
paths with his project for the mountain rescue his first tensile surface structures. For example,
service in Bad Tölz (2008) (see “Training centre the membrane over the music pavilion at the
for mountain rescue service”, pp. 260 – 261). 1955 German Horticulture Show in Kassel was
made from approx. 1 mm thick heavyweight
cotton fabric and its 18 m span was much larger
than the spans typical for tents up until that
time (Fig. A 15a, p. 16). However, the disadvan-
tages of natural fibres become evident when
they are exposed to the weather and high
stresses. Frei Otto, too, therefore soon began
experimenting with synthetic fibres.
By the time of the 1957 German Horticulture
a Show in Cologne he was already using a PUR-
coated glass fibre membrane for the entrance
arch (Fig. A 17a, p. 17). However, this new ma-
terial did not last long: although the glass fibre
material was unaffected by UV radiation, it was
affected by moisture, which permeated through
the coating. The arch was therefore given a
covering of tried-and-tested cotton fabric after
just one season.
A polyamide fabric used for a tent at the 1957
“Interbau” building exhibition in Berlin did not
last long either. After just six weeks the mem-
brane developed a tear, the cause of which –
as was later discovered – was dyeing with
titanium oxide. Again, this synthetic fibre mem-
brane had to be replaced by a dependable
cotton fabric.
b A 27
20
Polymers and membranes in architecture
21
Plastics and membranes in architecture
22
Polymers and membranes in architecture
a b A 33
and membrane roofs for sports stadiums”, p. 19). strips and cables was considered undesirable, halls or warehouses in Italy. Although these first
Initially, the architects led by Günther Behnisch but in the meantime the image of the roof has space frames were very straightforward in terms
discussed numerous alternatives for the cover- become so characteristic that it will remain un- of their construction and design language, they
ing to the cable net − from PVC-coated mem- changed even though these days ETFE foil could nevertheless mark the start of Piano’s involve-
branes like those used in Montreal to metal tiles be used to achieve a covering essentially free ment with materials, their properties, their pro-
or timber sheathing. from joints. Panels almost identical in terms of cessing and the ensuing architectural opportun-
The television companies, however, wanted a material and construction were used when after ities. He returned to the theme of the polymer
light-permeable roof surface because during the about 25 years the acrylic panels had to be re- pyramids for his IBM pavilion of 1982. This
previous football World Cup in 1970 in Mexico placed due to embrittlement and discolouring. pavilion was designed to house a travelling
the stadium roofs had cast strong shadows on Like the original panels, soot particles were exhibition visiting 20 European cities. A light-
the pitches, and the television cameras could added to the majority of the new panels to give weight construction and simple assembly and
not compensate for the ensuing contrast. Various them a slight hue. dismantling were the main requirements of the
light-permeable foils and sheets were therefore design brief. The truss-like arches spanning
investigated and it was discovered that only The Olympic facilities in Munich and the Ameri- 12 m consisted of just three materials: laminated
acrylic sheet satisfied the fire and durability can EXPO pavilion in Montreal are pioneering birch wood for the top and bottom chords,
requirements (Fig. A 32). Panels measuring and much admired structures that have inspired transparent polycarbonate for the cross-bracing
2 ≈ 2 m were produced and then stretched to many architects to employ light-permeable poly- pyramids and aluminium for the connecting
3 ≈ 3 m at a temperature of 150 °C. In the event mers. Renzo Piano is mentioned here as an elements (Fig. A 35, p. 24).
of a fire the panels try to shrink at about 200 °C, example. In the mid-1960s one of his tutors was
but the aluminium frame prevents this. The en- the mathematician and engineer Zygmunt Compared with the structures of the 1960s,
suing stresses cause the panels to crack, which Stanisław Makowski, who alongside the archi- the development of polymers was now becom-
allows heat and smoke to escape upwards. An tect and engineer Konrad Wachsmann and the ing clear: initially used as a protective envelope
additive in the acrylic material prevents the spread mechanical engineer Max Mengeringhausen to radar installations for functional reasons,
of flame and the formation of dangerous molten can be classed as one of the pioneers in the then as roofs over industrial plants or pneumati-
droplets. The panels were fixed to the preten- field of modern space frames. At the University cally supported roofs over swimming pools,
sioned cable net with an aperture of 75 cm. of Surrey’s “Plastic Research Unit” Makowski they were now becoming materials that could
Approx. 14 cm wide black neoprene strips join was also experimenting with folded plate struc- also satisfy high quality demands regarding
the panels together in order to accommodate tures and space frames made from moulded appearance and feel. Finally, architects such as
the movement of the cable net and the expan- GFRP parts with pyramidal or hyperbolic para- Richard Buckminster Fuller, Günther Behnisch
sion and contraction of the panels. This is boloid forms, which acted as the roof covering or Renzo Piano began using polymers for the
what gives the roof its visual character and and at the same time helped to carry the loads structure and design of outstanding buildings
the loadbearing cable net becomes less intru- (Fig. A 34). Influenced by this, Renzo Piano and thus helped them find their place in archi-
sive. Initially, the superimposition of neoprene designed such structures for simple exhibition tecture.
a b c A 34
23
Plastics and membranes in architecture
24
Polymers and membranes in architecture
25
Plastics and membranes in architecture
Polymers for exploiting solar energy nology is expected to cut costs in the produc- trials. Even though the diameter of these fibres
Polymers offer numerous options for the optimum tion of photovoltaics and make products easier is much larger than that of the glass fibres used
passive and active use of solar energy. Radiation to use in practice. to reinforce the material itself, they are related
exchange plays a relatively major role in the In the area of solar thermal systems, polymers and the two types are therefore easily com-
majority of structures made from polymers and already account for approx. 15 % of the com- bined. The sensor fibres are connected to a
so the exact adjustment of the optical properties ponents used. New developments are under- light source; a change in the wavelength of the
becomes crucial. This concerns transmission in way; these concern the absorber itself, but also light allows conclusions to be drawn regarding
the UV range for glasshouses and solar trans- supporting frameworks, connectors, cables the stress and temperature in the component
mission for building envelopes, but also behav- and the insulating and covering materials. (Fig. A 36, p. 25).
iour in the infrared range (reflection and ab- The next step in the development is the use of
sorption; see “Building physics and energy Outlook – multi-functional elements made from actuators for the active control of component
aspects”, pp. 108 – 123, and “Shopping centre polymers geometry. Piezoelectric or electrostrictive mater-
in Amadora”, pp. 256 – 257). These properties The processing of synthetic materials often takes ials are used for the actuators, which in a reversal
can be adjusted by way of additive methods, place at comparatively low temperatures and of the sensors convert an electrical voltage into
i.e. the lamination of various materials, by exploit- pressures, which is why it is possible to integrate an elongation. They are mostly integrated into
ing nanostructures and microstructures, but also functional elements. For example, it is relatively the fibre-reinforced synthetic material in the
through special coating processes. Many of easy to incorporate light-channelling glass or form of thin plates just a few tenths of a milli-
these optimisation processes represent major polymer fibres for later lighting effects in fibre metre thick. Piezoelectric actuators are currently
challenges for designers, especially in those composites (Fig. A 40). being used primarily for high-frequency vibra-
cases where the material is exposed to the inter- The integration of sensors for measuring tem- tion damping functions. One typical example of
ior or indeed the exterior climate. In solar tech- perature, stresses or damage is important in this is controlling the vibrations of helicopter
nology the first steps with respect to building aerospace applications. Embedding these in rotor blades. One future application could be
integration for photovoltaics have already been the material protects them against external in- active acoustic facades (Figs. A 37 and A 38).
taken for PC, PMMA, ETFE and glass/PTFE (see fluences and enables the measurement of vari- Research into other actuators is currently on-
“Photovoltaics”, pp. 122 – 123, and “Complex ables within the component itself and not only going, e.g. shape memory materials, which are
building envelopes”, pp. 212 – 223). Polymers on its surface. The use of piezoceramics is very already being used in medical technology appli-
have long since been crucial in standard photo- common in aircraft. These convert strains into cations in the form of wires or fibres. These are
voltaic modules (e.g. as cover or backing electrical voltages to enable permanent moni- metals or polymers that have different basic
sheets or as a substrate for flexible photovoltaic toring of the mechanical actions within the shapes at different temperatures, to which they
elements). Great things are expected to come component. always return upon cooling or heating. Conse-
from the development of polymer-based photo- Fibre-optic sensors represent another form of quently, with temperature control, large active
voltaic technology, which is currently grouped technology that is currently being developed elongation is possible at low frequencies, in
under the heading of “organic PV”. This tech- for aircraft; the first applications are undergoing contrast to piezoelectric materials. Polymer gels
Multi-functional materials for “smart” structures Building envelopes with flexible materials Selection of potential measures
for increasing efficiency
Piezoceramics (PZT)
Electrostrictors (PMN-PT) Building envelope Surface stabilisation Improving the thermal insulation by
including an additional insulating material
Piezopolymers (PVDF) or integrating an insulating system
Shape memory alloys (SMA: tensioned
Using additional functional layers
NiTi, CuZnAl, ...) on the material surface with selective
Re and/or low E properties
ad Magnetostrictors (Terfenol-D)
yf
or without climatic Integrating photovoltaics
ap Electrorheological (ER), mag- enclosure
pl
ica netorheological (MR) fluids Integrating acoustically effective layers within
tio
ns or below the construction (improving the room
Polymer gels (PAN, acoustics by improving sound absorption
PVA, ...) or reducing sound propagation)
26
Polymers and membranes in architecture
A 40 A 41
could also be suitable for actuators. These are The growing awareness of the environment and
carbon compounds that, in damp media, react more stringent legislation is making it more and
by exchanging ions and changing their volume. more difficult to dispose of such products in
One possible application could be “artificial landfill.
muscles” for the active control of sunshading Natural fibres made from flax, hemp or ramie
elements in facades. [10] are currently being used as substitutes for
glass fibres in the linings of vehicles and rolling
All these developments open up numerous stock, also in the furniture and leisure industries.
opportunities, many of which have only been However, these natural fibres are usually still
used very tentatively so far and are still being embedded in a conventional petrochemical poly-
researched. mer, which limits the ecological advantages.
Replacing petrochemical polymers by resins
Challenges based on natural materials is even more diffi-
However, there are also obstacles that prevent cult. Biopolymers such as polylactic acid (PLA),
the widespread application of polymers in archi- which is made from starch, are already being
tecture. used in great quantities for containers, pack-
agings and similar products. However, the de-
Reaction to fire velopment of natural polymers made from starch,
Plastics are made from organic polymers or petrol- sugar or vegetable oils that provide the high
eum and are therefore combustible in principle mechanical strengths and levels of durability
even though this is hardly possible in practice required for buildings is still at a very early stage
for some fluoropolymers (PTFE and ETFE). (see “Biopolymers”, pp. 62 – 64). At the moment
Even the addition of flame retardants has so far a number of automotive manufacturers are test-
not resulted in making polymers incombustible. ing moulded parts made from iopolymers for
Furthermore, although such additives reduce vehicle bodies. To what extent biopolymers
the flammability, they often increase the toxicity might be suitable for loadbearing or enclosing
of the fumes given off. It is therefore often im- components in buildings, and thus be able to re-
possible to use polymers where the specification place finite raw materials, is currently unclear and
calls for inflammability or fire resistance. Solu- will be one of the key challenges for materials
tions familiar from steelwork, e.g. cladding with researchers in the coming years.
mineral fibre boards or applying intumescent
paint finishes, have proved to be unsuitable in
trials. More research is required into the develop- References:
[1] see also Genzel, Elke; Voigt, Pamela: Kunststoff-
ment of active and passive fire protection meas-
bauten: Teil 1. Die Pioniere. Weimar, 2005
ures for materials and components made from [2] ibid., p. 40ff.
synthetic materials. In the meantime, the first [3] ibid., p. 134ff.
ceramic – and therefore incombustible – resin [4] Blundell Jones, Peter: Peter Hübner: Building as a
systems for fibre composites have been intro- Social Process. Stuttgart, 2007, p. 26
[5] Graefe, Rainer: Vela Erunt. Die Zeltdächer der
duced, but not yet tested in practice. römischen Theater und ähnlicher Anlagen. Mainz,
1979
Ecological aspects [6] Schmitt, Eduard: Zirkus- und Hippodromgebäude.
Depending on the application, components In: Handbuch der Architektur. Part 4, No. 6. Stuttgart,
1904 A 37 Multi-functional materials and their readiness for
made from synthetic materials score differently
[7] ibid. [1], p. 167 applications
in ecological audits (see “Environmental impact [8] ibid. [1], p. 26 A 38 Actuators for “smart” structures
of polymers”, pp. 124 – 131). There is an urgent [9] Schlaich, Jörg: Das Olympiadach in München. Wie A 39 Measures for increasing the efficiency of fabric
need for research into the problems that poly- war das damals? Was hat es gebracht? In: Behnisch building envelopes
mers cause at the end of their useful lives. This und Partner, Bauten 1952 – 1992. Stuttgart, 1992 A 40 Light-channelling fibres laminated into GFRP
[10] Grohmann, Boris A.; Wallmersperger, Thomas; panels, itke/University of Stuttgart
applies especially to fibre composites or mem- Kröplin, Bernd-Helmut: Adaptive Strukturen und A 41 Translucent GFRP sandwich panels illuminated
branes made from various, virtually inseparable gekoppelte Mehrfeldprobleme. In: Stahlbau, vol. 69, with LEDs, “Syn Chron” art installation, 2004,
and highly chemically resistant components. No. 6, pp. 446 – 454 Carsten Nicolai
27
Part B Materials
1 Polymers 30
Classification of polymers 30
Production of polymers 31
Fillers and additives 32
Properties of polymers 34
Thermoplastics 40
Elastomers 44
Thermosets 46
2 Fibres 48
Properties and applications 48
Inorganic fibres 50
Polymer fibres 51
Natural fibres 53
Metal fibres 53
29
Polymers
B 1.1
Polymers have been indispensable materials in Classification of polymers
everyday life, in industry and in medicine for
many years. According to data provided by We classify polymers according to the way in
PlasticsEurope, an association of polymer manu- which the organic molecules are bonded to-
facturers, a total of approx. 12.5 million tonnes gether, which has an effect on their strength
of polymers was processed in Germany in 2007, and melting characteristics (Fig. B 1.3). Polymers
and the construction industry accounted for are divided into three groups according to the
approx. 25 % of that total – second only to the degree of cross-linking:
packagings sector (32.4 %) and therefore • Thermoplastics (or thermosoftening plastics)
representing the second largest market for poly- • Elastomers
mers (Fig. B 1.2). In comparison with other sec- • Thermosets (or thermosetting plastics)
tors, the construction industry uses more poly-
mers with good strength properties (e.g. PVC-U, It is difficult to describe the typical characteris-
thermosets) because of the need for materials tics of each of these three groups in general
with good loadbearing and durability qualities. terms because the characteristic values exhibit
Up until now, the use of polymers in architecture such a wide scatter. The following descriptions
has concentrated mainly on secondary items should therefore be regarded more as tenden-
such as sheeting, insulation, paints or floor cies.
coverings. However, their use for loadbearing
structures and building envelopes is growing in In thermoplastics the molecules are not cross-
importance. linked. These polymers therefore exhibit rela-
Polymers are synthetic materials made from tively low strengths and generally a low heat
organic molecules. Their synthesis involves resistance. They can be melted and remoulded
assembling various individual molecules (mono- again and again, which is a great advantage
mers) to form macromolecules, the so-called for industrial manufacture and recycling. The
polymers. The term polymer is also often used majority of everyday plastic articles in our
as a synonym for plastic. The vast number of homes and workplaces, and also packagings,
monomers available and the various combin- are made from thermoplastics.
ation options results in more than 200 different The molecules of elastomers are cross-linked
polymers, whose properties can be further and therefore these polymers cannot be melted
adapted with additives. Traditional materials again once they have been produced. The raw
such as steel, timber or concrete offer far fewer material for elastomers is tough crude rubber,
opportunities for varying their form, feel and which is made elastic by the cross-linking.
strength. It is precisely the vast array of options Elastomers (colloquially referred to as rubber)
that makes the subject of polymers seem totally are always processed prior to the cross-linking
incalculable and hard to grasp. But at the same reaction. Their low strengths make them unsuit-
time this is their decisive advantage. Whereas able as construction materials but they are fre-
with traditional materials it is the material that quently used as seals in joints or as bearing
determines the construction, with polymers the pads to ensure an even load transfer. Vehicle
designer can choose or adapt the properties to tyres represent one of the main applications for
suit the mechanical, visual or building physics elastomers in everyday life.
requirements. Despite all the variations, how- Thermosets have densely cross-linked molecules
ever, there are some properties common to all and it is this fact that allows them to achieve
polymers. These include, for example, their low higher strengths and better durability than other
self-weight, their good mouldability, their dis- types of polymer. Thermosets cannot be melted
B 1.1 Polymer granulate (PVC) tinct time-related behaviour and – in principle – down again and exhibit a relatively high heat
B 1.2 Polymer processing in Germany according to their combustibility because of the carbon resistance. Light switches and plugs are fre-
industrial sector (2007)
B 1.3 Classification of polymers according to their
compounds they contain. quently made from thermosets.
chemical structure
B 1.4 Production of polymers from petroleum
30
Polymers
Polymers
Packagings 32.4 %
Building industry
25.2 %
Thermoplastics Elastomers Thermosets
Vehicles 9.2 %
• No cross-linking between molecular • Weak cross-linking between • Strong cross-linking between
Electronics 7.4 % chains molecules molecules
Other 14.9 % Household goods 2.9 % • Meltable and mouldable • Cannot be melted again after • Cannot be melted again after
• Rather inferior mechanical cross-linking cross-linking
Furniture 3.8 %
Medicine 1.7 % properties • Very high extensibility • Very good mechanical properties
Agriculture 2.5 %
B 1.2 B 1.3
Hybrid forms made from the polymers of two of The outcome of this chemical bonding is in It is important to make sure that this by-product
the above groups are also available, combining each case a polymer, i.e. the plastic material. can escape unhindered and is properly drained
the favourable properties of both types. For In polymerisation, the monomers are linked to- away.
example, thermoplastic elastomers (TPE) are gether to form polymers with the help of catalysts The third type of reaction is polyaddition. This
very elastic but at the same time meltable. The but without the reaction producing any by- is also a phased chemical reaction in which
molecular structures of some polymers, e.g. poly- products. Copolymerisation is a form of poly- various molecular components are bonded
urethanes or silicones, can be varied to such merisation in which different monomers are together. The difference between this and poly-
an extent that they can be produced in the form combined. condensation is primarily that, like polymer-
of thermoplastics, elastomers or thermosets. As the name suggests, polycondensation in- isation, the reaction does not produce any by-
In the case of the silicones, the presence of sili- volves the production of water (condensate), in products.
con in the polymer molecule results in a number some cases hydrogen chloride, ammonia or
of properties that differ from all other polymers. alcohol, as part of the reaction. In most cases Polymer manufacture
Silicones exhibit good high-temperature and a phased reaction is used to join together two Polymers are manufactured in chemical plants,
weathering resistance and, in contrast to the different types of molecular component, which where fillers and additives are already mixed in
majority of polymers, are incombustible. results in a continuous condensate discharge. as required, and output as semi-finished products
31
Polymers
Scatter/absorption
Transparent pigments (50–100 nm)
for colouring polymers but still
remaining as clear as glass
Scatter
Opaque
B 1.5 Fibre-reinforced polymer with thermopaints pigments,
B 1.6 Relationship between particle size and transparency e.g. for
for pigments colouring
B 1.7 Fillers and their effects polymers
B 1.8 Triple-wall polymer sheet with photochromic top
coat Absorption
B 1.9 Plastic buttons with a mother-of-pearl effect
B 1.10 Polymer with special effect pigments
B 1.11 Carbon nano tubes (CNT) viewed under the 0 200 400 600 800
microscope (approx. 100x magnification) Particle size [nm]
B 1.5 B 1.6
ready for further processing. The three groups which a flame retardant has been added to Colouring polymers
of polymers differ in terms of the processing achieve a certain fire resistance takes much Numerous thermoplastics and thermosets are,
operations required and the primary products longer to process because of its higher viscos- in principle, transparent, and therefore there is
used. ity. Various aspects are crucial when designing wide scope for colouring them to achieve vari-
Thermoplastics are available in granular or the composition of the polymer: ous degrees of translucency or opaqueness.
powder form, and although they already possess • Desired service life A number of non-light-fast polymers is always
their final chemical composition, they must first • Exposure to weather and UV light coloured to make them opaque and optically
be melted down in a processing plant and then • Chemical resistance brightened in order to guarantee a consistent
moulded to form the final product. Elastomers • Final processing intended appearance. The colourants used are divided
are produced from crude rubber, which in con- • Desired colour and transparency into soluble dyes and insoluble pigments. The
trast to the final product is not yet cross-linked. • Fire protection requirements borderline between organic pigments and dyes
The crude rubber is first processed and moulded, • Mechanical properties specification is sometimes indistinct because owing to their
and the vulcanisation is carried out afterwards. polymer structures they may also be soluble in
It is vulcanisation that achieves the cross-link- Polymer manufacturers have many years of polymers.
ing to create a polymer with the help of sulphur, experience in the effects of additives and fillers
pressure and a high temperature. Thermosets and the various combination options and so the Dyes
are initially produced in the form of a liquid composition of the polymers should be left to Dyes that are soluble in polymers are, like the
primary product (synthetic resin) or a moulding them or at least agreed with them. Polymer pro- polymers themselves, made mostly from organic
compound, which again are not yet cross-linked. cessors therefore normally purchase polymers compounds. They should be insoluble in water
The chemical reaction takes place by adding a that have already been combined with additives if fading during use is undesirable. In contrast
hardener during the final processing. The pro- and fillers. The following materials are in general to pigments, dyes produce a transparent colour-
cessing and treatment methods are described use as fillers and additives: ing; the polymer itself remains as clear as glass.
in detail in “Primary products” (pp. 68 – 75). • Cost-reducing fillers (e.g. kaolinite, chalk, or However, an opaque colouring is possible
oil for elastomers) when combined with (white) pigments. Dyes
• Colourants (dyes and pigments) exhibit a better heat resistance than pigments,
Fillers and additives • Catalysts and reactants for controlling the which makes them ideal for colouring heat-
chemical reaction resistant polymers.
The properties of polymers are essentially influ- • Stabilisers for improving durability (e.g. when
enced by the fillers and additives mixed with exposed to UV light) Pigments
the basic material (Fig. B 1.7). Substances that • Plasticisers in thermoplastics to prevent In contrast to dyes, pigments do not dissolve in
improve the properties or are used as reactants brittleness the polymer, but instead are added in the form
are known as additives, whereas substances • Flame retardants (halogens, aluminium of tiny particles, as small as possible, shaped
that serve only to extend the polymer, i.e. increase trihydrite or hydroxide) like needles, flakes or beads. A transparent or
its overall “bulk”, are known as fillers. Without • Thixotropic materials for improving the coat- opaque finish is possible depending on the
appropriate additives, many polymers would ing properties with thermosets size of the particles (Fig. B 1.6): pigments with
be useless because it is the additives that allow particle sizes of 50 – 100 nm scatter the inci-
the properties of a polymer to be matched to the However, the plasticisers frequently required dent light hardly at all, i.e. the polymer remains
requirements profile. The possibilities for modify- can dissolve out of the polymer and possibly be transparent; larger particles (300 – 550 nm), on
ing the properties of, for instance, PVC through absorbed into the bodies of humans or animals the other hand, scatter the light to a much
the use of additives are especially pronounced. via direct contact or through water – and the greater degree, and the material then appears
Although softer (plasticised) and harder (un- chemicals they contain, e.g. bisphenol A, are opaque. Various substances can be used as
plasticised) forms of PVC are identical in terms suspected of being harmful to health. The addi- pigments, and the most common are the rela-
of their chemical make-up, the different amounts tives present in polymers are important for the tively inexpensive metal oxides. The character-
of plasticisers give rise to totally different mater- recycling of thermoplastics. Recycling without istic colour of a pigment depends on its chem-
ials with their own typical applications. a loss of quality is only possible when mixing ical composition. Carbon black is an inorganic
Additives change not only the properties but identical polymers containing the same fillers pigment that is inexpensive and widely used.
also the workability of a polymer, and this fact and additives. Organic pigments are available in a wider range
should be taken into account when designing a of colours than the metallic pigments, but are
component or planning a processing operation. more expensive. They lend polymers a better
For example, an unsaturated polyester resin to shine, but have an inferior covering power.
32
Polymers
Compressive
+ to +++ Improvement in properties
Better heat
Chemicals
resistance
resistance
- Reduction in properties
shrinkage
Economy
Reduced
modulus
strength
strength
strength
Tensile
Impact
Elastic
Spherical fillers Sawdust + + + +
Carbon black + + +
Metal oxides + - + +
Calcium carbonate (chalk) + + -+ + + ++
Kaolinite - + + + +
Silica + - + +
Sand/quartz powder + + - + ++
Flake-like fillers Graphite + + +
Talcum + + - + + +
Mica + ++ -+ + + + +
Fibrous fillers and Polymer fibres ++
reinforcing materials Carbon fibres +++ + +++ - + ++ -
Glass fibres ++ + ++ -+ + ++ +
B 1.7 B 1.8
Special effect colourants Phase Change Materials (PCM)
These include phosphorescent paints, optical Materials that store energy, so-called phase
brighteners, thermopaints, special effect pig- change materials (PCM), can regulate the tem-
ments (Fig. B 1.10) or paints with a mother-of- perature balance of building components.
pearl shine. They can be based on either dyes These materials are not polymers, but can be
or pigments. Fluorescent and brightening used to fill the voids of double- and triple-wall
paints (brighteners) convert UV light into visible sheets or, in the form of microbeads, can be
light and lend the polymer or the synthetic fibre mixed directly into the polymer itself (see “Sand-
a particularly radiant, bright colouring. Thermo- wich panels”, p. 90). In contrast to thermochromic
paints change their crystal structure as the tem- materials, PCMs do not undergo a chemical
perature of the substrate or component changes, reaction, but rather a physical phase transition
which alters their colour (Fig. B 1.5). This effect from solid to liquid. Furthermore, the presence
is reversible in principle, but after repeated of a “plateau temperature” at which the latent
cycles chemical processes can take place heat storage functions is also necessary –
which render the process irreversible. another difference between these and thermo-
Inorganic special effect pigments are relatively chromic materials. Once the temperature exceeds
large flakes which may even be visible to the this limit, the PCM absorbs or releases a dis- B 1.9
naked eye. Their layered structure reflects the proportionate amount of energy. In doing so,
light and therefore produces a metallic effect in the material itself remains at the plateau tem-
the colouring which changes depending on the perature (within certain limits) even when energy
viewing angle; glitter effects are also possible. is being absorbed or released at a constant
The pigments themselves frequently consist of level. PCMs are mostly paraffins or salt hydrates,
metal oxides, aluminium or copper. Special which have transition temperatures that are
effect pigments are very common in (synthetic- easy to adjust to the ranges relevant to building
based) paints for the automotive industry. Natural physics.
fish scales or, alternatively, lead carbonate are
introduced into the polymer to create a mother- Moisture-absorbing additives
of-pearl shine, an effect that is used, for example, The moisture absorption capacity of polymers
in plastic buttons or combs (Fig. B 1.9). is relatively low when compared with timber or
natural fibres. It is possible, however, to add
Additives with building physics and mechanical limited amounts of moisture-absorbing sub-
functions stances, so-called desiccants (getters), to the
Certain pigments are able to influence how polymer matrix of a plastic. The spacers between
heat is stored in or reflected from polymers. panes of glass in double glazing, for instance, B 1.10
Micaceous pigments, for example, increase the can be made of such a material, which then
reflective power of the polymer, i.e. they reflect a absorbs residual gases in the cavity such as
considerable proportion of the incident infrared water vapour.
light, but the polymer remains transparent for
visible light. The energy transmittance through
transparent polymers sheets in facades due to
radiation can therefore be reduced. Thermo-
chromic or photochromic additives first absorb
energy and then re-emit it after a delay (Fig.
B 1.8); thermopaints react to temperature differ-
ences, whereas photochromic additives absorb
the radiation energy directly. However, these
effects are in most cases not pronounced
enough to make a contribution to building
physics, which is why they are used primarily 100 μm
for decorative reasons.
B 1.11
33
Polymers
Carbon nano tubes Properties of polymers design. On the other hand, transparency with
Carbon nano tubes (CNT) are tubular, cross- respect to ultraviolet or infrared radiation is
linked, electrically conductive carbon molecules The properties of polymers are far more diverse important as regards building physics (see
with a strength exceeding that of high-strength than those of traditional materials such as timber, “Light and heat radiation characteristics”,
carbon fibres. They can be mixed into the poly- metals or concrete (Fig. B 1.19, p. 38). Fibre- pp. 113 – 116).
mer in the form of small particles, which allows reinforced polymers in particular exhibit a wide A component that presents no obstacle to a
them to control a wide variety of mechanical scatter in their strength, elastic modulus and view through is described as transparent, but a
properties (Fig. B 1.11, p. 33). For example, in elongation values (Fig. B 1.12). component through which only a blurred view
fibre composites they substantially improve the The user must select a suitable polymer – opti- is possible is referred to as translucent, and a
adhesion between the fibres and the polymer mised with additives if necessary – depending component that is totally impermeable to light
matrix. The development of applications and on the mechanical, chemical and processing is opaque (Fig. B 1.14).
investigations into the environmental impact of requirements. It is therefore not only important The degree to which a component is transparent
CNT are, however, still ongoing. to know which characteristics polymers exhibit, depends to a great extent on its dimensions. For
but also to what extent these characteristics example, it may be possible to supply one and
Fibres can be varied. the same material in the form of a highly trans-
The inclusion of fibres in the form of short pieces, parent foil, a translucent sheet or even a com-
long fibres or as textiles can bring about a con- Our perception of polymers pletely opaque panel. Accordingly, the terms
siderable increase in the strength and the elastic The sensorial qualities of a polymer determine transparent, translucent and opaque are used
modulus (elongation of material under stress) of a our first impression of it. In contrast to other colloquially to classify a property of a particular
polymer. Glass fibre-reinforced polymer (GFRP) building materials, polymers vary considerably component, not normally a property of a material.
and carbon fibre-reinforced polymer (CFRP) are with respect to their look, feel or sound. And The transparency of polymers depends on the
the most common forms of fibre-reinforced mater- vice versa: their sensorial characteristics can fillers added and their chemical structure, i.e.
ial. As the fibre content increases, so the poly- also be helpful when trying to identify an un- the arrangement of the molecules. In thermo-
mer matrix starts to perform only shaping and known synthetic material. plastics this structure ranges from completely
protective functions, with the fibres governing irregular (amorphous) to more or less regular
the mechanical properties. Textile membranes Visual perception (semi-crystalline). The molecular structure is in
can be regarded as the extreme case, with the The transparency of a material is its property of the first place dependent on the polymer used,
polymer matrix providing merely a thin coating being pervious to radiation. It varies from mater- but can be affected by the production process.
to the fibres. ial to material depending on the wavelength Semi-crystalline thermoplastics such as poly-
The fibres that can be considered for architec- under consideration: a material transparent for ethylene (PE), polypropylene (PP) or polytetra-
tural applications are described in detail in visible light may be opaque for other wave- fluoroethylene (PTFE) are either milky or even
“Fibres” (pp. 48 – 53), and the semi-finished textile lengths. Transparency with respect to visible totally opaque in appearance, whereas amorph-
products in “Textiles”. (pp. 69 – 72). light plays an important role in architectural ous thermoplastics are highly transparent, e.g.
Stress σ [N/mm²]
Structural steel
300
Aluminium
200
PE-LD PVC-U
PMMA PMMA
PVC-U PTFE
GFRP/
CFK PE-LD
PTFE GFRP
Alumi- Structural 53
nium steel
Structural Alumi-
steel 221
nium
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 0 1 2 3 4
Density [kN/m³] Thermal conductivity [W/mK]
b c B 1.12 B 1.13
34
Polymers
a b c B 1.14
polyvinyl chloride (PVC), polystyrene (PS), characteristic “glassy” sound, especially when The failure behaviour of polymers can be divided
polymethyl methacrylate (PMMA – acrylic sheet) it breaks. into three categories: PE, PP, PA, PVC-P, PC,
and polycarbonate (PC). plasticised CA, PTFE and all elastomers exhibit
In the case of thermosets, the dense cross-link- Mechanical properties ductile failures. The so-called strain (or stress)
ing prevents the molecules from attaining a The tensile or compressive strength of a mater- whitening is characterised by the conspicuous,
regular arrangement, which is why such polymers ial describes the maximum stress the material white rupture in the material. The behaviour of
are normally transparent. In elastomers the can accommodate. In the case of polymers, unplasticised PVC (PVC-U) and the styrene
molecules are only partly cross-linked, which the value of the tensile strength is frequently copolymers (SB, ABS, ASA), which exhibit strain
would lead us to suspect that transparent elasto- higher than that of the compressive strength. whitening, lies between that of ductile and brittle.
mers would be possible in theory. However, the The elastic modulus describes the elongation PMMA, PS, the styrene copolymer SAN and all
fillers used, such as carbon black and oil, rule of the material when subjected to a stress – a thermosets are glass-like in their behaviour and
out any transparency. Nevertheless, in order to high elastic modulus corresponds to a low de- exhibit brittle failure. In terms of durability and
produce a transparent, elastic material, it is formation. But the actual elongation of a com- reliability, brittle failure must be regarded as a
possible to combine elastomers and thermo- ponent depends on the geometry of its cross- negative characteristic. Polymers that are actu-
plastics chemically or physically (thermoplastic section. The combination of elastic modulus and ally ductile can become brittle as a result of
elastomers – TPE). cross-sectional geometry determines the stiffness ageing and the associated degradation of the
Permanent exposure to UV radiation can cause of a component. The elastic moduli of polymers plasticiser they contain, and thus change their
some transparent but non-light-fast polymers, are often not constant, but instead decrease failure behaviour.
e.g. PVC, to become “cloudy” over time, and with the load, i.e. the deformations intensify dis-
thus lose their transparency. In the case of PVC, proportionately in relation to the increasing load Hardness
radiation breaks down the hydrogen chloride (Fig. B 1.12a). In addition, both the elastic The hardness of a material describes the degree
on the surface, which leads to yellowing (Fig. modulus and the strength of every polymer de- to which its surface resists the penetration of a
B 1.13). pends on the temperature – both values drop pointed object. Hardness depends on the elas-
as the temperature of the component rises. For tic modulus and yield stress of the material.
Haptic perception example, the tensile strength of polycarbonate at Various testing methods are employed in prac-
Polymers are mostly used without any additional a component temperature of 100 °C is only two- tice, the particular method depending on the
coatings, so the quality of the surface of the thirds of that at room temperature. hardness range of the material to be tested. All
material is particularly relevant. PE, PP, PTFE and the tests use a bar with a conical or spherical
cellulose acetate (CA) feel very “waxy” to the Failure behaviour tip that is pressed into the material; the result-
touch, which is generally regarded as a pleasant The safety of a structure is not only dependent ing indentation depth is then measured. The
feeling – the handles of tools, for example, are on the loads a material can carry, but also on “Shore A” method is used for soft elastomers,
therefore often made from CA. The scratch re- the failure behaviour of that material. A brittle “Shore D” for harder elastomers and soft thermo-
sistance of polymers also varies, with PE and material fails abruptly once it reaches its break- plastics (DIN 53505). Harder thermoplastics
plasticised PVC (PVC-P) being particularly sen- ing point, possibly resulting in sharp, dangerous and all thermosets are measured according to
sitive to scratches, PMMA somewhat less so. fragments and splinters. We speak of brittle be- the “Rockwell” method (DIN EN ISO 6508-1)
The hardness of a material correlates to a cer- haviour, also of low (notched) impact strength, and fibre-reinforced polymers make use of the
tain extent with its scratch resistance, and the or of glass-like behaviour. However, materials “Barcol” method (according to DIN EN 59).
hardness is in turn dependent on the material’s with a ductile or viscoelastic behaviour do not
elastic modulus and yield stress, i.e. the mechan- break at all in the ideal case. And subjected to
ical stress at which the material starts to exhibit an impact load, such a material can absorb
a permanent plastic deformation. some of the energy. Another advantage of a
ductile material is that local overloads can be
Acoustic perception accommodated through plastic deformation. The
A specialist can identify a polymer by the sound material begins to “flow”, i.e. the deformation in-
it makes when it is struck, or by the crinkling creases while the stress remains more or less
sound of a polymer foil. For example, PVC-P, constant. This transfers loads to neighbouring
acrylonitrile-butadiene-styrene (ABS), PMMA, areas. Polymers cover the whole range between
PA and CA sound rather dull, whereas other brittle and viscoelastic, with certain additives
polymers tend to “clang”, e.g. unplasticised (plasticisers) frequently being used to improve the
PVC (PVC-U), PC or PS. The latter has a very material behaviour in the direction of the latter.
35
Polymers
1.1
0.7
Vinyl ester resin (VE)
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
Unsaturated polyester resin (UP)
0.2
0.1
0
Loss of mass [%]
-0.5
Phenolic resin (PF)
-1.0
36
Polymers
Type of polymer Specifi- Failure Trans- Dens- Service Features Trade Chemical attack by Tensile Elastic Coeff. of Thermal
cation behav- parency ity temperature names & strength modulus linear conduc-
iour long/short synonyms [N/mm2] [N/mm2] thermal tivity
[g/ [°C] expansion [W/mK]
cm3] acids alkalis weather
10-6/K
Thermoplastics
PVC Polyvinyl U strain 1.46 65 – 70/75 –90 Clanging sound ++ ++ 0 50 –75 1000 – 3500 70 – 80 0.14 – 0.17
chloride whitening
P ductile 1.27 50 – 55/55 – 65 Flexible like + + - 10 – 25 – 150 – 210 0.15
rubber, no sound
PE Polyethylene LD ductile 0.92 60 –75/80 – 90 Waxy feel, can ++ ++ - 8 – 23 200 – 500 230 – 250 0.32 – 0.40
be marked with
fingernail
HD ductile 0.95 75 – 90/90 –120 ++ ++ - 18 – 35 700 –1400 120 – 200 0.38 – 0.51
PP Polypropylene ductile 0.90 100/140 Cannot be + ++ - 21 – 37 1100 –1300 110 –170 0.17 – 0.22
marked with
fingernail
PS Polystyrene brittle 1.05 50 –70/60 – 80 Sounds glassy + + - 45 – 65 3200 – 3250 60 – 80 0.18
PTFE Polytetrafluoro- ductile 2.17 250/300 Waxy feel ++ ++ ++ 25 – 36 410 120 – 250 0.25
ethylene
ETFE Ethylene 1.75 150/220 ++ ++ ++ 35 – 54 1100 40 0.23
tetrafluoro-
ethylene
CA Cellulose (tri) ductile 1.30 70/80 Pleasant feel, -- - - 38 2200 120 0.22
acetate dull sound
Elastomers (with fillers)
Natural rubber ductile 70/90 rubber, 0 0 -- approx.
latex 30.0
R rubber ductile 100 –130/120 –130 neoprene, -/+ 0/+ -- approx.
chloro- 20.0–25.0
prene,
variable
butyl, nitrile
M rubber ductile 120 –170/150 – 200 Buna AP, + + ++ approx.
Keltan 20.0
Q rubber ductile 180/300 silicone 0/- 0/- ++ approx. 8.0
Thermosets
PF Phenolic resin brittle 1.30 110/140 Not light-fast, Bakelite - - + 20 – 60 1500 – 2500 35 0.35
heat-resistant
with brittle 1.40 110/140 - - + 25 560 – 1200 10 – 50 0.35
sawdust
fibre-re- brittle 2.00 110/140 - - + variable variable variable variable
inforced
UP Unsaturated brittle 1.20 150/200 synthetic 0 0 + 40 –70 3000 – 4200 80 –150 0.7
polyester resin resin
fibre-re- brittle 1.80 150/200 0 0 + 80 –240 7000 – 9 – 30 0.25
inforced 23 000
(GFRP))
EP Epoxy resin brittle 1.20 130/180 High strength + + 0 60 –125 3000 – 6000 60 0.88
37
Polymers
Polyvinyl(idene) chloride
Polyfluorohydrocarbons Phenolic resin (PF)
(PVC/PVdC) or Urea formaldehyde (UF) Melamine resin (MF)
(PTFE, ETFE) with inorganic filler
VC copolymers
Specimen burns in flame, but does not continue to burn after removing flame
Specimen continues to burn after removing flame (assess colour immediately after removing flame)
Cellulose
Epoxy resin Cellulose nitrate Polyoxymethy- Cellulose Polystyrene Polyvinyl acetate Polyurethane Ethyl cellulose Polyester resin
acetate-butyrate
(EP) (CN) lene (POM) acetate (CA) (PS) (PVA) (PUR) (EC) (UP)
(CAB)
Blue flame
with yellow tip
38
Polymers
B 1.20
39
Polymers
B 1.21 Properties of thermoplastics depending on Recycling plastic elastomers (TPE), the two phases are
temperature Only thermoplastics are worth considering for either chemically bonded (block polymers) or
a Amorphous polymers (PVC, PS, PMMA, PC),
complete recycling because only these poly- simply purely physically mixed together (poly-
with range of application below glass transition
temperature in hard elastic vitreous region, mers can be melted down and remoulded. Be- mer blends). At service temperatures, TPEs
tending towards brittle failure behaviour sides ensuring that polymer waste streams are exhibit the chemical properties of an elastomer,
b Semi-crystalline thermoplastics (PE, PP, PTFE, segregated for recycling, it is also important to e.g. good extensibility, whereas at high tempera-
ETFE), with range of application above glass make sure that the additives and fillers used in tures, however, they behave like thermoplastics,
transition temperature in soft elastic region,
tending towards ductile failure behaviour
the polymers are identical or nearly so. In prac- e.g. are easily moulded and weldable. TPEs
B 1.22 Blending of thermoplastics tice this can only be guaranteed by a materials are mainly used to replace soft thermoplastics
B 1.23 Polyvinyl chloride (PVC) life cycle controlled by the manufacturers, which such as PVC-P where a higher elasticity is re-
B 1.24 Polyethylene (PE) requires a corresponding logistical input. One quired, e.g. waterproof sheeting. Another advan-
B 1.25 Polypropylene (PP)
example of this is the materials life cycle for PVC tage is that, unlike elastomers, they can be
B 1.26 Polystyrene (PS)
window frames operated by European manu- coloured; from opaque to high transparency,
facturers. Thanks to the uniform composition of all nuances are possible.
TG = glass transition temperature TF = flow temperature the polymers used, all the products covered by
ε [%] f [N /mm²]
TZ = decomposition temperature this life cycle can be mixed and recycled at the Polyvinyl chloride (PVC)
end of their (initial) useful lives – the recycling ˉ Window frames, pipes, rooflights, floor cover-
Strength f rate is almost 100 %. ings, membrane coatings (Fig. B 1.23)
If complete recycling is impossible, the waste PVC is by far the most common synthetic mater-
can be processed to form products of lower ial in use in the building industry. It has a higher
Deformation ε
quality (downcycling). Employing polymers waste strength and higher elastic modulus than the
as bulk fill materials, insulation, floor coverings other thermoplastics. PVC is also widely used
and similar purposes is possible, but depending in the construction sector because of its good
on the intended usage, segregated waste ageing resistance, excellent resistance to chemi-
streams may again be necessary. However, for cal substances and – compared with other
downcycling it is not necessary to ensure that all thermoplastics – its good fire protection qualities.
waste components contain identical fillers and This transparent material is, however, not per-
additives. manently light-fast, which is why it is frequently
Tmax TG TF TZ T[°C]
Melt Decomposition
The diversity of the polymer products used in coloured to produce an opaque product. Its
Application range, Forming range,
hard elastic soft elastic state the construction industry makes segregated coefficient of thermal expansion and thermal
vitreous state
a waste streams almost impossible. In the auto- conductivity are, for a thermoplastic, on the low
motive industry this problem is dealt with by side. In principle, PVC is brittle and therefore
using barcodes so that every individual synthetic requires the addition of plasticisers.
TG = glass transition temperature TF = flow temperature
ε [%] f [N /mm²]
PMMA
PE-LD
SAN
PVC
ABS
PET
to their higher viscosity, they are less suitable produce and easy to work – welding, gluing
PC
PA
PP
PS
as substrates for fibre-reinforced polymers than and moulding can all be carried out without
PVC ++
thermosets. problems.
PE-LD ≈ ++
PE-HD ≈ ≈ ++ Polymer compounds
PP ≈ ≈ ≈ ++ Polymer blends are mixtures of various polymers
PS ≈ ≈ ≈ ≈ ++ which, however, do not react with each other,
ABS - ≈ ≈ ≈ ≈ ++ but instead are only physically mixed and inter-
SAN + ≈ ≈ ≈ ≈ ++ ++ linked by a so-called coupling agent. Mixing
PMMA ++ ≈ ≈ ≈ - ++ ++ ++ such materials together enables the properties
PC -- ≈ ≈ ≈ ≈ + + ++ ++ of several basic materials to be combined to
PET ≈ ≈ ≈ ≈ -- -- ≈ ≈ ++ ++ satisfy different specifications (Fig. B 1.22).
PA ≈ ≈ ≈ ≈ -- ≈ ≈ ≈ ≈ -- ++ And it is not only possible to combine various
+ to ++ blend well ≈ do not blend thermoplastics – thermoplastics can also be
- to -- can blend mixed with elastomers. In the so-called thermo-
B 1.22
40
Polymers
41
Polymers
42
Polymers
43
Polymers
TG = glass transition
ε [%] f [N/mm²]
temperature
TZ = decomposition temperature
Strength f
Deformation ε
TG TZ T [°C]
Vitreous state Application range,
rubber-like
elastic state
B 1.35 B 1.36 B 1.37
44
Polymers
Tensile Elasticity Wearing Weather & ozone Heat Flexibility at Gas Long-term service
strength resistance resistance resistance low temp. permeability temp. [°C]1
Natural rubber NR ++ ++ o -- -- ++ - 100
R rubbers SBR + - + -- - + - 110
BR -- ++ ++ -- -- ++ - 100
IIR - -- - o o o ++ 130
CR + + + - - o + 120
M rubbers EPDM o o - ++ + + o 140
FKM o -- - ++ ++ -- + 210
EAM o -- - ++ + - + 170
Silicone rubber MVQ - + -- ++ ++ ++ -- 200
FVMQ - o -- ++ + + -- 180
Polyurethane rubber AU ++ + ++ + o - + 130
1
approx. 1000 hours for optimum material +, ++ good properties o average properties -, -- poor properties
B 1.38
adding active fillers which at the same time Styrene butadiene rubber (SBR) molecular chains are much more stable than all
reinforce the material. The filler used for dark ˉ Floor coverings, electric cable sheathing, other synthetic materials.
elastomers, e.g. vehicle tyres, is normally car- hoses, sealing gaskets, vehicle tyres (Fig.
bon black, for light-coloured products micro- B 1.35) Polysulphide rubber (TM)
dispersed silicic acid or oil. The weathering SBR is one of the synthetic R rubbers, which Polysulphide rubber can be processed in solid
resistance of elastomers is generally good, but are very similar to natural rubber. They have a form or – in contrast to most other rubbers –
there is always the risk that air, or rather the limited service temperature range and relatively also in liquid form. In the building industry, liquid
oxygen in the air, could dissolve out the chemi- poor weather and ozone resistance. However, TM can be used as a joint sealing compound.
cally bonded sulphur which then makes the they are inexpensive and therefore frequently It then cures during the final processing by
elastomer crumbly, and causes it to age. used in applications where they are not directly adding an oxidising agent or through the action
The elastomers relevant for the building industry exposed to UV radiation. of the moisture in the surrounding air.
are briefly described below. The various synthetic In contrast to NR, SBR has a better resistance
rubbers are divided into a number of groups to abrasion and products can also be manufac- Polyurethane rubber (AU or EU)
according to their chemical composition and tured in lighter colours. Polyurethane rubber is processed in a viscous
properties. The so-called R rubbers include – in state. Like all polyurethanes, it has good wear-
addition to natural rubber (NR) – a number of Ethylene propylene diene monomer rubber (EPDM) ing and weathering resistance, excellent strength
synthetic elastomers with properties similar to ˉ Waterproof sheeting, linings, expansion joint and good elasticity.
those of natural rubber. R rubbers have com- gaskets, floor coverings (Fig. B 1.34)
paratively high strengths, but a lower weather- As with the group of M rubbers in general, EPDM Casting polyurethane elastomers (PUR)
ing resistance. tends to have inferior mechanical properties to In the cross-linked state, casting polyurethane
The synthetic M and Q rubbers (silicone elasto- those of the R rubbers, but exhibits outstanding elastomers exhibit the typical properties of
mers) represent a contrast because they are ozone and weathering resistance plus a rela- elastomers, but can be processed as a liquid
highly weather-resistant but not as strong. There tively high gas permeability. The heat resistance resin prior to cross-linking. High wearing and
are also other groups that have been developed of the M rubbers is also higher than that of the abrasion resistance, good strength and weather
for specific applications. R group. EPDM is important for applications in resistance are the main advantages of these
the building industry where direct exposure to materials. Their good damping properties make
Natural rubber (NR) the weather and UV radiation is to be expected. them especially interesting for floor coverings
Natural rubber is based on vegetable rubber And another area where EPDM excels is for in sports centres.
(latex) and belongs to the group of R rubbers. building components exposed to a combination
It still plays an important role because it has of steam or water and high temperatures.
many positive properties that cannot be
matched by synthetic rubbers (Fig. B 1.33). Its Silicone rubber (Q)
strength, extensibility and rebound resilience ˉ Jointing materials, window and door gaskets
are excellent, the rise in temperature under (Fig. B 1.36)
dynamic loads very low. Two-thirds of the world’s Silicone rubber has a very high heat resistance,
HGV tyres are therefore currently produced indeed can even be heated to more than 400 °C
from natural rubber. For other applications, for a few minutes. It is also ideal for low-tempera-
however, natural rubber is gradually being re- ture applications. This type of Q rubber is very
placed by the specialised and frequently less difficult to wet, i.e. it is also water-repellent and
expensive synthetic rubbers. anti-adhesive. It also exhibits a much higher
The sulphur required for vulcanisation improves gas permeability than natural rubber.
the generally limited long-term durability and Silicone rubber has a different chemical struc-
weathering resistance of natural rubber. Never- ture to the majority of synthetic materials. Its
theless, it is sensitive to UV radiation and ozone molecular chains are formed primarily from sili-
over the long-term, also petrol. These disad- con atoms and carbon appears only – if at all –
vantages can be problematic for construction in side groups. It is this structure that makes
applications because of the long service lives the material incombustible and therefore suitable
expected. for applications with a very wide temperature
range. Its weathering and ageing resistance
are excellent and when exposed to UV light the
45
Polymers
T Z = decomposition temperature
Tmax = service temperature
ε [%] f [N/mm²]
Strength f
Deformation ε
46
Polymers
47
Fibres
B 2.1
In relation to their length, fibres have a very small The actual production and further processing of
cross-section and therefore a distinct orienta- the various fibres vary considerably and there-
tion. Whereas their natural “role models” such fore the various operations are explained in more
as wool actually occur in the form of fibres, syn- detail in the descriptions of the individual fibres.
thetic materials must first be turned into fibres. What the different processes have in common
Fibres are flexible, versatile in their use and is that the individual fibres are wetted with a
processing and have a high strength. They have protective coating (called size or finish) imme-
therefore a long history of use for the production diately after production ready for the further
of textiles. We generally distinguish between in- processing. These substances reduce the
organic fibres (made from glass or carbon), buckling sensitivity and improve the adhesion
polymer fibres (synthetic fibres), metal fibres and among the fibres themselves or between the
natural fibres (Fig. B 2.5). All man-made fibres fibres and the polymer in the final fibre composite.
are referred to as chemical or synthetic fibres. We distinguish here between textile sizes for
Synthetic fibres are generally preferred for archi- fibres that are further processed to form textiles,
tectural applications because only these fibres and bonding sizes for fibres that are to be em-
exhibit the strength and durability necessary for bedded in polymer. Which material is suitable
permanent structures. Apart from carbon fibres, for the protective coating depends on the
all synthetic fibres are produced from solid respective type of fibre.
materials by way of melting and stretching pro-
cesses. Mechanical properties
Fibres have a much higher strength than their
respective raw material. The melting and stretch-
Properties and applications ing processes during production align the inter-
nal structure of the fibre in the longitudinal direc-
Apart from glass and metal fibres, the majority tion and thus improve the strength of the mater-
of fibres, first and foremost the polymer fibres, ial. In doing so, air inclusions are compressed,
consist of bundles of tiny fibres when viewed which reduces the negative effect that such
under the microscope (Fig. B 2.7). The diameters flaws have on the strength in the longitudinal
of synthetic fibres vary between 5 and 24 μm, direction of the fibre. The strength of synthetic
whereas natural fibres can be up to 500 μm in fibres increases as the diameter decreases
diameter. Indeed, human hair is comparatively (Fig. B 2.2). The more pronounced the longitu-
thick at 120 μm. The mass per unit length of the dinal orientation of the microstructure in the fibre,
fibres is measured in dtex, where 1 dtex = 1 g the greater the decrease in the mechanical
per 10 km. properties in the transverse direction. Fibres
As the individual fibres (filaments) would be too are frequently sensitive to transverse compres-
fine for further processing, they are grouped sion, especially carbon fibres.
into larger units immediately after production The intended uses of the fibres lead to different
(Fig. B 2.4). A bundle of parallel fibres is known requirements regarding, for example, strength,
as a roving, whereas a twisted bundle of fibres buckling sensitivity or low self-weight. If we
is known as a yarn. The number of fibres per consider tensile strength alone, then carbon
roving or yarn is specified in kilo (= 1000 fibre fibres exhibit the highest values of all materials
B 2.1 Braided hose made from carbon fibres = 1 K). Rovings represent the typical raw mater- available for practical usage (Figs. B 2.3 and
B 2.2 Strength of a glass fibre in relation to the fibre
ial for processing into fibre-reinforced polymers B 2.10, p. 50). They are, however, relatively
diameter
B 2.3 Stress-strain diagrams for various fibres (see “Fibres”, p. 77), primarily by way of mech- sensitive to buckling.
B 2.4 Possible forms of processing an individual fibre anised methods. Yarns, on the other hand, are The relationship between strength and self-
(filament) used for making woven or knitted fabrics (see weight is interesting when planning lightweight,
B 2.5 Classification of types of fibre “Textiles”, pp. 69 – 72). Their twist eases the loadbearing structures. The breaking length of a
B 2.6 Breaking lengths of various fibres compared with
natural silk from spiders
processing and increases the effective strength fibre is a good indicator for the choice of material
B 2.7 Glass, carbon and aramid fibres viewed under the of the fibre bundle because the individual fila- (Fig. B 2.6). This value corresponds to the theo-
microscope ments within the yarn are loaded more uniformly. retical length a vertically suspended fibre could
48
Fibres
reach before breaking under its own weight. because of their low elastic modulus, which or interior applications (see “Natural fibres”,
Whereas conventional structural timber has a would lead to excessive deformations of the pp. 61 – 62).
breaking length of only a little over 40 km, a poly- finished component. In addition, the thermosets
ethylene (PE) fibre could be up to 400 km long normally used (see “Thermosets”, pp. 46 – 47) Textile membranes
because of its low self-weight. The record for can only accept a limited amount of elongation. In contrast to fibre composites, a certain exten-
the longest theoretical breaking length is cur- The tensile strengths of soft fibres cannot be sibility, i.e. an elastic modulus that is not too
rently held by carbon nano tubes; however, this fully exploited because the polymer cracks be- high, is advantageous in membrane structures.
material is not yet available in the lengths nec- fore the tensile strength is reached, which The extensibility of a membrane increases the
essary for the construction industry. leads to failure of the entire component. Metal permissible tolerances in the cutting pattern –
fibres are ruled out because of their smooth geometrical discrepancies can be compensated
Applications in architecture surfaces, which do not allow an adequate bond for to a certain degree by overstressing. More-
The properties of fibres are very much depend- to be achieved with the polymer. over, the prestress required in the membrane
ent on the raw material from which they are If we compare glass and carbon fibres, then we can be set more reliably. Polymer fibres made
made and the respective production method. discover that the tensile strengths of the fibres from PET or PTFE are used as well as glass
The strength and elastic modulus of some fibres alone are roughly identical. However, the elastic fibres.
can be specifically varied to suit the intended modulus of carbon fibres is much higher than Fibres with a very high elastic modulus, e.g.
applications. Which properties of fibres can be that of glass fibres. Therefore, owing to the limited carbon or metal fibres, are unsuitable for mem-
optimised depends on the type of processing extensibility of the plastic matrix, the strength of brane structures. As soft fibres are preferred,
and the type of application. carbon fibre-reinforced polymer (CFRP) is higher textile membranes are coated exclusively
than that of glass fibre-reinforced polymer (GFRP). with extensible polymers (see “Coatings”,
Fibre-reinforced polymers Natural fibres have been enjoying a renaissance pp. 100 – 103).
Fibres are further processed in many different in recent years. The fibres are hollow and that
ways to form fibre composites, where they form results in a low self-weight and hence light-
the reinforcement embedded in a polymer, the weight constructions. However, natural fibres
so-called matrix (see “Fibres”, p. 77). Fibres tend to absorb moisture and their mechanical
with a minimum elongation, i.e. a high elastic properties exhibit severe scatter, which means
modulus, are preferred for this; the tensile they cannot be considered for loadbearing
strength of the fibre is in most cases of second- components at present. From the ecological
ary importance only. Glass and carbon fibres viewpoint, however, we can expect to see more
are the usual choices in practice, but in some use being made of these fibres in the future.
sectors aramid or PE fibres are also in use. Their good acoustic and haptic properties
Other polymer fibres are not worth considering make natural fibres potentially useful for cladding
4000
Strength [N/mm2 ]
σ [N/mm 2 ]
3000
4000
PE fibres E-glass fibres Filament Filament Yarn
2000
Flax
1000
1000 PET fibres
0 0
0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.1 0.12 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
Fibre diameter [mm] ε [%]
B 2.2 B 2.3 B 2.4
Spider
Natural fibres Organic synthetic fibres silk
(polymer fibres)
Steel
• Flax • Polyethylene (PE)
• Sisal • Polyethylene terephthalate Wood
• Hemp (PET)
• Jute • Polyamide (PA) Hemp
• Ramie • Polyimide (PI) PET
• Banana • Polyacrylonitrile (PAN)
• Asbestos1 • Polytetrafluoroethylene Flax
(PTFE)
• Aramid Aramid
49
Fibres
Glass fibres
ˉ Glass-fibre membranes, glass fibre-reinforced
polymers (GFRP) (Fig. B 2.11)
Glass is melted and drawn into thin threads in
order to produce glass fibres. E-glass (E =
electric) is the standard fibre produced. It con-
tains no alkalis and is subject to attack in a basic
environment; AR-glass (AR = alkaline-resistant)
PAN yarn Catalyst Air Waste gas Inter gas (N2) Volatile
by-products is therefore used for textile-reinforced concrete.
Other types of fibre are available for special
HT, IM applications: C-glass (C = corrosion) with its good
(high-strength carbon fibres) chemical resistance, or the high-strength R- and
S-glass types (R = resistance, S = strength)
Yarn winding Surface treatment 3rd stage HM
graphitising with high heat and fatigue resistance.
(stiff
carbon E-glass consists of quartz sand (SiO2), lime-
2000–3000°C fibres) stone (CaCO3) and – in contrast to float glass –
5–30 min
boric acid plus large quantities of aluminium
oxide. In the melt spinning process, these raw
materials are melted down in a furnace over
several days, refined and finally forced through
spinning nozzles. The viscous threads, still ap-
prox. 2 mm thick, are stretched to about 40 000
times their original length using a fast-rotating
Size Pretreatment Volatile Inert gas winding machine and in the process reduced
by-products (argon)
B 2.9
to the desired diameter of 9 – 24 μm (Fig. B 2.8).
As glass fibres are very sensitive to notches,
Property (in Specifi- Tensile Elastic Elongation Density Coeff. of Thermal Fibre like all fibres they are given a coating of size
direction of cation strength modulus at failure thermal conduct- diameter during production, or rather prior to weaving.
fibre) expansion ivity The amorphous structure of glass fibres makes
[103/mm2] [103/mm2] [%] [g/cm3] [10-6/K] [W/mK] [µm] them isotropic, i.e. they exhibit identical proper-
Inorganic fibres ties in the longitudinal and transverse directions.
Glass E 3.4 – 3.5 72 –77 3.3 – 4.8 2.52 – 2.60 5.00 1 9 – 24 Their tensile and compressive strength are
R/S 4.4 – 4.6 75 – 88 4.1– 5.4 2.50 – 2.53 4.00 1 9 – 24 therefore almost the same. The main differences
AR 2.7 21–74 2.0 – 4.3 2.68 – 2.70 1 9 – 24 between glass fibres and other common types
Carbon HT 3–5 200 – 250 1.2 –1.4 1.75 –1.80 -1.00 17 7– 9
of fibre is their uniform and approximately cir-
cular cross-section, also their loadbearing be-
IM 4–5 250 – 350 1.1 –1.9 1.73 –1.80 -1.20 7– 9
haviour, which is linear-elastic up to a brittle
HM 2–4 350 – 450 0.4 – 0.8 1.79 –1.91 -1.30 115 7– 9 failure. Their small diameter of just a few micro-
Polymer fibres metres means that they are flexible, but in com-
Aramid IM 2.7 58 3.3 1.44 -2.00 0.04 – 0.05 12 parison with other fibres they tend to be rather
HM 2.4 – 2.7 120 –146 1.5 – 2.4 1.44 -4.00 0.04 – 0.05 12 sensitive to buckling.
Polyester (PET) 1.1 10 22 1.38 Like all inorganic fibres, glass fibres exhibit very
little creep. They absorb very little moisture, but
PA 0.9 5 20 1.16
nevertheless still tend to corrode when exposed
PE 2.7– 3.6 89 –116 10 – 45 0.97 -12.10
directly to the weather and must therefore be
Natural fibres coated or embedded in a polymer. One advan-
Flax 0.8 –1.5 60 – 80 1.2 –1.6 1.40 0.04 5 – 38 tage of glass fibres is that they do not burn.
Hemp 0.6 – 0.9 70 1.6 1.48 0.045 16 – 50 Permanent temperatures up to 250 °C have no
E: electric glass, R/S: high-strength glass, AR: alkali-resistant glass, HT: high tensile strength, IM: intermediate modulus, effect on the mechanical properties of the fibres.
HM: high modulus Glass fibres are transparent and have a greenish
B 2.10
50
Fibres
tinge that only becomes noticeable as the of these raw materials using a spinning method.
thickness of the component increases. Loose The subsequent operations are similar to the
glass fibres appear opaque and white because method for PAN fibres.
the incident light is reflected from their large Fibres made from carbon nano tubes (CNT)
surface area. These surface reflections can be have a tensile strength many times that of normal
suppressed by building the fibres into a trans- carbon fibres. Up until now, however, it has not
parent polymer; the composite material then been possible to produce CNT fibres on a large
becomes translucent. To achieve this, the glass scale, only as very short filaments.
fibres and the polymer must, however, exhibit
similar refractive indexes.
Polymer fibres
Carbon fibres B 2.8 Method for producing glass fibres
ˉ Carbon fibre-reinforced polymers (CFRP) Polymer fibres are made from synthetic materials B 2.9 Method for producing carbon fibres
B 2.10 Various properties in the direction of the fibre
(Fig. B 2.12) and exhibit the typical properties of polymers: B 2.11 Glass fibres
Carbon fibres have a much higher elastic modu- they are extensible, but tend to creep and are B 2.12 Carbon fibres
lus than all other fibres. The mechanical prop- combustible. The fibre production process en- B 2.13 Aramid fibres
erties can be varied much more easily than is ables much better mechanical properties to be
the case with, for example, glass fibres. Carbon achieved than is the case with the respective
fibres can be produced in different forms: polymer. Polymer fibres are lighter than inorganic
• Standard modulus fibres (high tensile, HT) fibres, generally tougher and also exhibit a
with high tensile strength lower elastic modulus in most cases. As a rule,
• High modulus (HM) fibres with high material the strengths lie below those of inorganic fibres.
stiffness Polymer fibres are generally intensely aniso-
• Intermediate modulus (IM) fibres with moderate tropic, with a much higher strength and elastic
tensile strength and material stiffness modulus in the longitudinal direction than in the
transverse direction. Normally, polymer fibres
Carbon fibres exhibit anisotropic properties: are neither weather-resistant nor light-fast, and
stiffness and strength in particular are much therefore always require a protective coating.
lower transverse to the fibres than in the direc- Polymer fibres are typically produced using the
tion of the fibres. The coefficient of thermal ex- melt spinning method. In this method, the poly-
pansion is negative along the length of the mer is melted under the exclusion of air, forced
fibre, but positive in the transverse direction. through spinning nozzles and generally hardened
Carbon fibres therefore shorten as they get by cooling in air. In the wet spinning method,
warmer. They are brittle and sensitive to buck- the hardening takes place in a liquid, in the so- B 2.11
ling, which is why their surfaces must be pro- called coagulating bath.
tected by a epoxy resin coating. Apart from aramid and polyethylene fibres,
The advantages are good dynamic properties, polymer fibres are not used in fibre-reinforced
low self-weight and very high corrosion resist- composites but instead are used primarily as
ance, and the fact that they exhibit no signifi- the basic material for membranes because this
cant creep. Carbon substances are black and is where their flexibility and extensibility is critical.
their crystalline structure means they are always Fibres can be obtained from virtually every
opaque. Despite their good mechanical prop- thermoplastic – polypropylene (PP; Fig. B 2.19,
erties, up until now carbon fibres have only be- p. 53), polyimide (PI) and polyacrylonitrile (PAN)
come established in the aerospace industry as well as those described below.
and a number of niche markets. The reason for
this is the cost of their production. In the build-
ing industry they are used, for example, for
heavily loaded bridge cables (see “Special semi-
finished products for engineering applications”,
pp. 92 – 93).
Carbon substances occur in nature in crystal- B 2.12
line form as graphite and diamond, but these
natural materials cannot be processed to form
fibres. Therefore, a polymer fibre is first pro-
duced, mostly polyacrylonitrile (PAN), from
which all the elements it contains apart from the
main one, carbon, are subsequently dissolved
out and removed (Fig. B 2.9). This process is
carried out by means of a multi-stage heat treat-
ment with temperatures up to 3000 °C and simul-
taneous stretching of the fibres. The mechanical
properties required can be obtained by adjusting
the process temperature. The energy needed
for heating is one reason for the high price of
carbon fibres. Production methods using coaltar
or mineral pitch are also available. Fibres with a
high axial orientation are produced from a melt
B 2.13
51
Fibres
H2SO4
80 by wt.-%
H2SO4
Polymer
20 by wt.-%
Mixing
Extruding
Spinning
H2O Yarn winding
Washing/neutralising/
drying
H2SO4/H2O
B 2.14 B 2.15 B 2.16
Aramid fibres similar to the aramid fibres. Like the raw mater- can therefore only be used with coatings (e.g.
ˉ Hauling ropes, aramid fibre-reinforced polymers ial, polyethylene, itself, the fibres also exhibit a PVC). Owing to their flexibility and buckling re-
(AFRP), safety helmets (Fig. B 2.13) very low surface adhesion. Only with the help sistance, these fibres are often used for ropes,
Aramid fibres are very lightweight fibres that of a special coating is it possible to use PE fibres belts or sewing threads. In the form of a fabric,
consist of aromatic polyamides. As with all poly- for composites. these properties make PET fibres useful for
mer fibres, the strength properties are intensely The manufacture of high-performance PE fibres temporary and convertible structures.
anisotropic, and apart from that the compres- is carried out using the gel spinning method, The fibres are obtained from polyethylene
sive strength of the fibres is much lower than which is similar to the production of aramid fibres. terephthalate using the melt spinning method.
the tensile strength. Aramid fibres are therefore Here again, the polymer is first broken down in a The resulting white material can be coloured
ideal for ropes or fibre composites in tension, solvent and then the solution is forced through with dispersion paints (see “Paints”, p. 58).
but less suitable for applications involving a nozzle, cooled in a water bath, then stretched, Various thermoplastics fall under the heading
bending or compression. Their disadvantages dried and finally spun. of polyester, and PET is the raw material most
are their tendency to absorb moisture and the commonly used for the production of fibres.
relatively low resistance to heat and UV light. In Polyamide fibres (PA fibres) This is why PET fibres are often simply referred
contrast to glass and carbon fibres, composites ˉ Clothing, sports goods to by manufacturers as polyester fibres. Many
employing aramid fibres are difficult to machine Polyamide fibres, known as nylon, are charac- manufacturers concerned with the production
because the tough fibres cause high tool wear. terised among the polymer fibres by their high of membranes also use the abbreviation PES,
Aramid fibres are therefore rarely used in the strength, stiffness and toughness. The values which, however, is incorrect from the materials
building industry. But their low weight and depend on the crystalline microstructure and science viewpoint because PES already stands
good impact resistance makes them ideal for the water content of the polyamides. Fabrics for the thermoplastic polyether sulphone.
safety helmets or bulletproof vests. Their char- employing polyamide fibres were used in the
acteristic failure behaviour enables them to ab- early days of membrane structures. The disad- Fibres made from aromatic polyesters
sorb impact energy and thus cushion a blow. vantage here, however, is the severe elongation In a similar way to aramid (a special form of
They are also sometimes combined with CFRP of the material when it absorbs moisture and polyamide), polyester, too, can be provided
in order to increase their toughness or prevent the associated drop in the prestress. Polyamide with aromatic rings (Vectran). The resulting
the spreading of cracks (see “Preparing the fibres shrink if the temperature rises too severe- fibres have a high impact strength and a low
polymer”, pp. 68 – 69). ly. They exhibit a high resistance to chemicals, self-weight. They are used, for example, in
In contrast to other polymer fibres, aramid fibres but the resistance to UV light is relatively low. combination with carbon fibres for fibre-rein-
cannot be produced by means of the melt spin- These days, the flexibility and lightness of poly- forced polymers in the aerospace industry.
ning method because they do not exhibit a dis- amide fibres makes them favourites for the
tinct melting behaviour. Aromatic polyamide is clothing industry in particular, also for tents, Polytetrafluoroethylene fibres (PTFE fibres)
dissolved with an acid and spun to form fibres. spinnakers in sail-making, parachutes and para- ˉ PTFE membranes, sewing threads (Fig. B 2.16)
Afterwards, the fibres are washed and dried gliders. The fibres are produced using the melt The strengths of PTFE fibres are somewhat
under tension, which results in a fibre diameter spinning method and can be coloured in the lower than those of the other polymer fibres.
of approx. 12 μm (Fig. B 2.15). spinning nozzle or further processed as a white But the tear propagation resistance of PTFE
material for later colouring. fabrics is comparatively high, i.e. once a tear
Polyethylene fibres (PE fibres) appears in a PTFE membrane, complete tear-
ˉ Ropes, polyethylene fibre-reinforced polymers Polyethylene terephthalate fibres (PET fibres), poly- ing stops more readily than with other types of
(Fig. B 2.17) ester fibres fibre. PTFE fibres show a strong tendency to
Fibres made from polyethylene (PE) have a very ˉ Polyester membranes, straps, ropes, sewing creep under constant loading. The high flexibil-
low self-weight and even float on water. The threads (Fig. B 2.18) ity and resistance to buckling are positive fea-
fibre structure is anisotropic like all polymer fibres, Fibres made from polyethylene terephthalate tures, though. In membrane construction, PTFE
which means that the mechanical properties in (PET) represent the most important raw material fabrics are therefore preferred for convertible
the direction of the fibre are much better than for textile membranes apart from glass fibres. It roofs. They are permanently resistant to chem-
those perpendicular to the fibre. The thermal is mainly the semi-crystalline structure of these icals and are classed as not readily flammable.
expansion in the longitudinal direction is nega- organic synthetic fibres that determines their Their good UV stability and the self-cleaning
tive and the compressive strength of PE fibres mechanical properties. The fibres are highly (anti-adhesive) surface means that even un-
is practically zero. Therefore, these fibres can flexible and have good compressive and tensile coated PTFE fabrics can be used for membrane
be used for tensile applications only, e.g. for strengths, but their stability upon exposure to structures. Their high light transmittance of up
ropes. Their impact strength is quite remarkable, UV radiation is very low. Polyester membranes to 40 % is important for architectural design.
52
Fibres
B 2.20 B 2.21
Owing to their high melting viscosity, PTFE fibres composite after the water has evaporated. Further- this profiling that improves the bonding charac-
cannot be produced using the melt spinning more, natural fibres are not permanently weather- teristics of what are actually smooth surfaces.
method and their resistance to solvents makes resistant and can also be decomposed by
them unsuitable for the wet spinning method. So microbes. Metal wires and ropes
special matrix and extrusion spinning methods Their production and processing requires less Metal wires and ropes are very important com-
have therefore been developed in which the energy than similar products made from glass ponents in construction. To form ropes, individual
extruded fibres achieve higher strengths and fibres. Vegetable fibres are also less expensive wires are wound into larger cross-sections
lower shrinkage rates. in the form of final products. Components rein- (stranding). Steel has a high elastic modulus
forced with natural fibres can be disposed of and therefore steel ropes are comparatively
with a zero carbon balance, at least in terms of stiff. However, the voids that ensue during the
Natural fibres the natural fibre content. stranding make the rope susceptible to corro-
The cross-section of a natural fibre changes over sion. Wires and ropes should therefore either
ˉ Natural fibre-reinforced polymers (NFRP), its length and can lie between 20 and 500 μm be made from stainless steel or provided with
loose materials for thermal insulation (Fig. depending on the fibre. Natural fibres have some form of permanent protection. Safety
B 2.20) rough and uneven surfaces, which results in a barriers, insect screens, etc. can be made from
The large scatter of the mechanical properties good bond with the encasing polymer during fur- wire meshes and metal fabrics. Owing to their
and the moisture sensitivity of natural fibres has ther processing. Unlike synthetic fibres, natural high ductility, metal wires are ideal for absorb-
led to them playing only a subsidiary role in fibres have a finite length. They are either pro- ing impact loads.
construction up until now. And as the growth cessed to form fleeces and matting or spun into
process cannot be fully controlled, the diameters yarns which then form the raw material for pro-
and tensile strengths of natural fibres vary. In ducing fabrics. Tool wear during machining is
future, however, we can expect to see such less than that with glass or polymer fibres.
fibres being used more and more because of The heat resistance of natural fibres is low com-
their ecological benefits. Asbestos, which was pared with glass fibres. A loss in strength is evi-
once used for fibre-cement products, is banned dent when the temperature remains at 180 °C
in the EU because of the carcinogenic risks or higher, and natural fibres disintegrate at
and is therefore irrelevant these days. temperatures of 200 – 250 °C. Natural fibres tend
We divide natural fibres into the following three to function as wicks in a fire and therefore must
groups: be protected with a suitable flame retardant.
• Mineral fibres (e.g. asbestos),
• Animal fibres (e.g. silk)
• Vegetable fibres (e.g. flax) Metal fibres
Only the vegetable fibres are relevant for the ˉ Fibre-reinforced concrete, metal fabrics, wire
building industry and these will be discussed ropes (Fig. B 2.21)
below. Metal fibres in combination with polymers or as
Hemp and flax fibres in particular are charac- a membrane are only worth considering when
terised by good mechanical properties, which, electrical screening is necessary or a high duc-
however, are inferior to those of glass fibres. tility is required. In aircraft, for example, alumi-
But they are more flexible and also tougher; nium fibres are used to reinforce polymers. Their
composites with natural fibre reinforcement relatively large diameters and smooth surfaces
therefore break without causing splinters and mean that metal fibres are generally unsuitable
sharp edges (see “Natural fibre-reinforced poly- for combining with polymers because it is not
B 2.14 Hollow fibre structure of a natural fibre (bast)
mers”, pp. 60 – 61). Lightweight components possible to generate an adequate bond between B 2.15 Method for producing aramid fibres
are possible because of the low self-weight of the two. In addition, most metals suffer from B 2.16 Sewing threads made from fluoropolymer fibres
natural fibres. In addition, their hollow fibre corrosion. (PTFE fibres)
structure (Fig. B 2.14) improves the sound insu- In the building industry, metal fibres are used B 2.17 Rope made from polyethylene (PE) fibres
B 2.18 Rope made from polyester fibres (PET fibres)
lation properties and is also responsible for the primarily in fibre-reinforced concrete, where B 2.19 Rope made from polypropylene (PP) fibres
high water absorption. Fibres that are not dried they help to minimise crack widths. These fibres B 2.20 Rope made from hemp fibres
prior to processing can lead to flaws in the fibre have a varying cross-section or kinks, and it is B 2.21 Steel rope
53
Adhesives and
coatings
B 3.1
Most of the adhesives and coatings used these connection is only relevant for membrane struc-
days are based on polymers and so they are tures (see “Welding”, p. 106).
important not only for polymer components. For
example, synthetic materials play just as much The fundamentals of adhesive joints
a role in the corrosion protection products for The surface of the component to which the
steel beams as they do for the adhesive joints adhesive is applied is known as the substrate.
of loadbearing glass assemblies. The adhesives To achieve a good adhesive joint, the contact
and coatings are based on various synthetic faces should be degreased, roughened and
materials whose chemical structures are in cleaned beforehand. Some systems require a
most cases adjusted in such a way that they primer to be applied first before applying the
guarantee simple usage and good surface adhesive, which improves the bond between
adhesion. Most materials are applied in thin the adhesive and the substrate. The primer can
layers and the chemical cross-linking reaction be made from exactly the same substance as
(curing) first takes place within the scope of the the adhesive, but will contain a lower quantity
actual application. For this reason, many adhe- of fillers in order to improve the reactivity. Ad-
sives and coatings are in the form of two-part hesives usually have a limited working time, i.e.
systems that react with each other upon being the time between mixing and solidification (cur-
mixed just prior to use. ing), the so-called pot life, which can make apply-
ing adhesive to larger joints somewhat trouble-
some. In some systems curing is controlled by
Adhesives external means, e.g. UV light.
54
Adhesives and coatings
55
Adhesives and coatings
56
Adhesives and coatings
57
Adhesives and coatings
Layer Material
Resistance to
Resistance to
Resistance to
Resistance to
Resistance to
Wet abrasion
Substrate Polymers, metals, etc.
Cleanability
solvents
Levelling Filling compound, e.g. unsaturated poly-
alkalis
petrol
acids
layer ester resin (UP), applied only in dabs
spirit
Primer 2-part polyurethane systems
Filling com- Unsaturated polyester resin (UP), Paint, low binder con-
- -- -- -- -- -- --
pound or acrylates, epoxy resin (EP) tent (dispersion paint)
undercoat
Paint, high binder
Final coat + o -- -- -- -- --
content (latex paint)
Base coat Cellulose-acetate-butyrate (CAB) with Acrylic lacquer,
++ o -- -- -- -- --
polyesters and acrylates, polyurethane aqueous
(PUR) with pigments Alkyd lacquer ++ + + -- o + ++
Top coat Acrylic lacquer, alkyd lacquer, epoxy Epoxy lacquer ++ ++ ++ ++ ++ ++ ++
lacquer (EP), polyurethane lacquer (PUR) Polyurethane lacquer ++ ++ ++ ++ ++ ++ ++
58
Adhesives and coatings
a b c B 3.14
59
Natural fibre-reinforced
polymers and biopolymers
Carmen Köhler
B 4.1
It is still early days for natural fibre-reinforced The properties of NFRPs using the example of vehicles
polymers and biopolymers in architecture. The So far it has been the automotive industry that
first polymers, made from natural cellulose, ap- has made the main use of natural fibre-rein-
peared at the start of the 20th century (see “From forced polymers. Such materials have been
alchemy to chemistry”, p. 10) and only gradually used in vehicles because of their light weight,
did synthetic materials made from petroleum primarily for interior components such as dash-
take their place. One hundred years later we boards, door linings, parcel shelves, pillar lin-
are now aware of the finite nature of our planet’s ings or spare wheel compartments.
resources and a reversal of this process is now The hollow fibre structure of vegetable fibres
in progress. makes them much lighter than glass fibres, for
In natural fibre-reinforced polymers (NFRP), instance. Their favourable failure behaviour,
natural vegetable fibres are encased in a petrol- without sharp edges or copious splinters, plus
eum-based polymer matrix. These reinforce the their good sound insulation values represent
polymer and increase the proportion of renew- further technical advantages. Less wear on
able raw materials (RRM) in the composite, while tools during processing and the affordable
reducing the weight of the component. prices for such fibres are further crucial factors
Biopolymers (or organic plastics) are synthetic in their favour.
materials essentially manufactured from vege- From the ecological viewpoint, the advantage
table substances – an approach that spares our of vegetable fibres is that they can increase the
finite resources. And natural-fibre reinforced bio- proportion of renewable raw materials in a
polymers represents yet another group of ma- building component to up to 90 % by wt. [2] In
terials for sustainable construction. addition, the energy consumption of the semi-
finished product from cultivation to production is
lower, e.g. for a fleece based on natural fibres
Natural fibre-reinforced polymers some 60 % lower than that for the production of
a similar glass-fibre fleece. [3]
“The car that grows in a field.” [1] That was Henry Natural fibre-reinforced polymers can only exhibit
Ford’s slogan for the new car he presented to a better recycling behaviour, however, when
the public in 1941. During his presentation, Mr. the fibres are embedded in a thermoplastic
Ford attacked the bodywork of his car with a matrix. Thermosets cannot be melted down
hammer in order to demonstrate the excellent and remoulded. Since the EU’s directive cover-
stability of the material used, which could handle ing end-of-life vehicles, which obliges manu-
10 times the number of blows that the metals facturers to take back their vehicles, came into
of the time could withstand, without suffering force in 2000, the proportion of thermoplastic
any visible damage. Furthermore, the hemp ma- binders used in the production of interior compo-
terial used, made from phenolic resin, resulted nents has risen to 65 % (position as of 2009). [4]
in a car body that was about 30 % lighter than For automotive manufacturers, the processing
conventional car bodies. However, the cultiva- of components made from thermoplastic com-
tion of hemp had been practically banned in posites is also beneficial from the economic
the USA since 1937 and so his prototype could viewpoint because the forming, the integration
B 4.1 Honeycomb board made from cellulose impreg- not be developed further. Nevertheless, the of fasteners and the attaching of decorative
nated with synthetic resin
“Hemp Car” was one of the first examples of facings (lamination) can be carried out in one
B 4.2 Classification of natural vegetable fibres
B 4.3 Facade made from synthetic resin reinforced with the use of natural fibre-reinforced polymers, operation. This aspect can also be transferred
lignin and cellulose fibres, EME Fusion Hotel, produced by embedding natural vegetable fi- to the building industry, where modular non-
Seville (E), 2008, Juan Pedro Donaire bres in a petroleum-based polymer such as the loadbearing partitions can be produced in a
B 4.4 WPC facade, Finland Pavilion, World Expo, thermoplastics polypropylene (PP) and polyeth- similar way. And without facings, there are
Shanghai (CN), 2010, Teemu Kurkela/JKMM
Architects
ylene (PE), or the thermoset epoxy resin (EP). diverse architectural design options for combin-
B 4.5 Interior components made from natural fibres in Elastomers are not used for natural fibre-rein- ing the appearance and feel of natural materials
a typical family saloon car forced polymers. with the advantages of synthetic materials.
60
Natural fibre-reinforced polymers and biopolymers
NFRPs in building are generally preferred because of their mechan- Natural vegetable fibres
Natural fibre-reinforced polymers represent a ical properties. The fibres are found in the outer Seed fibres Cotton
new class of materials for the building industry part of the stalks of the plants, where they con- Kapok
and are therefore not yet in widespread use. tribute to stability. These fibres are therefore
Bast fibres Linseed (flax)
Wood-plastic composites (WPC) represent one characterised by a high fibre strength and low
Hemp
of the few examples of a thermoplastic rein- elongation at failure. The properties of the indi-
forced with natural fibres that is being used in vidual natural fibres are very different to the Jute
construction. These materials, with a wood flour continuous synthetic fibres manufactured in Kenaf
content of up to 90 % by wt., a matrix of poly- controlled production processes. Natural growth Hard fibres Agave
propylene (PP) and additives (pigments, UV processes result in finite lengths and the fibres
Sisal
stabilisers, etc.), can be used to produce sections are sensitive to heat. The mechanical properties
Abaca
and hollow-core cladding panels. Components of vegetable fibres start to decrease when sub-
made from WPCs exhibit better weathering re- jected to a constant temperature of 180 °C or Fruit fibres Coconut
sistance and better durability than timber. [5] more, and the fibres are destroyed completely Wood fibres Spruce
In Spain almond shells (waste from the food- at temperatures above 200 – 250 °C. Pine
stuffs industry), which consist mainly of lignin Natural fibres that are not fully embedded in the
B 4.2
and cellulose, are crushed and mixed with a polymer matrix tend to function as wicks and so
thermoset resin to form cast components (see a suitable flame retardant must be used. Natu-
“Lignin-bonded natural fibre composite”, p. 64). ral fibres are hygroscopic, i.e. they absorb
During the curing process, microscopic pores water vapour from their surroundings. The fibres
form which provide good insulation against heat should therefore be dried prior to processing in
and cold. [6] Natural fibre-reinforced polymers order to avoid flaws in the final composite material.
are also used in applications where weight-sav- Flax is the most popular material for natural
ings, acoustics or safety are important for non- fibre reinforcement in the automotive industry.
loadbearing components, e.g. trade show Short flax fibres are produced almost exclu-
structures, loudspeaker cabinets, safety helmets, sively in Europe and are mostly by-products
cases, abrasive belt backings or furniture. from the production of long fibres for the textiles
One futuristic example of the use of natural fibre- industry. Since the repeal of the German ban
reinforced polymers in architecture is the mod- on the growing of low-narcotic hemp species in
ular “Universal World House”, which was devel- 1996, the cultivation of hemp in Germany has
oped in 2009 by the Bauhaus University, Weimar, experienced a revival. Hemp fibres are primar-
for deployment in developing countries. All the ily used as a special cellulose for composites
structural components and the interior fitting- and insulating materials. [8]
out elements are made from sandwich panels The most important “exotic” natural fibres are B 4.3
based on cellulose impregnated with a synthetic jute fibres, which come mainly from India and
resin (Fig. B 4.1). These lightweight cellulose Bangladesh, kenaf fibres from the stems of a
building boards are weather-resistant and can malva plant that grows up to 4 m high in Africa
even be formed into wash-basins. [7] and Asia, and sisal fibres, which are obtained
Natural fibre-reinforced polymers can compete from the leaves of agave plants in Africa and
with polymers such as ABS, PP/glass fibre and South America. Coconut fibres, mostly from
to some extent also GFRP. Their disadvantage southern Asia, are also used, mainly in vehicle
is their low impact strength, which, however, can seats. And abaca fibres from the Philippines
be substantially improved by adding natural were first used as an underbody covering in
fibres with high extensibility, e.g. cotton fibres. 2005. These hard fibres from the leaves of a
banana species comply with the special quality
demands placed on such an outer part of a
Natural fibres vehicle’s bodywork, i.e. stone impact, resist-
ance to weather and moisture. [9]
Natural fibres can be divided into animal, vege-
table and mineral fibres (see “Natural fibres”, Cultivation and obtaining the fibres
p. 53). Vegetable fibres are mainly used for A period of about 3 – 4 months passes from the B 4.4
natural fibre-reinforced polymers and it is these sowing to the harvesting of bast fibres. Flax
that will be considered on the following pages plants reach a height of max. 1.20 m, but hemp
(Fig. B 4.2). can grow to a height of 3.50 m. After cutting,
the bast fibre stalks are left in the fields for 2 – 4
Vegetable fibres weeks for retting, i.e. the breaking down of the
Vegetable fibres are largely composed of cellu- cement-like substances between the fibre stalks
lose in the form of chemical compounds with by microorganisms. Afterwards, the straw is
pectin, lignin and water. The percentages of the pressed into bales and transported to the fibre
individual components vary according to the processing plant, where the broken particles of
particular type of fibre. Cellulose is essentially the woody interior of the plant stalk (shives),
responsible for the tensile strength and lignin which occur during the production of bast fibres,
functions as a compression-resistant matrix. plus other non-fibrous components are separated
A high lignin content results in a high degree of from the fibres mechanically. The bundles of fibres
lignification and hence stiffer, but at the same are separated into individual fibres and refined
time more brittle, fibres. in various additional stages: cleaning, rolling,
Bast fibres (stalk fibres) such as hemp or flax carding and unravelling.
B 4.5
61
Natural fibre-reinforced polymers and biopolymers
Integrating natural fibres into building components some petroleum-based polymers that can be
Building components made from natural fibre- composted, but bio-based polymers are in fact
reinforced polymers are mainly produced from not generally biodegradable (Fig. B 4.6). Com-
semi-finished products in the form of fleeces postable biopolymers made from petroleum or
(non-wovens) (see “Primary products”, p. 70). renewable raw materials are preferably used
The 6 – 10 cm long natural and polypropylene for temporary applications such as packagings,
fibres are mixed together, carded and hardened catering articles or agricultural or horticultural
mechanically to form hybrid felts. Afterwards, purposes. They are also known as second-
this semi-finished product can be pressed into generation biopolymers.
Basis Biodegradable Non-bio-
degradable any shape in a die. The Japanese automotive industry has been
The use of a thermoset binder enables fleeces replacing petroleum-based polymers by bio-
Petroleum Copolyesters Polypropylene (PP)
Polycaprolactone Polyamide (PA 6) or felts made from 100 % natural fibres to be based polymers for the building of vehicle dash-
(PCL) Epoxy resin (EP) sprayed with a resin system and afterwards boards since 1996. The reasons for this are the
Blends Thermoplastic Epoxy resin made
pressed into shapes as required in a compres- sparing of resources, environmentally efficient
starch (TPS) from RRM sion moulding process. Resins are liquid and production and the easier disposal of biopolymers.
Cellulose blends Polyamide (PA so cannot be worked into the semi-finished As more and more fibre-reinforced polymers
6.10) fibre product. Components made from natural are being used in the building industry, users are
Natural Polylactide (PLA) Cellulose acetate fibre-reinforced polymers are mainly produced by also calling for not only the fibres, but also the
substances Polyhydroxybutyrate (CA) pressing methods. Further processes suitable matrix to be replaced by sustainable materials.
(PHB) Polyamide (PA 10) for NFRPs are injection moulding or impact With the help of photosynthesis, plants produce
Lignin
extruding, which also enable the realisation of approx. 170 billion tonnes of biomass from sun-
B 4.6 more complex geometries. light and carbon dioxide every year in the form
Mixtures of natural fibres have proved worth- of cereals, grasses, etc., and some of these
while in practice. The best mechanical values plants can be used as the raw materials for bio-
for composites are achieved by mixing a rather polymers. [12] The current production of bio-
finer fibre such as flax or jute with coarser fibres polymers amounts to 0.4 million tonnes annually
such as hemp or sisal. Vegetable fibres can also – accounting for only 0.01 % of the land avail-
B 4.6 Biodegradability of petroleum- and bio-based be spun into yarns and subsequently woven able for agriculture globally. [13] In addition,
plastics into industrial fabrics, which can be used for waste materials from the agricultural, foodstuffs
B 4.7 Car seat cover made from heat-resistant poly- high-quality NFRP components with a thermo- and cosmetics industries are available in almost
lactide (PLA) fibres
B 4.8 Fitting a natural fibre fabric into a die
set matrix. This method of processing is, how- unlimited quantities.
B 4.9 Biopolymers made from renewable raw materials ever, more costly.
(RRM) – simplified schematic overview Biopolymers with long-lasting functionality
The future for vegetable fibres Second-generation biopolymers were devel-
Great things are expected from the research oped as temporary polymers that can be com-
into functional fibres made from cellulose. The posted. The focus for third-generation biopoly-
natural polymer cellulose can be dissolved mers is, however, maximising the content of re-
without modifying its chemistry and spun into newable raw materials in conjunction with long-
continuous fibres. This means it is possible to lasting functionality. The aim here is to develop
develop bespoke fibres with reproducible biopolymers whose properties are comparable
properties. Depending on the additives used with conventional polymers and in doing so to
(e.g. soot particles or paraffins), the fibres can close the material life cycle wherever possible.
be made magnetic, thermoregulating or electric- Bio-based plastics can be produced directly
ally conductive. Up until now, these fibres have from natural biopolymers such as cellulose or
been used only in functional clothing and jackets starch through modification. However, it is also
for motorcyclists [10]. However, textile heating possible to produce monomers from renewable
systems or climate-regulating membranes can be raw materials that are then polymerised to form
produced which can then be incorporated in a a biopolymer (Fig. B 4.9).
textile facade.
Disposal of long-lasting biopolymers
B 4.7 The recycling of conventional thermoplastics
Biopolymers (PET, PP, etc.) is associated with a downgrading
in properties (downcycling effect). This dis-
Biopolymers are synthetic materials that are es- advantage is even more pronounced with bio-
sentially produced from renewable raw mate- polymers because of their generally lower thermo-
rials (RRM) such as starch or cellulose. Such mechanical and chemical resistance. The dis-
materials are also known as bio-based or organic posal method preferred for long-lasting biopoly-
plastics. [11] The term “biopolymer” is, however, mers is incineration, which results in almost zero-
not always applied consistently. Biopolymers carbon energy production. What this means is
are also known as biodegradable plastics when that the incineration releases only as much car-
their compostability to EN 13 432 has been veri- bon dioxide (CO2) as the plant extracted from
fied. the atmosphere during its growth. The same
These polymers can be produced from petroleum quantity of CO2 is produced if the biomass is al-
or renewable raw materials. Their biological lowed to rot naturally and be decomposed by
degradability depends not on the raw materials microorganisms. Mind you, as plasticisers and
from which they are made, but rather on the additives are often added to non-petroleum-
chemical structure of the polymer. There are based biopolymers and CO2 is given off during
B 4.8
62
Natural fibre-reinforced polymers and biopolymers
Carbohydrates
Lignin Fats
(oligosaccharides)
Broken down
Divided into…
into…
Hemicellulose
Cellulose Starch Glycerine Fatty acids
= pectin
B 4.9
their production, processing and disposal, the It is insoluble in water, does not melt and must approx. 55 °C. It is possible, through careful se-
carbon footprint is not exactly zero. therefore be modified. The chemical reaction lection of the fermentation bacteria, to mix
Some biopolymers, especially polylactides (PLA), with acetic acid produces cellulose diacetate together the lactic acid polymers with different
can be broken down into their monomers, repoly- or triacetate (see “Cellulose acetate”, p. 43). degrees of crystallisation in a controlled way
merised and recycled without suffering a down- The maximum long-term service temperature is (stereo-complex). This results in a material with
grading in any of their properties. This so-called 80 °C. [15] much improved properties which is already
chemical recycling is the subject of current re- Cellulose acetate is scratch-resistant because being used for microwave-safe containers,
search. The chemical resistance of the majority of its high surface elasticity and is character- injection-moulded products for the automotive
of biopolymers is inferior to that of conventional ised by its shiny surface, grip and a light trans- and electronics industries, ironable fabrics, and
polymers and therefore it takes less energy to mittance that is comparable with that of float bottles for hot filling. [18]
reduce them to their original monomers again. glass. It resists the build-up of an electrostatic
charge and that means dust-free surfaces. Polyhydroxybutyrate (PHB)
Biopolymers – overview and examples Additives can be mixed with cellulose acetate ˉ Packagings, equipment housings
Biopolymers are classified just like conventional to reduce its flammability or make it weather- It was in 1924 that scientists working at the
polymers – as thermoplastics, elastomers and resistant. [16] [17] Pasteur Institute in Paris discovered that bac-
thermosets – and can be processed and teria produce polyhydroxybutyrate (PHB) from
machined with the same machinery. The most Polylactide (PLA) surplus nutrients, which they then store in their
common biopolymers are described below. ˉ Packagings, fibres for (functional) textiles, cells as reserves, similar to the way to humans
drinks bottles, housings for electrical equip- and animals store fat. Potential starting sub-
Thermoplastic starch (TPS) ment strates are starch, sugar, glycerine or palm oil.
ˉ Packagings, catering articles The lactic acid polymer polylactide (PLA) is pro- This biopolymer exhibits stable properties over
Thermoplastic starch (TPS) is currently the duced in a biotechnical process with the help a temperature range from -30 to +120 °C. PHB
most common biopolymer (80 % market share). of bacteria from starch or sugar. Compared is a high-crystalline polymer with a smooth,
The water-soluble starch is mixed with a water- with the modification of naturally occurring bio- shiny surface. It is resistant to UV radiation and
repellent, petroleum-based polymer and the polymers (e.g. cellulose), this method of pro- is more waterproof than PLA. Other advantages
plasticiser glycerine. TPS can replace typical duction offers the chance to tailor the chemical are its suitability for printing and its low tendency
plastic packaging materials. Applications in the structure of the PLA, and therefore its properties, to creep. Its properties can be varied quite
building industry are possible, e.g. for insulation, too. The properties of PLA are therefore certainly considerably. The disadvantages are the high
but limited because of the material’s approx. comparable with those of PP and PET. Polylac- production costs, caused by the high capital
4 % moisture absorption. [14] tides are scratch-resistant, waterproof and outlay necessary for biotechnology production
transparent, and also exhibit good mechanical plants and the production of small quantities
Cellulose (tri)acetate (CA, CTA) properties (Fig. B 4.11, p. 64), which can be because of the low demand. Optimised methods
ˉ Spectacle frames and lenses, tool handles, further improved by increasing the degree of of production will, however, cut the cost of this
foils for TFT screens, transparent thermal crystallisation. PLA materials are gas-permeable material in the long run. The brittleness of this
insulation and ideal for printing, which makes them suitable polymer and its price can also be reduced by
Cellulose is present in all plants and is therefore for functional textiles as well as packagings. mixing together different types of polymer to
the commonest naturally occurring biopolymer. The service temperature of standard PLA is create so-called blends.
63
Natural fibre-reinforced polymers and biopolymers
Shrinkage [%]
50 PLA
blends PS ABS
PLA
0.5
40 Starch
Starch blends PHB
blends 1
30 PC Cellulose PC
derivatives PET
1.5
PP ABS Cellulose
derivatives PA 6
20
2
PP
PA6 PS
10 2.5
PHB
PE-HD PLA
PE-HD
0 PET 3
0 1 2 3 4 5 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180
Elastic modulus [N/mm²] Heat deflection temperature VST B 50 [°C]
B 4.10 B 4.11 B 4.12
Biopolymers versus conventional polymers have been used to retain the sustainability as- Natural fibre-reinforced bioresins (thermosets)
The elastic moduli and the stiffnesses of thermo- pect of the biocomposite. The processing time Fatty acids from vegetable oils can be converted
plastic biopolymers are similar to those of petrol- for the injection moulding of these mobile phone into thermoset bioresins by means of chemical
eum-based polymers. Indeed, the stiffness of housings has also been shortened from five reactions. The substances used for curing are
polylactide is higher than that of conventional minutes to one minute. mostly non-bio-based. Components obtained
thermoplastics. Fig. B 4.11 shows the notched In contrast to other polymers, PLA can be pro- from renewable raw materials are still under-
impact strength in relation to the elastic modulus. cessed at temperatures above 160 °C. This means going development and not yet ready for the
The notched impact strength indicates a mater- that the demoulding temperature is reached market.
ial’s resistance to impact-type actions. As the faster and the production time optimised with Compared with conventional thermosets, e.g.
toughness increases, so the elastic modulus of respect to the heat sensitivity of the natural fibres. phenolic or unsaturated polyester resins (UP),
a biopolymer decreases, just like a conventional In the “S-House”, a demonstration project car- the thermoset bioresins are somewhat less stiff
polymer (see “Failure behaviour”, p. 35). One ried out by Vienna University of Technology, a and absorb less moisture. In the case of bio-
advantage of thermoplastic biopolymers is their prototype for a non-loadbearing partition made based reactive resins based on vegetable oils
lower rate of shrinkage compared with conven- from natural fibre-reinforced biopolymers, several (e.g. linseed oil), it is the hydrophobic, i.e.
tional thermoplastics, a fact that is important in layers of fleece made from straw, flax and poly- water-repellent, nature of the oil used that is
the production of high-precision components. lactide fibres were laid on top of each other mainly responsible for this characteristic. In
Cellulose derivates, PHB and PLA stereo-com- and pressed together. [20] This sandwich addition, a significantly higher UV resistance
plexes exhibit the maximum heat deflection panel has stable facing plies and a relatively has been verified for these resins, which is attrib-
temperatures. The heat deflection (or distortion) soft but nevertheless compression-resistant utable to the different chemical structures that
temperature is a measure of the heat resistance core. The result is a component with integral both resins form during the curing phrase. Never-
of a polymer subjected to a defined load. These sound insulation – modular partitions made from theless, after they have cured, both systems
temperatures are comparable with those of poly- 100 % renewable raw materials with a low weight belong to the polyesters from the chemistry
styrene or the industrial polymers acrylonitrile- for quick and easy installation and repositioning. viewpoint. The maximum permissible tempera-
butadiene-styrene (ABS). ture for these resins is 180 °C.
Most thermoplastic biopolymers absorb more Lignin-bonded natural fibre composite (thermoplastic) The addition of zero-halogen flame retardants
moisture than petroleum-based polymers. How- ˉ Loudspeaker cabinets, shoe heels, technical improves the non-flammability without impairing
ever, apart from thermoplastic starch, this ab- components (machinery), musical instruments, the ecological features. Prices for bioresin sys-
sorption remains below 1 %. [19] backing boards for high-quality wood veneers tems are comparable with those for conventional
The development of long-lasting biopolymers is Lignin is the second most common naturally resins. Combined with hemp and flax fabrics, it
only just beginning and so far only a few find- occurring biopolymer and functions as the sta- has been possible to build various bodywork
ings regarding their long-term properties, e.g. bilising matrix between the cellulose fibres in all prototypes that could replace glass fibre-rein-
creep, UV resistance and fatigue behaviour, vegetable fibres and in wood. It impregnates forced polymers for external applications; for
have been published. the moisture capillaries in plants and is there- example, a “nudge bar” has now successfully
fore more waterproof than wood. This biopolymer completed a 12-month on-the-road test on a
is dark brown in colour, absorbs UV light almost bus in service in the northern German town of
Natural fibre-reinforced biopolymers totally and is difficult to decompose both bio- Braunschweig.
logically and chemically. In conjunction with Corrugated cardboard plus hemp and flax
Combining biopolymers with natural fibres natural fibres, it combines the positive properties fabrics form the constructional elements of a
results in improved mechanical and thermal of naturally grown wood with the unrestricted designer chair conceived as a prototype (Fig.
properties. mouldability of thermoplastics. It is therefore B 4.14). The bioresin based on linseed oil is in-
also known as liquid wood. [21] The use of jected with the help of a vacuum infusion (see
Natural fibre-reinforced PLA (thermoplastic) lignin, a constituent of wood, lends the com- “Resin infusion and vacuum methods”, pp.
ˉ Housings for electronics, vehicle interiors posite similar mechanical and thermal proper- 79 – 80). Decorative facings are unnecessary
By adding heat-absorbing metal hydroxides to ties to those of wood, e.g. with regard to the because the untreated surface is an integral
a biocomposite and reinforcing the material coefficient of thermal expansion. It is therefore part of the design concept.
with short kenaf fibres, a Japanese electronics suitable as a connecting element in timber con- In the building industry, the use of a similar
group has been able to launch a virtually non- struction. Lignin rots slower than wood when method to produce a modular partition is con-
flammable mobile phone housing onto the mar- affected by moisture. ceivable. The injection of the binder could be
ket (Fig. B 4.13). Mineral flame retardants, es- controlled in a vacuum so that the quantity of
pecially aluminium and magnesium hydroxide, resin decreases towards the inside of the com-
64
Natural fibre-reinforced polymers and biopolymers
B 4.15
65
Part C Semi-finished products
1 Primary products 68
Preparing the polymer 68
Textiles 69
Core materials 72
2 Fibre-reinforced polymers 76
Constituents 76
Properties of fibre-reinforced polymers 77
Production 78
4 Foil 94
Production of foil 94
Semi-finished products and
forms of supply 96
Keders 99
67
Primary products
C 1.1
The manufacture of polymer or membrane semi- The treatment of the basic material up to the
finished products usually makes use of standard- point of forming a processable polymer is usu-
ised primary products generally purchased as ally carried out by the polymer supplier, but in
finished items by the final processors. A whole some cases by the final processor. To do this,
range of primary products, in the form of pre- the polymer, or rather the primary product, is
mixed polymer blends, standard textiles or core crushed or blended and then mixed with addi-
materials, is therefore available to the designer, tives and fillers. Blending in the dry state is known
and these can be processed to form an even as mixing, in the plastic state homogenising.
greater range of diverse final products (Fig. The additives are frequently indispensable for
C 1.3). Textiles, for example, can be used for the workability of the polymer, and can also
both membranes and fibre-reinforced polymers. have a considerable influence on properties
such as colour, reaction to fire, strength or the
price of the material (see “Fillers and additives”,
Preparing the polymer pp. 32 – 34).
Powder
Extruder
68
Primary products
C 1.3
Blending Elastomers pregs) or runny compounds. The shelf life of
Good blending of the components is crucial to the Crude rubber, the raw material for elastomers, such a semi-finished product is much shorter
final properties of the polymer. For this reason, re- is supplied by manufacturers in the form of than that of a reactive resin. The curing reaction
cycled thermoplastics can in some circumstances bales or sheets, which are then processed to is triggered during the processing by a higher
achieve better properties because the polymer form the final material by the final processor. temperature.
is mixed yet again in the recycling process. Robust crushing machines are essential be- Thermosets are primarily used for fibre-reinforced
Besides continuous blending (e.g. in a screw cause crude rubber is very tough. First of all, polymers. The semi-finished products are com-
mixer), there are numerous discontinuous the viscosity of the material is reduced in masti- pression-moulded, manually laminated, pultruded,
methods (e.g. in a mixing drum) that can be cators or mills, which eases the homogeneous wrapped or braided (see "Production", pp. 79 – 81).
employed, especially when processing smaller blending with fillers and additives. Carbon Less common, however, is the use of thermo-
quantities. Afterwards, the compound is melted black or silicic acid (silica) are important addi- sets as casting resins or moulding compounds.
down and homogenised. The softened material tives for elastomers. Rubbers are processed
can then be processed directly or granulated immediately after blending. The customary
for later processing. methods (extrusion, calendering, pressing or Textiles
injection-moulding) are similar to those used for
Granulation thermoplastics. Textiles are semi-finished products made from
Thermoplastics that are not prepared by the Elastomers cannot be melted again after the woven fibres. They are important primary prod-
final processor or are to be processed later are polymer reaction and so the cross-linking (vul- ucts for membrane fabrication and fibre-rein-
produced as granulates that can be easily stored canisation) takes place after the forming pro- forced polymers because loose fibres cannot
and transported. cesses (see “Elastomers”, pp. 44 – 45). High be processed as a rule. Only in exceptional
Granulation takes place immediately after plas- temperatures are always necessary and in some cases are filaments or bundles of fibres (rovings,
tifying the polymer compound in an extruder. In cases overpressure of up to 200 bar as well. yarns) used directly for reinforcing a synthetic
this process, the melt is forced through dies, cut Cold cross-linked systems are used for special material. Besides the traditional woven fabrics,
into pellets a few millimetres long by a rotary applications; however, these require much a huge variety of different textiles is now avail-
blade and cooled with water (Fig. C 1.2). The longer curing times. able for specific applications. Figs. C 1.5 – 1.9
result is bead- or lens-shaped grains, also cylin- (pp. 70 – 71) provide an overview of the standard
drical grains when using cold granulation. The Thermosets textiles and corresponding forms of weave for
granulate (Fig. B 1.1, p. 30) is dried prior to Thermosets are purchased by the final proces- these materials.
storage; further drying directly prior to final pro- sors in the form of liquid reactive resins, less
cessing is necessary for some polymers, e.g. often as premixed moulding compounds. As Basic terminology
PC, PA and PMMA. with the elastomers, the cross-linking reaction The standard fibres and their corresponding
first takes place during the forming processes forms of processing are described in the chap-
Final processing because, like elastomers, thermosets cannot ter entitled “Fibres” (pp. 48 – 53). A single fibre
The processing options for thermoplastics vary be remelted or reshaped once they have cured. is known as a filament. A roving is a bundle of
considerably depending on the geometry of the The as yet non-cross-linked resins are supplied parallel filaments and a yarn, or thread, con-
semi-finished product to be produced. What all in reactive solvents (e.g. styrene); the shelf life sists of twisted filaments. A twine is made from
the processes have in common is that the poly- of the container is often less than 12 months. several twisted yarns.
mer granulate is first melted down and homogen- Fillers and additives, e.g. flame retardant, gen-
ised in a screw mixer before being fed into the erally will have already been mixed in by the
mould. When producing foil, the melt is calend- polymer producer. Prior to processing, a hard-
ered or extruded (see “Production of foil”, pp. ener, followed by an accelerator, is added to
94 – 96). When coating membranes, the thermo- the resin. Curing then takes place at room tem-
plastic is applied to the textile in the form of thin perature or a higher temperature. During this,
coats (see “Coatings”, pp. 101 – 103). Solid sheets, the gel time, i.e. the time between adding the
sections and random geometries can be pro- hardener and the onset of the curing reaction,
duced by moulding, injection moulding, pressing limits the maximum possible workability time of
or extruding (see “Extrusion”, p. 83, and “Moulded the resin.
items”, pp. 91 – 92). Core materials or insulating Besides reactive resins, there are also primary
layers made from polymers are foamed (see products to which the hardener has already
“Production”, p. 74). been added, e.g. impregnated fabrics (pre-
69
Primary products
Woven fabrics In satin weave (also known as atlas weave), the be integrated into the non-crimp fabric during
Woven fabrics are produced from systems of weft threads initially pass beneath a warp thread production if required.
threads crossing at right-angles. The warp and subsequently above more than two warp
threads run parallel to the longitudinal direction threads (Figs. C 1.5c and C 1.8). After each Braids
of the fabric (they are fixed to the weaving course, the change is shifted accordingly by at Impact resistance is often important for fibre
loom) and the weft threads are interwoven per- least two steps. This type of weave is charac- composites, which is why braided textiles are
pendicular to these with shuttles or a jet of air. terised by its excellent drapeability (Fig. C 1.4c). used (Figs. C 1.5e and B 2.1, p. 48). The criss-
The weft threads generally undulate, i.e. pass In fibre-reinforced polymers it is therefore used crossing fibres result in a greater friction force
above and below the warp threads. When the for components with tight radii in order to achieve upon fracture and hence the desired impact
material is loaded this leads to different strains smooth surfaces. resistance. Braiding is frequently used as the
in the textile in the warp and weft directions, fibre reinforcement for pipes, too. The angle
depending on the type of weave. Non-crimp fabrics between the fibres can be adjusted and adapted
Different arrangements of raised warp threads In contrast to a woven fabric, the layers of fibres to suit the loads.
during the weft insertion (floating) produce dif- in a non-crimp fabric are laid on top of each
ferent types of weave that exert a considerable other and not interwoven (Figs. C 1.5d and C 1.9). Chopped strand mats and fleeces
influence on the mechanical properties. The The fibres are fixed in position only by means of Chopped strand mats are made from a random
three main types of weave are plain, twill and additional, thin sewing threads. arrangement of pieces of fibre that are bonded
satin weave. The smallest repetitive unit of a Using a non-crimp fabric instead of a woven together (Fig. C 1.11, pp. 72). When the mat
weave is known as the rapport. fabric for a fibre composite improves the mechan- comes into contact with the resin during process-
ical strength of the finished component because ing, the bond is loosened and the fibres adapt
Types of weave the fibres are not integrated in an undulating perfectly to the shape of the component. The
Plain weave (also known as calico or linen weave) form. Another advantage is that the orientation composite achieves consistent properties within
is the simplest and tightest type of weave. Here, of the fibres can be relatively easily adapted to its plane without any dominant direction. Such
the warp threads lie alternately above and the loading directions because they do not composites are used, for example, for vessels,
below the weft threads (Figs. C 1.5a and C 1.6). necessarily need to be at right-angles to each moulded parts or covers that only need to satisfy
Plain weave exhibits good dimensional stability other, and instead can be incorporated at any low mechanical requirements. Chopped strand
and can be cut anywhere without fraying. Hop- angles. It is also possible to build a non-crimp mats can be draped easily over curved shapes
sack weave (also known as mat, Panama or fabric with not just two, but several layers, one in further processing. Fine mats, known as fleeces
Celtic weave) is a special form of plain weave above the other. One use of non-crimp fabric is or non-woven fabrics, are used as the outer-
in which two or three parallel warp and weft as the reinforcement in textile-reinforced con- most plies in fibre composites in order to achieve
threads are woven together. crete. smooth surfaces. Sandwich components with
Twill weave (also known as croisé weave) is the a core of fleece are also available (see “Core
result of an unequal rhythm in which the weft Complex mats fleeces and spacer fabrics”, p. 75).
thread passes once above and then at least Complex mats are being used more and more,
twice below the warp thread (Figs. C 1.5b and especially for machine-made fibre composites. Knitted fabrics
C 1.7). Shifting the change by one step per Additional, random fibres are laid on a multi- Knitted fabrics are produced by forming loops
course produces a diagonal rib. Twill weave is layer non-crimp fabric and again fixed in place or stitches. The manufacturing process is es-
stronger and stiffer than plain weave because with sewing threads. These short pieces of sentially similar to knitting by hand. As these
the strain in the warp direction is lower. In addi- fibre have a very fine structure; attached to the textiles do not have a dominant direction, their
tion, the suppleness, the so-called drapeability, outside of a component, this results in a very suitability as a reinforcement for polymers is
is better (Fig. C 1.4 b). consistent, smooth surface. Core materials can limited. They are primarily used as backing
a b c C 1.4
a b c
70
Primary products
materials for other reinforcing fibres or for fixing the weft threads are pretensioned during
such fibres. Their very good drapeability makes the weaving process are also available. The
them suitable for uses involving very small radii. pretensioning distributes the undulations
equally between the warp and weft threads,
Peel-ply fabrics which leads to equal stiffness in both direc-
Peel-ply fabrics are not used for reinforcing tions.
polymers, but instead for producing a rough
surface. Such a surface is desirable when further Textiles for fibre-reinforced polymers
plies are to be attached to a fibre-reinforced Textiles are employed for reinforcing planar, thin-
polymer at a later stage of production, or for wall components made from fibre-reinforced
bonding a further lamination. Peel-ply fabrics polymers. With manual types of production in
are attached to a fibre-reinforced polymer as particular, this substantially reduces the work
the final ply, but are removed again (peeled off, required compared with the direct processing
hence the name) before the polymer has fully of the fibres. The use of standardised textiles
cured, which results in a ragged, rough surface results in better control of the orientation of the
(see Fig. E 2.23, p. 180). fibres in the component. It is also possible to
combine different types of fibre, e.g. carbon C 1.6
d e C 1.5 C 1.9
71
Primary products
Core materials
Fleeces
Foams Honeycombs Balsa wood Facing ply
Spacer fabrics
Intermediate ply
C 1.12 C 1.13
72
Primary products
a b C 1.14
Polymer foams Polymer Class Density Form of supply Cells Applications
[kg/m3]
We generally distinguish between flexible, tough,
and brittle polymer foams. All types can be used PE flexible 25 – 40 Sheets, blocks, closed Cushioning, packaging (particle
moulded items foam)
for insulating layers, but only tough foams are
PE-LD flexible 10 – 35 Sheets closed Thermal & impact sound insulation
worth considering as the cores of loadbearing
flexible 200 Structured foam boards closed Impact sound insulation
sandwich elements. Flexible foams are too un-
PP flexible 10 – 35 Sheets Thermal & impact sound insulation
stable for sandwich components and brittle foams
are too sensitive to damage to be suitable as flexible 20 – 90 Moulded items, sheets Energy absorbers in cars (bumpers,
seats, roof lining – textile-covered),
structural components. The choice of a suitable filling foam behind facing plies, in-
foam is frequently based on a compromise mould skinning
between strength, thermal performance and flexible 100 – 500 Foils, suitable for closed Meat packaging, meal trays,
cost. deep-drawing cutlery, bungs
Open- or closed-cell foams have different prop- flexible 500 – 700 Structured foam foils & Packaging tapes, insulating foils
erties which give them different advantages tapes
depending on the particular application. For in- EVAC-X flexible 40 – 260 Coiled closed Insulated clothing, rubber-like
stance, closed-cell systems should be preferred PS tough 10 – 30 Blocks, moulded items Thermal insulation, packaging
for the cores of fibre-reinforced polymers be- (particle foam)
cause they do not absorb the liquid resin during tough >20 Extruded sheets & tapes closed Frost protection for pipes, roads &
the processing. Foam made from tough PVC-U with/without skin railways
is particularly suitable for this. On the other hand, tough 60 – 200 closed Cardboard packaging, paper coating
open-cell systems are necessary for vacuum tough 60 – 200 Hot-formed foils Egg-boxes, meal trays, disposable
cutlery
insulation panels because the air has to be
tough approx. Sheets, milled (felted) Impact sound insulation
evacuated from the hollow pores (see “Vacuum
60
insulated systems ”, pp. 111 – 112). When ex-
tough Sheets closed Road sub-bases (for increasing
posed to the weather or contact with stationary load-carrying capacity)
water, integral skin foams or closed-cell systems tough 400 – 500 Sheets, sections closed Interior fitting-out with surface
are beneficial. Figs. C 1.15 and C 1.16 (p. 74) texture, decorative panels
provide an overview of the properties, forms of tough 20 – 25 Moulded items Models for lost-foam casting, e.g.
supply and applications for foams. (lost foam), also lightweight metal cylinders, casting
PS/PMMA copolymer foam technology
Production PS/PP-E flexible / Sheets, moulded items As for PS but better thermal stability,
Foams can be made from virtually all polymers. tough car linings, lightweight cycle helmets
The foam structure is achieved with a blowing PVC-U tough 40 – 130 Panels & blocks closed Core material for sandwich panels,
liquid gas insulation, life-rafts, etc.
agent that is mixed into the polymer and, upon
tough 500 – 700 Extruded sheets, suit. for Building material, linings &
the application of heat, forms gases, or separ-
hot-forming, d = 2 – 20 mm cladding
ates these out, at a defined temperature. Only
PVC-P flexible 50 – 150 Panels & blocks closed Exercise mats, attenuation of
in special cases is air mixed in mechanically. machine vibration
Physical blowing agents expand upon reaching flexible 70 – 130 Panels & blocks open Sound insulation, gas-permeable
the boiling point of a gas (e.g. carbon dioxide) foam cores
and it is this increase in volume that forms the flexible 250 Rolls Backing to floor coverings
cells or pores. Relatively low processing tem- MF flexible approx. Sheets open Sound absorbers, heat shields,
peratures are adequate for physical blowing 10 decorative panels, preformed insu-
agents; the foam produced is light in weight lation for pipes & vessels
with a very regular structure. Chemical blowing PMI tough 30 – 300 Panels, d = 1.65 mm closed Structural components in aircraft
agents, on the other hand, require higher tem- construction, core material for
sandwich panels
peratures. They rely on reaction processes to
separate out the gases and produce denser UP brittle Lightweight elements hybrid Reactive resin foamed concrete
foams. Chemical blowing agents are used for PUR flexible/ 30 – 300 Blocks, sheets, moulded hybrid Furniture, mattresses, vehicle inter-
tough items iors, preformed insulation
integral skin foams.
PF brittle 40 – 100 Sheets Insulating material
C 1.15
73
Primary products
0.015
0.035
EPS (tough)
MF (flexible) PVC (flexible) PVC (tough)
0.04
C 1.16 Comparison of the ranges of values for ultimate PUR
stress and thermal conductivity for important 0.045 (flexible) PE (flexible)
polymer foams PES (tough)
C 1.17 Aramid honeycomb core 0.05
C 1.18 Structured core fleece
C 1.19 Non-structured core fleece 0.055
C 1.20 Spacer fabric prior to impregnation with polymer 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6
C 1.21 Balsa wood Ultimate stress [N/mm²]
C 1.16
Foam boards are produced continuously in Polystyrene foams (EPS, XPS) They also have very good thermal insulation
slabstock plants. For sandwich panels, it is Polystyrene foams are tough and exhibit rela- properties. When embedded in fibre-reinforced
also quite common to foam up the core directly tively good thermal insulation properties, but polymers, rigid PUR foam boards tend to ab-
between the rigid facing plies. In discontinuous have a rather low load-carrying capacity. The sorb resin. But as polyurethane represents a
methods, the blowing agent is sprayed onto the common particle foam made from expanded good compromise between strength and econ-
mould beforehand. polystyrene (EPS) is given a white colour. It is omy, it is widely used for mould-making and as
Integral skin foams are produced using a pres- primarily used for insulation applications where a sandwich material. It is easy to shape with
surised method with very careful control of the there can be no direct contact with water. By CNC milling machines.
mould temperature. This causes the pores to contrast, extruded polystyrene foams (XPS) Elastic PUR foam is commonly used in the
collapse thus increasing the density at the have a finer pore structure and are supplied in building industry for retrofitted seals with a good
boundaries of the material. Integral skin foam various colours depending on the particular thermal performance, e.g. around windows, but
components must be given their final form dur- manufacturer (green, pink, blue). XPS is heavier it cannot perform a loadbearing function.
ing the production, reworking is impossible. than EPS and waterproof because of its closed-
Thermosets are the most suitable polymers for cell structure. The mechanical values of XPS
producing integral skin foams. are higher than those of EPS, but the insulating
Alternatively, a non-pressurised two-coat method values and the specific heat capacity of EPS
can be used to apply a polymer without a blow- are marginally better. Both types of foam have
ing agent to the boundary zone first of all, fol- benefits depending on the mechanical and geo-
lowed by a polymer containing a blowing agent. metrical specifications. And both types of foam
can also be used as the core in a sandwich
Gases that harm the climate component made from fibre-reinforced polymer.
Chlorofluorocarbons (CFC) were frequently Although their mechanical values are relatively
used as physical blowing agents in the past low, they are very cheap.
but are now banned because of the damage
they cause to the ozone layer. Chemical blow- Polyurethane foams (PUR)
ing agents release water vapour, nitrogen, car- Polyurethane can be used as the raw material
bon monoxide or ammonia. These gases also for foams with very diverse properties. Both soft
harm the climate, albeit to a lesser degree than elastomeric foams and also tough rigid foams
CFCs. Just like with floor coverings (see “Floor with excellent loadbearing properties can be
finishes and road surfacing”, p. 58), when these produced. PUR foams exhibit good adhesive
foams are used in interiors there is always a properties and adhere to facing plies or surface
health risk because of the gases that are emitted finishes when they are foamed directly against
over time. these, without any need for further materials.
74
Primary products
Polyvinyl chloride foams (PVC) mers reinforced with glass or carbon fibres and Core fleeces
PVC foams can also be produced in flexible or are laminated directly over the honeycomb core. Perforated fleece materials made from polyester
tough versions. The mechanical properties of The resin in the fibre-reinforced polymer bonds fibres and hollow microspheres are used for
rigid PVC foam are better than those of the the facing plies to the aramid core, consequently producing especially thin sandwich structures
other polymer foams. As PVC foam absorbs a sufficiently generous amount of resin should up to a thickness of about 6 mm (Figs. C 1.18
hardly any resin, it is ideal for use as a core be allowed for in the design. and C 1.19). During laminating, the perforations
material in fibre-reinforced polymer products. are filled with the resin, which creates a good
The high production costs, however, mean that Thermoplastic capillary honeycomb cores bond with the facing plies. Laminates with core
PVC foam is used as a core only where high Honeycombs made from thermoplastics such as fleeces split less easily than sandwich compo-
demands are placed on the load-carrying cap- PP or PET generally have a circular cross-sec- nents with a foam core. The use of hollow micro-
acity. Its thermal insulation properties are poorer tion. They are both elastic and impact-resistant spheres means that not the whole of the fleece
than those of PUR foams. and are therefore highly suitable for absorbing is impregnated, which reduces the overall weight
shocks or reducing vibration. Thermoplastic of the component.
Honeycomb cores facing plies can be attached directly to the
Sandwich elements with honeycomb cores are honeycomb by hot-plate welding (e.g. for trans- Balsa wood
particularly light in weight and are frequently lucent thermal insulation). With facing plies Balsa wood (Fig. C 1.21) has a density between
less expensive than foams. Honeycomb cores made from fibre-reinforced polymers, aluminium 100 and 200 kg/m3 and therefore lies in the
are used for fibre-reinforced polymers and also or glass, a layer of fleece is first applied to the middle of the range of rigid foam products. Its
for translucent thermal insulation. Very high capillary structure to improve the bond. sensitivity to moisture can be a problem in
load-carrying capacities are possible depend- some applications because it swells and rots.
ing on the particular system. The air-filled voids Core fleeces and spacer fabrics The mechanical properties of balsa wood lie
of honeycomb cores are much larger than Prefabricated cores and spacer fabrics can be below those of rigid foams and so the latter are
those of foams and so they cannot be used as used for producing thinner sandwich panels with usually preferred as core materials where a
thermal insulation. thicknesses ranging from a few millimetres to a certain load-carrying capacity must be achieved.
Aluminium, aramid paper impregnated with few centimetres. Such cores are inexpensive and However, balsa wood is still indispensable in
phenolic resin, thermoplastics such as PP or require little effort to integrate them into sand- modelmaking because of its low cost and easy
PET, or glass fibre-reinforced polymers are wich structures. Strength and transparency vary workability.
among the materials suitable for creating the considerably depending on the particular system.
honeycomb structures. The facing plies are
bonded or laminated directly to the honeycomb Spacer fabrics
core to produce a sandwich element. In some Spacer fabrics (Fig. C 1.20) are made from two
cases the honeycomb is produced with a fleece facing plies of a glass-fibre cloth linked by per-
covering to simplify the attachment of the facing pendicular threads. During lamination, the
plies. The drapeability of honeycomb cores is spacer fabric is impregnated with resin and
limited, which is why they are primarily used for pressed together. Afterwards, the threads re-
flat or only gently curved sandwich panels. They erect themselves automatically to create a
are normally produced in thicknesses of between sandwich-type laminate between 3 and 23 mm
1.5 and 90 mm. thick with improved flexural stiffness. In the
final condition, the layers of cloth fully impreg-
Aramid honeycomb cores nated with resin function as loadbearing facing
Honeycomb cores made from aramid paper plies, whereas the intermediate layer, only par-
are currently very popular for boats and light tially impregnated with resin, serves as the core
aircraft (Fig. C 1.17). This core material is espe- of the sandwich element. Special resin formula-
cially flexible and relatively inexpensive. The tions have to be used in order to prevent an ac-
aramid honeycombs are supplied as sheets cumulation of styrene in the core, which would
measuring approx. 1.20 ≈ 2.40 m and with have a negative effect on the curing of the pol-
thicknesses starting at 1.5 mm. The standard ymer. Owing to the exclusive use of glass fi-
type is hexagonal in section, but oval structures bres and the thin facing plies, it is possible to
with improved drapeability are also available. produce laminates with a good degree of trans-
The facing plies are frequently made from poly- parency.
C 1.20 C 1.21
75
Fibre-reinforced polymers
C 2.1
Fibre-reinforced polymers play an important not perform any loadbearing functions as such,
role in architectural applications because in but rather stabilises and protects the fibres.
contrast to unreinforced polymers they can be
used to produce large-format components and Polymers
longer spans. Semi-finished products (see The polymer matrix defines the shape of the
“Semi-finished polymer products”, pp. 82 – 93) composite component and protects the fibres
and free-form designs are therefore possible against UV radiation and aggressive media
(see “Building with free-form polymers”, pp. 174 – such as moisture or chemicals. At the same
187). These composites consist of various fibre time, the polymer forms the surface and there-
materials and polymers. In some cases the poly- fore determines the degree of transparency,
mer is in the form of facing plies on either side the colour and feel of the fibre composite. Nor-
of a core material. mally, the semi-finished products are not coated
The customary abbreviations or designations again after production. As with all synthetic
used are as follows: materials, various additives and fillers are added
• Glass fibre-reinforced polymer (GFRP) to the fibre composite material to control or
• Carbon fibre-reinforced polymer (CFRP) adjust the properties of the final material. For
• Laminate – layered composite made from example, flame retardants are added to comply
fibres and polymer with fire protection requirements, and in pultruded
• Resin – thermoset prior to curing (also reactive semi-finished products in particular, mineral
or casting resin) fillers are needed to reduce shrinkage processes
• Matrix – shaping and bonding substance (see “Fillers and additives”, pp. 32 – 34).
(resin or polymer) in the final state
Conventional resin systems
Thermosets are used almost without exception
Constituents for fibre composite components. The low vis-
cosity of the resin prior to the curing reaction
The optical and mechanical properties of fibre- ensures that the surfaces of the fibres are well
reinforced polymers are determined by the inter- wetted. Moreover, thermosets are more resistant
action of their constituents. The fibres increase to environmental influences than thermoplastics.
the load-carrying capacity and stiffness of the Unsaturated polyester resin (UP), epoxy resin
polymer and hence are essentially responsible (EP), vinyl ester resin (VE) and phenolic resin
for those properties in the finished composite (PF) are in widespread use in the building in-
material. The polymer, on the other hand, does dustry (see “Thermosets”, pp. 46 – 47). UP is
76
Fibre-reinforced polymers
Material Specification Density Tensile Elastic modulus, Tensile Elastic Coefficient of Thermal
strength, longitudinal strength, modulus, thermal conduc-
longitudinal transverse transverse expansion tivity
[kg/dm3] [N/mm2] [N/mm2] [N/mm2] [N/mm2] [10-6/K] [W/mK]
Glass fibre- Pultruded laminate GFRP-P E23 1.8 240 23 000 50 7000 9.0/30.01
reinforced
Chopped fibres laminate GFRP-M 1.5 80 7000 80 7000 30.0
polymers 0.25
(GFRP) Hybrid laminate GFRP-MW 1.6 120 12 000 120 12 000 25.0
Wrapped laminate GFRP-FM/FMU 1.6 160 15 000 50 8000 15.0/30.01
Carbon fibre- High tenacity CFRP-HT 1.6 2800 165 000 0 –
reinforced
Intermediate modulus CFRP-IM 1.6 2800 210 000 0 – 0.2 2 17.0
polymers3
(CFRP) High modulus CFRP-HM 1.6 1350 300 000 0 –
1
Parallel with/perpendicular to direction of fibres Chopped fibres laminate: planar laminate with reinforcement exclusively in the form of chopped fibres
2
Parallel with direction of fibres Hybrid laminate: planar laminate with chopped fibres reinforcement and non-crimp or woven fabrics
3
Fibres aligned exclusively in longitudinal direction of component = unidirectional Wrapped laminate: planar laminate with characteristic dominant direction
C 2.3
suitable for all standard applications and espe- and hence the mechanical properties that can missible strain in the polymer being exceeded.
cially for glass fibre-reinforced polymers, EP for be achieved are lower than those of materials Using a polymer with a high maximum permis-
high-strength components and for carbon fibre- with long-fibre reinforcement. Besides the trad- sible strain therefore increases the strength of
reinforced polymers, VE where high resistance itional woven fabrics, it is also possible to use the entire composite component.
to chemicals is required, and PF for demanding non-crimp fabrics, in which the fibres are not The adhesion between the fibres and the polymer
fire protection requirements. A ceramic matrix woven together but simply laid on top of each is also crucial for the load-carrying capacity of
can also be used, but this results in a compara- other. The fibres in non-crimp fabrics do not the component. Flaws reduce the adhesion
tively low strength. undulate and this enables composite components between the fibres and the matrix and this means
with higher strengths. Complex mats contain the strength is always lower than that of the un-
Fibres additional short fibres laid on the surface of a reinforced polymer. Subjected to shear or lateral
Which particular method of processing the fibres non-crimp fabrics. The chapter entitled “Primary tension (e.g. in adhesive joints), the individual
is suitable for the production of which particular products” (pp. 68 – 75) contains an overview of plies can become detached from each other
semi-finished product depends on the method the textiles available. Textile reinforcing products (delamination). Recently, however, attempts
of manufacture and the mechanical properties are easier to handle in manual methods of manu- have been made to improve the adhesion of
required. facture and are used where fibres need to be the matrix by adding carbon nano tubes (see
aligned in several directions. “Carbon nano tubes”, p. 34).
Long fibres
Long fibres (rovings or continuous fibres) are Common fibres in the building industry Arrangement of fibres
bundles of fibres that have not undergone any The building industry tends to prefer glass fibres Components loaded primarily in the longitudinal
further treatment. They provide linear reinforce- because of their high strength and relatively direction require mainly long fibres (rovings) so
ment with a high fibre content and ensure a low price. The expensive carbon fibres are used that all the fibres are aligned in one direction –
composite with good mechanical properties. less often although they achieve much better unidirectional (UD) fibre reinforcement. However,
Long fibres are primarily used for machine- mechanical properties than GFRP. Aramid fibre- GFRP sections can also be reinforced by tex-
based production methods such as pultruding, reinforced polymers are less common in archi- tiles positioned in the boundary zones, which
wrapping or braiding. For manual methods, tectural applications because their toughness increases the shear capacity, the bearing cap-
long fibres are too awkward to handle, which makes them difficult to process and causes acity of bolted and screwed connections and
is why textiles are preferred. considerable tool wear. Natural fibres have so the shear strength of adhesive joints. In the
far not exhibited the moisture resistance neces- form of thin strips such as CFRP laminates, on
Short fibres sary for components exposed to the weather. the other hand, exclusively unidirectional rein-
Short fibres (discontinuous fibres) lie in random Therefore, only the properties of GFRP and CFRP forcement is generally sufficient because the
directions in the polymer. However, to improve are described and compared in this chapter. reinforcement is not loaded in the transverse
handling, short fibres are frequently processed in direction. The strength perpendicular to the
the form of chopped strand mats (see “Chopped laminate is low because carbon fibres exhibit
strand mats and fleeces”, p. 70). The temporary Properties of fibre-reinforced polymers poor strength when subjected to lateral com-
fixing of the fibres (sizing) is broken down upon pression.
contact with the liquid resin, which allows the Although machine-made GFRP components
fibres to adapt to the shape of the component. can achieve the strength of structural steel, Fibre lay-up
Fleeces are very fine fibre mats made from their elastic modulus is at best only one-tenth The fibres in the composite component are
short fibres which are specified for the surfaces that of steel. This is why it is not easy to achieve usually arranged in several layers with alternat-
of laminates. It is also possible to mix short fibres long spans. CFRP, on the other hand, has a ing fibre orientations; Fig. C 2.2b shows the
directly into the liquid resin to produce a mould- similar elastic modulus to that of steel and at fibre geometry of a pultruded section by way of
ing compound for compression- or injection- the same time a much higher strength (Fig. an example, and Fig. C 2.2a the remainder of a
moulding methods. Chopped strand mats and C 2.3). test specimen from which the surrounding poly-
fleeces are found in all planar fibre composite mer has been burned away in order to reveal a
components. Interaction between fibres and matrix total of 13 individual plies. The middle, solid ply
The strength of the composite component de- of unidirectional rovings is in this case compara-
Textiles pends on the interaction between the fibres tively thick, and bonded between several textiles
Textiles are arranged in plies, one above the and the polymer matrix. A fracture in a laminate with different fibre alignments. Whereas the
other, in a composite to create a planar rein- is generally caused by cracks in the matrix, function of the central rovings is primarily load-
forcing material. The proportions of fibres used which are in turn caused by the maximum ad- bearing, the outer textiles improve the shear
77
Fibre-reinforced polymers
78
Fibre-reinforced polymers
1 Mould 5 Resin
Chopped strand mats are used without excep- 2 Release agent 6 Fibre reinforce-
tion for components requiring only a low load- 8 7
3 Gelcoat ment (textiles)
bearing capacity, whereas woven fabrics and, 4 Layer of fleece 7 Brush (resin appli- 1
preferably, non-crimp fabrics are used for load- (surface layer) cation)
8 Deaerating roller
bearing components. This process is repeated
until the desired laminate thickness is achieved.
5 6 5 4 3 2
The face in contact with the mould has a smooth
surface, the inside face is rough.
Production quality
It is difficult to achieve the specified fibre align-
C 2.5
ment exactly during the manual lamination of 2
components with irregular shapes. The maximum
fibre content that can be achieved is 45 % by
1 Seal
vol. because the diverse textiles cannot be fitted 3 2 Screw clamp
together more densely. This proportion drops 3 Tensioning frame
when the resin has been thickened through the 4 Perforated plate
addition of a flame retardant. The quality of the 4 5 5 Channel for excess resin
components produced heavily depends on the 6 Vacuum bag
7 Layers of fibre reinforce-
skill of the persons carrying out the work. ment plus resin
Various techniques can be employed to reduce 1
8 Release agent
the number of flaws and air bubbles and increase 6 9 Mould
the density of the laminate. These involve curing 10 Vacuum vessel for excess
resin
the laminate under pressure generated in vari- 7
11 Vacuum pump valve
ous ways. Hollow components, for example,
are compacted with an internal pressure hose, 8
a method that results in a very dense laminate
with a high fibre content and generates only 9
minimal tooling costs.
Excess resin and air inclusions are frequently
removed by applying a vacuum, which of course
improves the density of the final laminate. To 11
do this, the laminate is covered by a porous
release film and a breather or bleeder cloth and
the whole enclosed in a vacuum bag sealed
along the edges with a special tape.
10
Resin infusion and vacuum methods
C 2.6
The resin infusion (or induction) and vacuum
1 Resin 5 Layers of fibre
methods are further developments of hand lay- 2 Lower part of mould reinforcement
up method designed to achieve a more consist- 3 Upper part of mould 6 Finished laminate
ent laminate structure, fewer air inclusions and 4 Spacer 7 Heating
a smooth surface on both sides (Fig. C 2.6). In
contrast to hand lay-up, in this method the resin
is not applied before, but rather after all the fi- Pressure 3
brous plies have been laid in position dry. Prior
to applying the resin, the laminate is enclosed
airtight in a porous release film and breather
cloth. 4
In the resin infusion method, the air is evacuated 1
at one point and at the same time resin is 6
forced in under pressure on the opposite side.
7
This method is also known as resin transfer
moulding (RTM).
In the vacuum method, the resin is sucked into
the cloth by the low pressure. This method is
also known as vacuum-assisted resin transfer 2
moulding (VARTM). It takes longer than the resin
infusion method but achieves better results.
Curing in an autoclave, a heated pressure vessel
in which the temperature and pressure cycles
5 C 2.7
can be controlled exactly and reproducibly, re-
sults in products with a very high quality. Com- C 2.4 The steps in manual laminating
ponents are cured at pressures of 2 – 25 bar a Applying the release agent to the mould d Applying the liquid resin and further fibre
b Applying the layer of pure resin (gelcoat), reinforcement layer by layer
and temperatures of approx. 180 °C. The hydro- waiting until it hardens C 2.5 Manual laminating
static pressure acting on all sides enables c Laying the fibre reinforcement, pressing into C 2.6 Resin infusion and vacuum methods
lightweight moulds to be used, even for com- place and eliminating air bubbles with a roller C 2.7 Compression- and transfer-moulding methods
79
Fibre-reinforced polymers
Pre-impregnated textiles
Both compression- and transfer-moulding tech-
a niques can be based on fluid as well as on pre-
fabricated semi-finished products, so-called
prepregs. Prepregs (short for pre-impregnated
1 Drive 6 5 fibres) are reinforcing fibres already impregnated
2 Gearbox
with resin which cure under high pressure at
3 Mandrel
4 Moving carriage with 3 high temperature. The fibre impregnation pro-
resin bath cess is therefore separate from that of the actual
5 Resin bath moulding process. The prepregs are prepared
6 Glass fibres on machines to achieve a consistent wetting of
the fibres with the resin, which is what enables a
4
high-quality fibre composite to be produced.
Prepregs reinforced with short fibres, so-called
sheet moulding compounds (SMC), are semi-
finished products used for the industrial pro-
b
duction of large series. They are reinforced with
glass fibres 25 – 50 mm long. UP resins are typ-
ically used, but occasionally VE for components
C 2.9
that are to be subjected to higher loads. The
1 Travelling braiding machine resin compound and the fibres are packed
2 Rotating braiding head between polymer carrier foils and further pro-
3 Stationary mandrel 1 cessed to form endless rolls of material. This
leathery material is cut to size and moulded in
two-part, heated steel moulds under high pres-
3 2 sure (30 – 140 bar). The most important appli-
cations are large batches of control cabinets,
hoods and covers, vehicle components (e.g.
tailgates, oil sumps) and other moulded items.
As such automated methods are economical
only for large series, they have so far played no
role in architectural applications.
C 2.10
C 2.8 Pultrusion
C 2.9 Composite wrapping C 2.10 Braiding
a Wrapping the fibres C 2.11 Braiding a hose with a mandrel
b Impregnating the fibres with polymer C 2.12 Fibre spraying
80
Fibre-reinforced polymers
Pultrusion
Pultrusion (Fig. C 2.8) is currently particularly
significant for semi-finished products in the
building industry because it represents a rela-
tively simple way of producing sections and
sheets with a high fibre content and a low scat-
ter of the mechanical properties. The method
involves pulling long fibres (rovings) impregnated
with resin through a heated mould where the
polymer cures within a few minutes at a high
temperature. Alternatively, it is also possible to
pull dry fibres through the mould and inject the
resin directly. The rovings can be joined by tex-
tiles to reinforce the surfaces of the products;
their positions are controlled by rollers. The
reinforcement in the form of unidirectional rov-
ings in the longitudinal direction is essentially C 2.11 C 2.12
responsible for the flexural strength. The nature In composite wrapping, pretensioned rovings Fibre spraying
of the pultrusion method means that the mechan- are wound around a rotating mandrel; mats or This is an inexpensive method for the manual
ical properties perpendicular to the pultruding woven fabrics can be also be used. The fibres fabrication of large laminates with a complex
direction are much lower, and are primarily can be wound wet, i.e. impregnated with resin, geometry but low demands regarding load-
influenced by the textiles. Complex mats (non- or dry. In the latter case, they are subsequently bearing capacity (Fig. C 2.12). The method in-
crimp fabrics) made from layers of long fibres impregnated with resin using the infusion method volves installing a roving in a spray gun which
with a covering of short fibres) are frequently (see above). The fibre reinforcement of the lamin- also chops the fibre into small pieces. These
specified for the surfaces. The long fibres in- ate is controlled by the rotary speed of the short fibres and a resin with a short reaction
crease the loadbearing capacity in the longitu- mandrel and the speed of winding the fibres. time are sprayed onto the mould at the same
dinal and transverse directions, the short fibres One-off mandrels made from a soluble sub- time. Air bubbles are subsequently pressed out
ensure a more consistent surface finish. stance or, for larger series, reusable mandrels with a grooved roller like with hand lay-up. The
A fibre content of 70 % by vol. can be achieved made from steel or aluminium are used depend- thickness of the laminate varies considerably
with pultrusion. UP is generally used as the ing on the batch size and the geometry of the with this method, and it is not possible to con-
matrix, occasionally VE or PF, and normally EP component. To ease demoulding, mandrels are trol the orientation of the fibres either. However,
for carbon fibre-reinforced sections. The manu- often slightly conical in shape, or made from the advantage of this method is the minimum
facturing tolerances of the industrial process folding segments. For pipes with thin walls, the amount of work necessary and the option of
are good, but the shrinkage of the thermoset fibres are installed at an angle of approx. 15 – 75° being able to laminate vertical surfaces or
matrix upon curing and inaccuracies in the pos- to the longitudinal direction, which makes the membranes.
itioning of the fibres means that the tolerances pipe more resistant to dents in service. It is not
are poorer than those of metal sections. In possible to apply the fibres at an angle of 0°. References:
principle it is possible to produce virtually any [1] www.thomas-technik.de/pdf/Radius_Pultrusion.pdf,
19 Aug 2010
cross-sectional form by means of pultrusion, Braiding
but the dimensions of the sections are limited by The braiding method, which is similar to wrap-
the plant, generally to wall thicknesses between ping, requires elaborate, expensive machinery
0.5 and 100 mm and maximum overall dimen- and is mainly used for highly stressed compo-
sions of 650 – 1250 mm. nents in the aerospace industry. In this method,
Ribs or other profiling transverse to the pultrud- a large number of fibres from a braider are
ing direction are impossible. Pultruded sections wound, one over the other, onto a mandrel
are normally straight, although curved sections (Figs. C 2.10 and C 2.11). Either the mandrel or
have become possible more recently. [1] the rotating braiding head is fixed, the other
The standard sections stocked by most manu- part then moves and can lay the fibres continu-
facturers are essentially similar to those familiar ously over the length of the component. The
from structural steelwork (Fig. C 3.7, p. 84). overlapping fibres can be used to create very
However, more and more complex geometries complex components with varying cross-sections.
for special applications are gradually appear- In addition, different types of fibre (e.g. glass
ing, e.g. pultruded window frame sections or and carbon fibres) can be combined and the
bridge decks. Pultrusion requires comparatively arrangement of the fibres adapted to suit the
elaborate and expensive tooling, and setting up intended loads.
the plant is very time-consuming, all of which In contrast to wrapping, it is possible to attach
means that custom sections are worthwhile only fibres parallel with the longitudinal direction of the
for larger quantities (usually at least 1000 pro- component (0° alignment). The resin is applied
duction metres). after braiding using the infusion or injection
method. Pipes with braided reinforcement can
Wrapping also be pultruded. The criss-crossing fibres and
Also known as filament winding, this is a pro- the ensuing friction between them give braided
duction method for pipes, vessels, tanks and components a high impact resistance.
other rotationally symmetrical hollow components
(Fig. C 2.9). The high level of mechanisation in
this method enables the fibres to be arranged
exactly, reproducibly and with a high density.
81
Semi-finished polymer
products
C 3.1
We can classify semi-finished polymer products loadbearing building components. For external
according to their geometry: linear sections, applications such as sunshades, window frames
planar products and three-dimensional moulded or screens, unplasticised polyvinyl chloride
items (Fig. C 3.6). In addition, we can also dis- (PVC-U) is the number one choice because it
tinguish them according to their functions: planar is inexpensive and durable. It can also be used
products are laid side-by-side over large areas, to produce transparent sections which, however,
whereas sections or moulded items are installed are not suitable for permanent use outdoors
as individual components. Apart from a few because they yellow over the years. Better for
exceptions, semi-finished polymer products are such applications are tubes and sections made
made either from thermoplastics (without fibre from acrylic sheet (polymethyl methacrylate,
reinforcement) or thermosets (with fibre rein- PMMA, Fig. C 3.5) or polycarbonate (PC) be-
forcement). cause these materials remain light-fast for many
years. Many different thermoplastics can be con-
sidered for linings or furniture. The choice of a
Sections suitable material is governed by its feel, scratch
resistance, strength or colouring options.
Sections are prismatic, linear components with
a constant cross-section. The range of section Window frame sections
geometries extends from tubes to H-sections Frames made from PVC-U enjoy a larger market
and complex cross-sections (Fig. C 3.4). In share than wood and aluminium. So far, other
rare cases, e.g. conical tubes, a cross-section materials such as polypropylene (PP), acrylate-
that tapers or curves over its length are also styrene-acrylonitrile (ASA), polyurethane (PUR)
possible. In terms of the spans and cross-sec- or glass fibre-reinforced polymers (GFRP) have
tional forms feasible and the recycling options, played only minor roles. Owing to the large
there are considerable differences between quantities produced, this semi-finished polymer
thermoplastics and fibre-reinforced polymers. product in particular is frequently the focus of
attention in public discussions concerning the
Sections made from thermoplastics environmental effects of plastics in architecture
Sections made from unreinforced thermoplastics (see “Environmental impact of polymers”, pp.
are used for hoods and covers, for decorative 124 – 131). Although PVC window frames are
purposes and for interior applications. They do indeed everyday items in the housebuilding
not achieve the strengths normally required for market, their bulky forms and poor visual and
4
5
6 3 2 1 8
1 Screw
7
2 Barrel
C 3.1 Sandwich panel made from polycarbonate (PC) 3 Heater
C 3.2 Extrusion of sections 4 Hopper
C 3.3 Window frame section made from PVC 5 Granulate or powder
C 3.4 Section made from glass fibre-reinforced polymer 6 Gearbox
C 3.5 Tubes made from acrylic sheet (PMMA) 7 Motor
C 3.6 Overview of semi-finished polymer products 8 Extruded section
C 3.2
82
Semi-finished polymer products
83
Semi-finished polymer products
products made from different polymers or one load-carrying capacity in the longitudinal direc- Simple cross-sectional geometries
polymer with different additives (e.g. colour- tion, the outer layers improve the shear capacity The cross-sections marketed by the various
ants). This could be a transparent twin-wall and the appearance. In custom sections there manufacturers are very similar to those of struc-
sheet with a coloured facing, for instance. How- may be more textile reinforcement than fibres if tural steelwork (Figs. C 3.7a–f, h, i). The axial
ever, the design and fabrication of the die re- a high loadbearing capacity is necessary in the force and bending capacities of these beams
quires considerable input, which is why new transverse direction. are comparable with those of steel sections.
cross-sections are only worthwhile when at However, the much lower elastic modulus re-
least several thousand production metres are Dimensions of sections sults in much larger deformations. Structures
required. Wall thicknesses between 1.5 and 100 mm are made from these sections can therefore suffer
possible, depending on the particular manufac- from stability problems. The Ι-sections in partic-
Sections made from fibre-reinforced polymers turer. Thicknesses > 15 mm can be problematic, ular must be continuously supported in order to
Sections made from fibre-reinforced polymers however, because the heat of reaction during prevent lateral buckling of the compression
are primarily suited to loadbearing applications. production cannot dissipate and that can lead flange. Furthermore, the low loadbearing cap-
Apart from a few exceptions, the building in- to cracking due to restraint. acity of screwed and bolted joints is another
dustry prefers glass fibres for the reinforcement The internal corners of pultruded sections disadvantage. Structures made from these
because they are relatively inexpensive and should have a radius of at least 5.0 mm, but not sections are discussed in the chapter entitled
durable. Carbon fibres, on the other hand, are less than the thickness of the wall. Currently, “Building with semi-finished polymer products”
only economically viable for heavily loaded overall dimensions of up to 1250 x 650 mm are (pp. 160 – 173).
components such as ropes or reinforcing lamin- possible, but this depends on the manufacturer.
ates. Natural or aramid fibres are currently In theory there is no limit to the length of a com- CFRP sections
hardly used at all. ponent because the sections are produced Owing to their high price, sections made from
continuously. However, the sections are gener- carbon fibre-reinforced polymers (CFRP) are
Arrangement of fibre reinforcement ally stocked in lengths of 6 m. only produced in small sizes and only used for
The fibre reinforcement in pultruded sections is Pultrudred sections are always prismatic, i.e. heavily loaded components. Such applications
primarily in the form of long fibres (rovings) have a constant cross-section over their entire include, for example, strengthening laminates
(see “Properties and applications”, pp. 48 – 49) length. They are generally straight, but curved for concrete refurbishment projects (see “Repairs
integrated in the longitudinal direction of the sections can now also be produced. [1] It is with CFRP laminates”, p. 92) or pipes made
component. Additional textiles and fleeces are possible to include cable ducts, core materials from braided CFRP.
incorporated in the surfaces of the sections or longitudinal ribs, but transverse ribs are im-
(Fig. C 3.8). Whereas the rovings determine the possible.
a
m n o p 2
1 3
C 3.8
b c
C 3.7 A selection of pultruded sections made from
q fibre-reinforced polymers
a Flat
b Square hollow
c Equal leg angle
d Ι-section
e Tube
d f Channel
g Handrail
r h T-section
i Unequal leg angle
j Plank
f k Window frame
e
l Panel
m 45° connector
n 3-way connector
o Rail
p Coupler
q, r Bridge deck
g h i s CFRP-GFRP composite beam
C 3.8 Make-up of pultruded sections (schematic)
1 Pultruded section made from
fibre-reinforced polymer
2 Textile reinforcement, e.g. overlapping
j k
complex mats
3 Long fibres (rovings)
C 3.9 Profiled solid acrylic sheet (PMMA)
C 3.10 Twin-wall acrylic sheet (PMMA)
C 3.11 Corrugated acrylic sheet (PMMA)
l s with textured surface
C 3.7
84
Semi-finished polymer products
85
Semi-finished polymer products
86
Semi-finished polymer products
The permissible service temperatures are higher Solid sheets made from amorphous PET and
than those of acrylic sheet and the behaviour in the copolyester PET-G are extruded. Working
fire is usually better; not readily flammable PC the materials is similar to that of polycarbonate.
sheets are available as standard. PC exhibits Hot-forming is especially quick and reliable
good durability but additives are necessary with PETG; no pre-drying is necessary and the
where long-lasting light-fastness is a require- forming temperature is 100 – 160 °C. Amorphous
ment. Products with UV protection on the outer PET can also be formed, but must be cooled
face should be used for external applications. quickly to preserve the transparency.
For a polymer the scratch resistance of poly-
carbonate is good. Other thermoplastics
Hollow PC sheets (twin-wall, multi-wall, etc.) are Other thermoplastics can be used for semi-
extruded (see “Extrusion”, p. 83). Co-extrusion finished sheet and panel products required for
can be used to add a coloured PC sheet to a subsidiary components or special applications.
twin- or multi-wall product, or to provide a UV- Products made from polyvinyl chloride (PVC),
resistant coating or apply a water-repellent sur- polystyrene (PS) or styrene acrylonitrile (SAN)
face texture. are generally less durable and less light-fast,
Polycarbonate can be worked with conventional but mostly cheaper than the polymers described C 3.15
tools and such work is less problematic than above. These materials require the addition of
with acrylic sheet because PC is less brittle a stabiliser to protect against UV radiation if
and less sensitive to stress cracking. Silicone they are to be used outside, and polystyrene in
or solvent adhesives can be used for adhesive particular has very limited suitability for external
joints. Shaping polycarbonate is more compli- applications. The strengths and stiffnesses of
cated than acrylic sheet because the material PS and SAN are, however, comparable with the
first has to be dried at a temperature of approx. above materials.
110 °C and the forming temperature, at 180 – Less important components such as roof cover-
210 °C, is relatively high. The material cools ings over industrial sheds or temporary struc-
quickly and so the mould itself must be heated. tures can make use of, for example, corrugated
sheets made from transparent PVC, which rep-
Sandwich panels made from polycarbonate resent a cheaper alternative. However, the per-
(PC) manent exposure to UV radiation causes the
The polycarbonate interlayer of so-called drawn- material to lose its transparency and become
core sandwich panels (Figs. C 3.12 and C 3.16) matt.
is not extruded, but rather laid as a sheet between Solid sheets made from PS and SAN are easy
two heated moulds and drawn by these into a to shape and are therefore suitable for interior C 3.16
three-dimensional structure. Afterwards, facings fitting-out purposes, e.g. sanitary applications.
of PC or PMMA are attached by laminating or
welding.
87
Semi-finished polymer products
6
a
Sheets, boards and panels made from unrein-
32
forced polymers are either moulded or extruded.
l
Moulding
Thermoplastics can generally only be moulded
16
b in the non-cross-linked state because only then
are they sufficiently runny. Moulding is frequently
used, first and foremost for PMMA planar prod-
32
ucts. [2] “In situ polymerisation” involves filling
c 16 the monomers and initiators of the polymer into
a mould and then initiating the reaction mecha-
nism by applying heat. Moulding the acrylic
sheet between two parallel panes of glass re-
20
55
PMMA has a higher strength and better heat
m resistance than extruded material.
Extrusion
25
50
thermoplastic sections (see “Extrusion”, p. 83).
Twin- or multi-wall sheets with different colours
are co-extruded.
32
ance)
h
• Wider range of design options
j
inserted which then shimmers through the poly-
mer and remains visible.
85
88
Semi-finished polymer products
Light transmittance 1
tance 1 g-value [%]
U-value1 [W/m2K]
Energy transmit-
max. width [mm]
Sound reduction
Weight [kg/m2]
available [mm]
Cross-section
Thicknesses
(Fig. C 3.19)
[%]
Material Manufacturer Product name
Solid products
PMMA Evonik Röhm Plexiglas XT, extruded, UV-permeable 1.5 – 25 2050 3050 4.8 5.4 85 92 26 B2
Evonik Röhm Plexiglas GS, moulded, UV-permeable 2 – 160 2050 3050 4.8 5.4 85 92 26 B2
PC Bayer Sheet Europe Makrolon GP, impact-resistant, colourless 0.75 – 15 2050 3050 4.9 87 B1
PET-G Simona Simollux, unbreakable, can be deep-drawn 1 – 15 2050 3050 5.1 90 B1
without pre-drying
PET Thyssen Schulte Nudec PET-UV, graffiti-proof, stiffer than PET-G, 4 2050 3050 5.3 89 B1
UV protection
PVC Simona Simona PVC-Glas-SX transparent, enhanced impact 0.8 – 15 1500 3000 5.3 5.1 84 B1
resistance, unsuitable for use outdoors
GFRP Fiberline Pultruded GFRP, flat sheets, opaque 1.5 – 25 500 6000 5.6 5.5 B2
GFRP Lamilux Lamilux plan, translucent or coloured 0.8 – 5 3200 12 000 5.6 5.5 B2
Mineral board DuPont Corian 4 – 19 930 3658 6.8 B1
Mineral board LG Chem Europe Hi-Macs 4 – 12 910 3680 6.8 5.6 B1
Corrugated products
PMMA Evonik Röhm Plexiglas resist farblos C struktur 76/18, enhanced 3 1045 4000 4.0 88 B2
impact resistance, textured finish
PC Bayer Sheet Europe Makrolon onda multi longlife 2/177-51, corrugated 5 1097 7000 2.0 3.7 78 77 B2
twin-wall sheet, rigid, UV protection
PVC Solvay Ondex, Sollux, 76/18, lightweight, inexpensive, 1.2 988 6000 2.0 80 B1
simple processing
GFRP Scobalit Various corrugated and trapezoidal forms matching 0.9 3000 2000 20 89 B2
the opaque sections of other manufacturers
Twin-/multi-wall products
PMMA Evonik Röhm Plexiglas Alltop, colourless, UV-permeable, b 16 1200 7000 5.0 2.5 91 82 22 B2
NO DROP coating
PMMA Evonik Röhm Plexiglas Heatstop, opal or blue, NO DROP coating, e 16 / 32 1230 7000 5.7 1.6 30 40 24 B2
reflects IR radiation, impermeable to UV radiation
PC Brett Martin Marlon CST, corrugated twin-wall sheet a 6 1152 2.0 3.3 79
PC Bayer Sheet Europe Makrolon multi UV 3X/16-25, colourless, c 16 2100 15 000 2.5 2.0 62 66 18 B2
impermeable to UV radiation
PC Bayer Sheet Europe Makrolon multi UV 6/20-20, colourless, d 20 2100 14 000 3.1 1.7 57 58 21 B2
impermeable to UV radiation
PC Brett Martin Sevenwall (Seven), Marlon ST, multi-wall sheet f 32 2100 3.6 1.3 64
PC Rodeca PC 2540-6, opal anti-glare, tongue and groove joints, g 40 500 11 000 4.2 1.2 45 45 22 B 2,
two-tone colouring possible B1
PC Bayer Sheet Europe Makrolon multi UV 5M/40-20, impermeable to k 40 1230 6000 4.2 1.0 47 47 19 B2
UV radiation
PC Brett Martin Marlon, XX wall, diagonal webs l 32 / 35 2100 3.8 1.4 64
PC Brett Martin Marlon, Tenwall, complex web configuration m 32 / 55 3.6 1.1 54
PC Rodeca Multi-function panels 10 630 2.9
PVC Rodeca PVC 2340-3, with co-extruded acrylic h 40 300 11 000 5.5 1.7 67 21 B1
UV protective layer
GFRP Scobalit Light elements, rigidity ensured i 20 / 40 2400 8000 5.3 2.6 78 20 B 2,
by diagonal webs B1
GFRP Butzbach Varioplan plus, colour: Brillant, clear material, crystal 40 486 15 000 11.0 2.6 42 78 25 B2
structure, 3 colours
GFRP Butzbach Varioplan plus, colour: Brillant, j 40 486 15 000 11.0 1.2 42 63 27 B2
with 2 intermediate foils
GFRP Scobalit Scobatherm Nanogel translucent, n 50 / 70 1.25 0 12.0 0.4 26 23 27 B1
aerogel granulate filling, F 30
GFRP JET Grillodur, 2-leaf, natural colour, GFRP sheet bonded 70 2000 5600 8.0 1.6 69 77 25 B2
to aluminium section, suitable for foot traffic
GFRP JET Grillodur, with spun glass inlay, enhanced sound and o 70 1200 8000 10.0 0.6 46 51 34 B2
thermal insulation, light-scattering
GFRP Scobalit Scobatherm Monifex, filling material: folded foils made p 85 935 3000 5.7 0.6 48 39 28 B1
from vegetable cellulose
GFRP Fiberline Facade planks, translucent 40 500 6000 8.2 B1
1
These values were calculated for a sheet thickness of 4 mm in the case of solid sheets, for the twin-/multi-wall sheets the lower thickness was used.
C 3.20
89
Semi-finished polymer products
product with an open structure is required (e.g. aldehyde (PF) are mainly used. These tend to be
open-grid flooring). rather brittle and their strengths are lower than
those of the polymers normally used for fibre
Sandwich panels composites. However, combined with wood-
Planar products subjected to bending exhibit based products and paper, they achieve very
the highest stresses in their extreme fibres (i.e. good results. In addition, wood and paper can
at the surfaces) and are little utilised in the core absorb the moisture that ensues with these resins
zone. Solid GFRP or CFRP products with a during the curing reaction (polycondensation).
density of up to 2.0 g/cm3 are relatively heavy Moulding compounds made from wood chip-
compared to other polymers and, furthermore, pings and phenolic resin have been processed
the production of laminates > 15 mm thick re- on an industrial scale since the start of the 20th
quires extensive technological input. These century. Fibreboard made from thin wood veneers
boundary conditions put considerable con- plus a synthetic resin binder achieves a higher
straints on the spans that can be achieved. In strength, but in this case the synthetic binder
sandwich panels the core, which is under- plays only a subsidiary role. Compared to solid
stressed, is replaced by a lighter material with timber, wood-based board products are com-
C 3.21 a lower loadbearing capacity so that the entire paratively weather-resistant and achieve high
sandwich element can be made much thicker strengths for wood-based products. Moulding
but still solid. Typical core materials are foams, compounds and fibreboard with a synthetic
honeycomb structures or spacer fabrics (see resin binder are used for furniture, but also for
“Core materials”, pp. 72 – 75). industrial applications.
Sandwich panels are used when a planar elem- All laminates and wood-based board products
ent with a high stiffness is necessary, e.g. shells are pressed during the curing reaction in order
in compression, long spans or panels with point to prevent the formation of air bubbles and voids.
loads as in bridge-building. Curved components can be produced with
Moreover, lightweight core layers have a low appropriate moulds, as well as flat boards.
thermal conductivity. It is also possible to fill Printed papers are frequently included for decora-
hollow GFRP elements with materials having tive purposes. These are impregnated with
good thermal insulation or thermal mass (Figs. melamine resin and pressed to form laminates.
C 3.21 and C 3.26). Owing to the use of phenolic or aminoplastic
resins, laminates are usually brittle, a fact
Planks that must be taken into account during their
Planks are planar products provided with strength- processing.
C 3.22 ening ribs on one side. Their production is much
simpler than that of sandwich panels because Wood-plastic composites (WPC)
they are made of only one material. The webs In contrast to the familiar phenolic resin mould-
are mostly parallel and so automated produc- ing compounds, in a wood plastic composite
tion by way of pultrusion is possible. A further wood fibres and sawdust are mixed into the
development of the plank is the twin-wall trans- thermoplastic matrix, usually of polypropylene
parent plank with closed voids. However, the (PP) or polyethylene (PE). The proportion of
webs are approx. 2 mm thick at least because of wood substances frequently lies between 50
the fibre reinforcement. and 80 % by wt. In contrast to natural wood,
Planks and twin-wall planks can be used as WPC components can be formed into any shape
facade cladding (Fig. C 3.23) or for the surfacing and are waterproof. [3] On the other hand, the
to walkways. This form of construction does not bonded wood is not resistant to microbes and
bring any significant improvement in the thermal has limited heat resistance. One use of WPCs is
insulation properties, however. as hollow facade cladding panels (Fig. C 3.25).
They are produced by extrusion or compression-
Grids or injection-moulding.
Grids or gratings, which do not have a closed For details of other polymers reinforced with
C 3.23 structure, represent special types of planar natural fibres, please refer to the chapter entitled
products. Long fibres (rovings) are laid in the “Natural fibre-reinforced polymers and biopoly-
mould and are therefore integrated into the mers” (pp. 60 – 65).
synthetic resin. The individual ribs are upright,
which increases the load-carrying capacity. Mineral boards
Grids, however, cannot be manufactured in a Mineral boards are composites made from
continuous process, and are instead produced thermoplastics such as acrylic sheet (PMMA)
in large moulds. Typical applications include, or polycarbonate (PC) plus mineral aggregates.
for example, floors and walkways in industrial Traditionally, mineral boards are used in sani-
plants or balustrade infill panels (Fig. C 3.24). tary facilities or as worktops in kitchens, but are
being increasingly used for other interior fitting-
Laminates and wood-based board products out purposes or as facade cladding. The colour-
Besides the use of fibres for reinforcement, ants and aggregates chosen determine their
thermosets are also processed in combination appearance. The mineral aggregate lends the
with other materials such as wood or paper. material a surface hardness that is very hard
Synthetic resins such as melamine formaldehyde for a synthetic material and a correspondingly
(MF), urea formaldehyde (UF) or phenol form- high elastic modulus. Additional coatings are
C 3.24
90
Semi-finished polymer products
91
Semi-finished polymer products
92
Semi-finished polymer products
External prestressing tendons and b). However, the manual production process References:
The latest developments focus on the use of results in more generous tolerances than is the [1] http://www.thomas-technik.de/pdf/Radius_Pultrusion.
pdf, 19 Aug 2010
CFRP laminates as external prestressing ten- case with pultruded sections. The construction
[2] Domininghaus, Hans: Die Kunststoffe und ihre
dons for traditional or “low-tower” cable-stayed details at junctions, joints and connections are Eigenschaften. Berlin/Heidelberg, 2005
bridges (so-called extradosed bridges). [7] The also more complicated. Pultruded planar prod- [3] http://www.kosche.de/homekovalex/index, 19 Aug
anchorages for the CFRP laminates, which are ucts (Figs. C 3.28c and d) consist of a succes- 2010
sensitive to transverse compression, and the sion of prismatic sections bonded together. [4] http://www2.dupont.com/Corian/de_DE/assets/
downloads/documentation/corian_cladding_de.pdf,
change in direction (harping) at the intermediate Most of the fibre reinforcement is aligned in the 11 Feb 2010
supports represent particular challenges. longitudinal direction of the component. Jointing [5] Schwarz, Otto; Ebeling, Friedrich Wolfhard; Furth,
is carried out either in situ or beforehand, in the Brigitte: Kunststoffverarbeitung. Würzburg, 2002
GFRP bridge decks factory, to form units that are nevertheless trans- [6] Remmele, Mathias: Aus einem Guss: Die Entwicklung
des Panton-Stuhls.
Glass fibre-reinforced polymers are used for portable. The pultruded bridge deck sections
In: deutsche bauzeitung 4/2006, pp. 27ff.
road bridge decks because they resist corrosion typically span 2 – 3 m between the main girders. [7] Knippers, Jan; Hwash, Mohamed: Umgelenkte
and fatigue better than conventional materials. The GFRP deck is either clamped, connected Lamellen aus kohlenfaserverstärktem Kunststoff für
The planar products are combined with a primary via headed studs or bonded to the main girders. freistehende Spannglieder im Konstruktiven Ingeni-
loadbearing structure of steel or reinforced eurbau. In: Beton- und Stahlbetonbau 10/2008,
pp. 68ff.
concrete. Steel-GFRP composite construction Example of a steel-GFRP composite bridge [8] http://www.fhwa.dot.gov/Bridge/FRP/, 19 Aug 2010
has been used widely, first and foremost in the The bridge deck panels made from pultruded [9] Lee, Sung Woo; Kee-Jeung, Hong: Experiencing
USA, since the mid-1990s. The USA’s Federal GFRP for the steel-GFRP composite bridge in More Composite-Deck Bridges and Developing Inno-
Highway Administration (FHWA) lists about 70 Friedberg north of Frankfurt am Main are bonded vative Profile of Snap-Fit Connection. In: COBRAE
bridges that have been built with a deck made to the steel beams with an epoxy resin mortar. Conference – Benefits of Composites in Civil Enginee-
ring. Stuttgart, 2007
from GFRP (position as of 2009). [8] GFRP The bridge superstructure, including cantilever-
decks are frequently used to replace existing ing footpaths and cycle tracks, bridge parapets,
conventional decks during refurbishment work. railings and road surfacing, was completely
The damaged decks of composite or steel prefabricated in an empty warehouse beforehand,
bridges have been replaced by GFRP decks in which reduced the work on site to a minimum.
many projects; the abutments and main bridge The integrated form of construction as a frame
beams are retained. eliminates all components that might need
The possibility to being able to prefabricate servicing, e.g. elastomeric bearings or carriage-
lightweight planar products in larger dimensions way expansion joints.
and transport these to the building site enables The hollow GFRP sections were closed off at
bridges to be quickly refurbished and reopened the ends to protect against animals and vermin
to traffic. One key advantage is that, unlike re- (Fig. C 3.30b), but the cross-sections of the
inforced concrete, the semi-finished products pultruded bars remain visible in the finished
plus the adhesives and coatings required do structure.
not need any long curing times. Several road The road surfacing of polymer concrete (see
bridges with GFRP decks have also been built “Epoxy resin mortar and polymer concrete”,
in South Korea recently, including Noolcha Bridge p. 56) ensures a rough surface and the uniform
in Busan with a length of 300 m and a width of distribution of point loads.
35 m. When it was completed in 2007 it was the
largest structure in the world built from a fibre-
reinforced polymer. [9]
Product forms
Sandwich panels or combined, pultruded sec-
tions are used for bridge decks. Sandwich panels
carry loads in both directions with the same
stiffness, which is why they are ideal for carry-
ing the wheel loads of vehicles (Figs. C 3.28a
a b C 3.30
93
Foil
C 4.1
Strictly speaking, the term foil should be reserved for interior applications and temporary struc-
for very thin metals. However, it has become es- tures (e.g. trade fair stands), and PE foil is well
tablished in the building industry for a homogene- established as an alternative to glass for green-
ous polymer material that is very thin relative to houses.
its surface area. In the building industry, foil In principle we distinguish between different
made from single or composite polymers is used types of foil depending on the configuration of
not only for temporary and transport purposes, the material:
but primarily for the following functions: • Single-ply foil made from one material
• For waterproofing against precipitation in • Two-ply foil made from two layers of the
roofs and facades same material
• For waterproofing against moisture and hydro- • Composite foil made from two or more plies
static pressure in the soil of different materials
• For improving the airtightness of building
envelopes (to reduce ventilation heat losses)
• As a vapour barrier or vapour check Production of foil
• As thermal insulation
• For improving the solar control and thermal A foil web is the wide strip of material produced
performance properties of glazing which is then wound up into a reel (Fig. C 4.5,
• For improving the thermal insulation effect of p. 96). Reels can contain more than 1000 m of
insulating glass units material depending on the type of foil and its
• In the fabrication of laminated safety glass thickness. The properties of the foil can be
• For improving room acoustics with the help different in the longitudinal and transverse direc-
of so-called acoustic foil (see “Acoustic foil”, tions depending on the production process.
p. 118)
• For coating interior surfaces (furniture, built-in In the first place we distinguish between two
items, partitions, floor coverings, etc.) different methods of manufacturing polymer foil:
moulding and thermoplastic processing. In
A detailed presentation of the polymers that can moulding, a solvent is added to the basic granu-
be used and their properties for all the above late before this blend is moulded to form a foil.
applications would exceed the scope of this The solvents used have a negative effect on
book. This chapter will therefore essentially con- the properties of the final foil and so this method
centrate on the uses of foil in construction, and is hardly used these days. In thermoplastic
the chapter entitled “Building physics and energy processing, the polymer is processed to form a
aspects” (pp. 108 – 123) will investigate appli- melt without the addition of any solvent. This
cations that concern, for example, appearance type of production can be further subdivided into
or acoustics, in conjunction with other materials. calendering and two forms of extrusion.
94
Foil
Extrusion requires a considerable investment in the extruder optical standards, however. Blown ETFE foil is
In this method the granulate is melted, mixed, and the dies and, first and foremost, also limits therefore not used very often in the building in-
homogenised and transported in a heated the width of the foil that can be produced in this dustry, except perhaps as a roofing material for
metal barrel containing the rotating plasticising way. For example, the maximum width of ETFE greenhouses.
screw. This process generates a very high foil that can be supplied is currently approx.
pressure directly in front of the end of the screw 1.55 m.
which forces the material through a die (see
“Extrusion”, p. 83). We can subdivide extrusion Extruding tubular foils with an annular die
into two types depending on the die geometry. An annular die with a mandrel in the middle ini-
tially forms the melt into a tube as it leaves the
Extruding flat foils with a wide-slot die extruder. Air blown in via the mandrel subse-
The use of a die in the form of a wide slot plus quently expands the tube to three or four times
downstream “chill” rolls results in a high-quality its original size. This tube is then carefully
foil with an excellent surface finish that also cooled and wound up to form reels of “lay-flat”
complies with high optical requirements (Figs. tubular foil or slit open and rolled up as flat foil
C 4.3a and C 4.5, p. 96). The manufacturing (Fig. C 4.3b, p. 96). Such foils have an essen-
process is, however, relatively slow. In order to tially homogenous strength in the longitudinal
prevent variations in thickness or optical deficien- and transverse directions. This method of pro-
cies such as streaks or waves when producing duction, which generates flat foil from a three-
transparent foil (e.g. ETFE), it is important to dimensional mould, achieves a high throughput
ensure that the temperature and the flow rate at and comparatively large reel widths exceeding
the outlet remain very consistent. That in turn 3 m in some cases. Such foil cannot satisfy high
Service temperature range [ °C] -200 bis +150 -50 bis +80 -25 to +80 no data available
Reaction to fire not readily flammable not readily flammable flammable to highly flammable not readily flammable
95
Foil
Production quality
Flaws that can occur during the production of
foils have a negative effect on their usefulness.
Such flaws can be local impurities or blemishes,
e.g. holes, or more extensive problems such as
wavy edges, creases, streaks or thicknesses
outside the permissible tolerances. Optimum
extruding, rolling or blowing speeds can help
to reduce such problems.
C 4.3 Foil extrusion 1 Metering 9 Reel of foil
a Extrusion of flat foil 2 Granulate 10 Extruder Additives
b Extrusion of tubular foil (blown foil) 3 Melting 11 Air It is also possible to include diverse additives
C 4.4 Flat foil extrusion plant 4 Filter 12 Wide-slot die when manufacturing foil – added either during
C 4.5 Reel of ETFE foil 5 Smoothing 13 Air ring
C 4.6 Clear ETFE foil 6 Cooling 14 Nip rolls
the production of the polymer itself, or during
C 4.7 Coloured ETFE foil 7 Forming 15 Cutting to the production of the foil. Such additives in-
C 4.8 a–c Various printed ETFE foils 8 Thickness measurement length clude, for example, lubricants or antiblocking
agents for optimising the further processing,
also antistatic agents, antioxidants and UV
absorbers or stabilisers. Pigments are used
1 4 5 6
almost exclusively for colouring foil because
the chemical polymer properties make many
2 dyes unsuitable. The addition of pigments colours
3 the entire foil material. The most important
7 white pigment is titanium oxide, which is also
8 used for the production of ETFE foil, for instance
10
(see “Fillers and additives”, pp. 32 – 34).
9
Further processing options
Foil can be perforated, formed (e.g. embossed,
a microstructured), printed, coated or laminated
in further processing stages. The types of pro-
cessing possible depend on the particular poly-
14 mer. Specific pretreatment stages are neces-
sary in some cases in order to increase the polar-
15 ity (surface energy) of ETFE, which is actually
non-polar. The mechanical properties of certain
polymer foils can be considerably improved by
13 stretching. To do this, the extruded foil is passed
over rolls, the speeds of which increase between
machine inlet and outlet, which results in the
polymer being stretched in the longitudinal
direction. This process can be repeated for the
other direction, and then we speak of biaxially
4 stretched material (normal for PP and PET foil,
2 for example).
10 12 9
3 11
Semi-finished products and forms of supply
b
C 4.3 Proper storage and transport is important for
reels of high-quality foil that must comply with
demanding optical specifications. Ideally, they
should be stored and transported on reels that
are supported at their ends (see Fig. C 4.5) so
that the foil itself is not in contact with any sur-
faces. Such handling avoids pressure marks
and creases in larger and hence heavy reels.
The polymer foils used most often for building
applications are briefly described below.
ETFE foil
One of the foil materials employed most fre-
quently in the building industry for loadbearing
enclosing components is the copolymer ETFE.
Since it was launched onto the market in 1970,
ETFE has remained one of the most stable
chemical compounds known and is therefore
C 4.4 C 4.5
96
Foil
ideal for use in environments where the material itself and hence the degree of coverage can exhibits its maximum stiffness, extends up to
is exposed to a diverse range of aggressive be varied virtually without any restrictions (Fig. an elongation of approx. 10 %. The tensile
actions (acids, alkalis, UV radiation, etc). C 4.8c). In addition, the degree of transmittance strength at this elongation can be used in
Like its chemical relation polytetrafluoroethylene of the ink itself can be controlled within certain structural analyses. Afterwards, the curve flat-
(PTFE), ETFE exhibits an excellent long-lasting limits. White or silver are the colours used most tens off noticeably, indicating increased strain
soiling behaviour, is very resistant to environ- often because in the majority of architectural and plastic deformation. The force that can be
mental influences, is also heat- and weather- applications reflection (of light and heat) is just accommodated increases up to failure.
resistant and boasts long-term UV stability. ETFE as important as light transmittance. An unprinted The curve shifts depending on the stress state,
foil hardly absorbs short-wave UV radiation, and border of sufficient width (30 – 50 mm) should the stiffness changes depending on whether
so the material neither yellows nor becomes always be left for welded joints, or printing must the material has been prestressed in one
brittle. Its mechanical properties are also advan- be subsequently removed from this zone by direction (monoaxial) or two (biaxial).
tageous. With all these benefits, it is hardly sur- mechanical or chemical means. Metallic, ceramic Fig. C 4.10 (p. 98) shows the stress–strain dia-
prising that ETFE is ideal for membrane and ten- or organic (wet method) coatings can be applied grams for samples of material with monoaxial
sile structures and is by far the most popular foil to foils in special plants using techniques such and biaxial pretension; the stiffness of the
material for such applications. Owing to its very as sputtering, for example. However, these coat- monoaxial specimen is much lower than that
high light transmittance and the high permeability ing methods are still at an early stage of develop- of the biaxial version.
in the UV range so important to plant growth, ment when it comes to ETFE foil (Figs. C 6.28 In addition to the duration of loading, the tem-
which at the same time limits bacteria growth, and C 6.29, p. 115). perature of the surroundings also has a consid-
the material is frequently used for building en- The difficulty with printing is achieving sufficient erable influence on the stiffness of the material
velopes in zoos, greenhouses and other biotopes, adhesion between the extremely thin coating as well as its relaxation and creep behaviour.
and swimming pools. The properties of trans- layer and the ETFE – realised through matching Fig. C 4.12a shows the different cyclic loads on
parent, pure ETFE foil remain very constant with- the materials carefully and through pretreatment. a specimen in the longitudinal and transverse
in the production process. Where very large In addition, the functional layers on both sides directions. At approx. -25 °C the strains always
quantities of foil are required, combining different are often at risk of corrosion and must be per- revert to zero even after several loading cycles
batches from various manufacturers in the same manently protected by suitable techniques. The (Fig. C 4.12b, p. 98). The material begins to
project presents no problems. total make-up must be able to withstand the creep significantly even at a temperature of just
actions during processing and erection and +35 °C, a fact that is revealed by the shift in the
Colouring, printing and coating accommodate the inevitable strains induced in strain curve, which indicates a residual strain
The addition of pigments enables ETFE foil to the material during long-term usage. after each loading cycle (Fig. C 4.12c, p. 98).
be produced in white or other colours. However, Laminating foils one on top of the other protects When designing the details for a structure, this
the range of colours is limited and depends on printed motifs and coatings. ETFE foil laminates phenomenon must be taken into account, es-
the particular manufacturer. White foil, which have a layer of pure ETFE on the outside and can pecially with moderate and higher temperatures,
achieves a very diffuse scattering of the incom- therefore be processed just like single-ply ETFE. e.g. between an air-filled cushion and the sup-
ing light, is produced in this way (Fig. C 4.7). porting construction or with regard to tensioning
Provided large quantities are required, the degree Mechanical properties of ETFE foil systems for single-ply designs. The same applies
of transmittance of a white ETFE foil can be The most important mechanical parameters of for choosing the magnitude of tensioning when
controlled within certain limits through the amount foil materials are their tensile strength, elong- using ETFE in building envelopes exposed to high
of titanium dioxide added. However, the white ation at rupture, tear propagation resistance temperatures or severe temperature fluctuations.
pigmentation reduces the radiation transmittance and elastic modulus (Fig. C 4.2, p. 95; see also As ETFE starts to lose strength at a temperature
in the UV range considerably. ETFE can also “Mechanical properties”, p. 105). Especially of +70 °C, the material tends to be more suitable
be printed, but the anti-adhesive surface of important for ETFE foil is the way these values for longer spans in colder or temperate climate
ETFE means that pretreatment is necessary if depend on the duration of loading and the am- zones.
the ink applied is to adhere to the material. All bient temperature.
manufacturers have their own specific types of ETFE foil is almost isotropic in its behaviour,
pretreatment and printing configurations. A roto- virtually linear-elastic up to a certain point for
gravure printing technique is used and that short-term loads. Fig. C 4.9 (p. 98) shows the
means many different motifs and patterns are strength/elongation relationship for the typical
possible. Dots with varying degrees of coverage range of thicknesses (100 – 300 μm) in which the
have become standard (Fig. C 4.8a,b). Where tearing resistance is > 40 N/mm2. The approxi-
large quantities are required, the repetitive pattern mately linear-elastic zone, in which the material
97
Foil
Fatigue strength tests involve subjecting the Welding is used to join together pieces of ETFE hoped that laser welding will enable the width of
material to a constant, high stress over a longer foil. This involves applying heat (approx. 280 °C) the weld seam to be reduced to approx. 3 – 4 mm
period of time and measuring the strain. Such and pressure to an approx. 10 – 15 mm overlap and the speed of welding to be increased con-
tests reveal that the creep of the material drops between two foil sections, either in 15 – 30 s siderably. This would make even complicated
again after approx. 1000 hours regardless of cycles or at a rate of approx. 3 m/min in a irregular seams possible which could then
the magnitude of the load (Fig. C 4.10). ETFE continuous operation (Figs. C 4.13 to C 4.15). A open up other applications for ETFE foil (e.g.
also exhibits a high tear propagation resistance, width of 6 – 10 mm is standard for the weld seam complex absorber or heat exchanger geometries).
good impact strength and a high resistance to itself. In contrast to a number of other synthetic
flex cracking. materials, no additional materials or chemical Fabrication also includes the installation of the
substances are required for the welded connec- air valves required for pneumatic cushions,
Fabrication of ETFE foil tion. possibly also rainwater overflow systems (Fig.
The typical fabrication steps such as cutting to Straight seams (see “Welded seams”, p. 198) E 3.16, p. 194). Keders (see below) are prefer-
size and welding are described in the chapter or uncut large sections can be welded together ably welded on as part of the prefabrication
entitled “Fabrication” (pp. 106 – 107). The aspects in fast cycles with welding beams. Curved edges work, and EPDM/polymer clamping bars (see
discussed here are therefore those specific to are welded with roller devices. Laser welding “Details”, pp. 190 – 191) usually attached in the
foil. methods are currently undergoing trials. It is factory.
C 4.9 Typical strength–elongation diagram for ETFE foil C 4.11 Fatigue strength tests carried out on biaxially c Stress–strain curve from biaxial tensile test
1 Approximately linear-elastic zone and anisotropically prestressed ETFE foil at +35 °C
2 Tensile strength at 10 % elongation subjected to various stresses C 4.13 Continuous welding of an ETFE foil
3 Yield strength C 4.12 a Biaxial tensile tests with incremental load in- C 4.14 Continuous welding of a printed ETFE foil
4 Ultimate tensile strength creases for various temperatures [1] C 4.15 Profiled weld seam
C 4.10 Stiffness of ETFE foil subjected to monoaxial and b Stress–strain curve from biaxial tensile C 4.16 PP keder welded into the edge of a foil
biaxial stress test at -25 °C
60 20
Tensile strength [MPa]
Stress [N/mm²]
25 20
Stress [N/mm²]
Stress [N/mm²]
3.0 20
Elongation [%]
Stress [N/mm²]
Loaded longitudinally Loaded transversely with 4 N/mm² Loaded longitudinally Loaded transversely at +35°C
2.5 18
13 N/mm² 16
2.0
14
1.5 12
9.5 N/mm²
1.0 6 N/mm² 10
0.5 8
6
0.0
4
-0.5 2
-1.0 0
1 10 100 1000 10000 -2 0 2 4 6 8
Time [h] Elongation [%]
C 4.11 c C 4.12
98
Foil
PVC foil than ETFE and so it can only be used for bridg-
Polyvinyl chloride foil is made from PVC contain- ing over small spans, e.g. for filling the apertures
ing plasticiser (PVC-P) and has comparatively of cable nets. THV is sometimes used as a
low UV and heat resistance. Its low strength, coating for high-quality polyester membranes
the high strains in the material and an unfavour- (see “Semi-finished products and forms of
able soiling behaviour all contribute to limiting supply”, pp. 103 – 105).
its use for building applications. However, this
material is inexpensive and therefore it is often
used internally, e.g. as a surface finish and for Keders
furniture and trade fair stands. It can be joined
by welding or adhesives. The edges of cushions, rigid edges to mem-
branes and flexible clamping bar joints and
PE foil edges are joined by so-called keders (bead-
Polyethylene foil is extremely cheap and avail- ing) to form structural, interlocking connections
able in various thicknesses, which are used for between flexible membranes and stiff keder
many applications on construction sites. Its low rails or clamping bars (see “Edges”, pp. 190 – 191,
price and high light transmittance make it a and “Clamping and keder details”, pp. 197 – 198). C 4.13
favourite for greenhouses even though it is not Keders can be made from polypropylene (PP,
very durable. PE foil is not UV-resistant and so Fig. C 4.16), PVC monofilaments or polyurethane
a suitable formulation must be employed, which (PUR). In order to ensure that the keder does
increases its service life to a few years for exter- not deform under load to such an extent that it
nal applications, depending on the actual level slips out of its rail, it should exhibit a Shore
of UV radiation. This low-budget material is also hardness of at least SH 50 (see “Hardness”,
frequently employed for temporary structures. p. 35). Steel ropes or round aluminium sections
For example, the “bubble” of the “Mobile Action can be used for the keders in tensile structures.
Space” project (p. 252) is made from a trans- Ropes made from polymers are generally un-
lucent, fibre-reinforced PE foil. suitable because of their relatively flexible con-
struction.
PTFE foil As with lightweight types of membrane, keders
Foil made from polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE) can also be welded into strips along the edges
is self-cleaning, stable in UV light and very of a foil.
resistant to chemical substances and mould
growth. It is produced in thicknesses from 0.025
to 6 mm and widths up to 1.5 m by means of a References: C 4.14
[1] Saxe, Klaus; Homm, Thomas (University of Duisburg–
peeling method not unlike that used for produ- Essen): Mechanische Eigenschaften von ETFE-Folien
cing wood veneers: a rigid, wide blade slices off für vorgespannte Strukturen. Contribution to Techtextil
the foil web from a rotating cylinder of solid Symposium, 12 Jun 2007
material. PTFE foil normally has a milky white
appearance but can be produced in other colours
as well. It has a lower strength and lower form-
ability than ETFE foil and so it can only be used
for construction projects when laminated to
glass cloth (see “PTFE-coated glass-fibre cloth”,
p. 104). For other applications, PTFE foil can
be produced etched on one side or as a self-
adhesive material (with acrylic or silicone adhe-
sives). Typical applications outside the building
industry include reusable baking foil, conveyor
belts and screw thread sealing tapes. It is also
very important as a separating layer in the weld-
ing of polymers. It prevents material adhering to C 4.15
the welding mirrors, the hot metal surfaces re-
quired when welding the corner joints of PVC
window frames.
THV foil
The properties of the fluoropolymer THV (tetra-
fluoroethylene hexafluoropropylene vinylidene
fluoride) are similar to those of ETFE. Foils
made from this material are likewise highly
transparent, very durable and not readily flam-
mable. Compared with ETFE, they are more
elastic, easier to work and can be joined using
high-frequency welding (see “Fabrication”, pp.
106 – 107). But they are inferior in terms of their
optical properties and especially their soiling
behaviour. THV has a lower tearing resistance
C 4.16
99
Textile membranes
C 5.1
The term membrane is derived from the Latin is clear that none of the products can cover all
word membrana (= skin). It describes a flexible requirements equally. Criteria such as flex
material that is very thin relative to its surface cracking resistance and light transmittance
area. In biology this term stands for a thin layer must be assessed separately for each project.
of skin with a separating or boundary function. The cost of a material must not be considered in
In the building industry textiles in the form of isolation, either, because the choice of material
coated and uncoated woven fabrics and also always has an effect on the fabrication and
polymer foils or thin sheet metals can all be construction costs specific to a project and at
classed as membranes. This chapter deals the same time must be coordinated with the
with the engineering textiles relevant for tensile expectations regarding the durability of the
surface structures. As membranes perform material.
both loadbearing and enclosing functions, their
surface characteristics are just as important as
the tensile strength and elasticity of the material Coatings
used. The mechanical properties are primarily
influenced by the thread material used and the The most important function of a membrane
type of weave, whereas coatings provide a pro- coating is to protect the woven fabric against
tective, waterproofing function and produce the moisture, UV radiation, fire and attack by
desired surface finish. microbes or fungi; its quality is therefore crucial
to the service life of the material. However, the
The membranes typically used in construction coating to a membrane not only protects the
projects are composites of woven fabrics and fabric and hence improves its durability, but also
several layers of a coating substance. Uncoated, influences the mechanical properties. Fixing
i.e. open woven fabrics with coated fibres, are the geometry of the woven fabric increases, in
sometimes used in certain cases, e.g. convertible particular, its shear stiffness and also improves
membrane structures with high demands placed the tear propagation resistance in some instances.
on flexibility. Coated membrane materials are therefore simi-
Uncoated woven fabrics and nets can also lar to composite materials (see “Fibre-reinforced
be used for sunshades and room acoustics polymers”, pp. 76 – 81). Thermoplastic coatings
purposes. enable individual pieces of membrane material
to be welded together. And membranes can be
coloured either by adding pigments to the
Requirements profile for membrane materials coating or printing on the coating itself.
The woven fabric must be pretreated before
Very diverse requirements are placed on mem- applying coatings, normally on both sides. The
brane materials for mechanically prestressed coatings used for all customary fabrics made
structures (Fig. C 5.3). Currently, there are no from synthetic organic and inorganic fibres
materials on the market that satisfy all demands (polyester, PTFE, glass; see “Fibres”, pp. 48 – 53)
completely. So the criteria must be weighted are made from thermoplastics (PVC, PTFE and
accordingly depending on application and loca- other fluoropolymers). Exceptions are silicone
tion. For example, whereas very high strength rubber, which belongs to the elastomers group,
C 5.1 Four membrane materials with similar strengths and good long-term behaviour are crucial for and silicone resin, which is a thermoset. Gener-
but very different flexibilities; from top to bottom:
the roof to a large sports stadium, lightness, ally speaking, coatings have an influence on
PTFE/glass, polyester-PVC, coated PTFE fabric,
uncoated PTFE fabric foldability and flex cracking resistance are the the following properties:
C 5.2 Comparison of three typical membrane materials deciding factors for convertible membrane de-
(best value in each case taken as 100 %) signs. The qualities of three typical membrane • Strain and shear stiffness
C 5.3 The properties required of membrane materials materials satisfying different specifications are • Weldability
C 5.4 The make-up of a polyester-PVC membrane
C 5.5 Plants for coating membranes
compared with each other in Fig. C 5.2; the • UV protection of the fabric
a Doctor blade plant best material currently available in each class • Watertightness
b Dip coating plant is given a value of 100 %. From this diagram it • Reaction to fire
100
Textile membranes
• Light transmittance plasticiser. Additives such as heat and light time. Finally, top coats are applied with rollers
• Light reflectance stabilisers, fungicides, bactericides and pigments or by spraying. A top coat prevents the plasti-
• Scattering the incoming light are mixed in as required. This paste-like com- ciser from escaping under the action of UV
• Soiling behaviour pound is spread over the woven fabric and the radiation and also optimises the surface with
• Colouring excess scraped off with fixed doctor blades. respect to abrasion and soiling behaviour
• Heat radiation This operation is generally repeated several (Fig. C 5.4).
times: the first step is the application of a bond
Various methods are used to apply coatings to enhancer and the actual coating itself is applied
fabrics, and these are described below. in the second and, if necessary, third steps.
Afterwards, the PVC and the plasticiser are
Doctor blade method chemically bonded in a gelation oven at a tem-
The doctor blade method is generally used for perature of about 180 °C. A coating on both
PVC and silicone coatings (Fig. C 5.5a). The sides is normal and so the whole procedure is
premixed, viscous coating paste (plastisol) for repeated for the other side, unless the work is
PVC-coated polyester membranes (polyester- being carried out a vertical coating plant in
PVC) consists of PVC powder dispersed in a which case both sides are coated at the same
6 9
11
1 Untreated fabric 9 Top coat scraped off
2 Bond enhancer with knife-over-roll 5
3 Coating 10 Gelation oven
4 Top coat 11 Coated fabric
5 Untreated fabric 12 Dipping tank
6 Bond enhancer 13 Scraping off 7 10
8
scraped off with 14 Drying
air knife 15 Pre-sintering
7 Gelation oven 16 Sintering
8 “Chill” rolls
16
15
1
2 14
3
4 13
11
5 12
C 5.4 b C 5.5
101
Textile membranes
Applications, Diverse applica- High-quality sur- For permanent For permanent For permanent For permanent and For permanent and
special features tions, very cheap face, very high light structures, high- structures, high structures, high mobile structures, mobile structures,
standard material transmittance quality standard light transmittance light transmittance high light high light transmit-
material with high strength transmittance tance, low rainproof-
ing quality
Jointing methods High-frequency High-frequency Impulse welding Vulcanising (bond- Impulse welding High-frequency Stitching
and impulse and impulse with intermediate ing) or stitching with intermediate welding
welding welding foil and gluing (combi- foil
nation seam)
Long-term stability Good UV stability No data available Very good UV sta- Good UV stability, Good UV stability, Very good UV sta- Very good UV
with sufficiently bility, very good good chemical very good chemical bility, very good stability, very good
thick coating, chemical resistance resistance chemical chemical resistance
good chemical resistance resistance
resistance
Sensitivity to flex Highly resistant to Resists flex crack- Highly sensitive to Low sensitivity to Highly sensitive to Highly resistant to Highly resistant to
cracking flex cracking, ing, suitable for flex cracking, un- flex cracking flex cracking, un- flex cracking, suit- flex cracking, ideal
suitable for convert- convertible systems suitable for convert- suitable for convert- able for convertible for convertible
ible systems ible systems ible systems systems systems
Sensitivity to soiling Vulnerable to soil- Good soiling Very good soiling Vulnerable to Self-cleaning, but Good soiling Good soiling
ing, better with top behaviour behaviour, self- soiling dust and dirt can behaviour behaviour
coat, e.g. fluoride cleaning collect owing to
lacquer rough surface
Light transmittance 5 – 15% 15 – 23 % 8 – 20 % 25 – 30 % 43 – 46 % 20 – 40 % 35 %
Greying causes a
rise in solar absorp-
tion
Environmental PVC degrades and THV decomposes Environmentally Environmentally Environmentally Waste streams Waste streams must
impact (coating and forms chlorine/ at high friendly disposal of friendly disposal of friendly disposal of must be kept sepa- be kept separate,
fabric considered hydrochloric acid, temperatures glass fibres, PTFE glass fibres, sili- glass fibres, PTFE rate, PTFE does not PTFE does not de-
separately, separa- collect and return does not degrade cone can be does not degrade degrade but de- grade but decom-
tion generally still network exists; poly- but decomposes at recycled but decomposes at composes at high poses at high tem-
difficult, first recyc- ester can be melted high temperatures high temperatures temperatures and peratures and pro-
ling systems still down or reused as and produces and produces produces fluorine duces fluorine
being established) short fibres fluorine fluorine
Standard colours White as standard, White as standard White as standard, White and silver as Colourless White as standard Some coloured yarns
other colours limited selection of standard, other available
available colours colours
Weight per unit Type I: 750 Type I: 1150 Type I: 800 Type 0: 200 1050 1080 320
area1 to DIN 55 352 Type II: 900 Type II: 1200 Type II: 900 Type I: 340 530
[g/m2] Type III: 1100 Type III: 1200 Type III: 685
Type IV: 1300 Type IV: 1500 Type IV: 1100
Type V: 1450
Tensile strength 1 Type I: 3000 / 3000 Type I: 3500 / 3000 Type I: 3500 / 3500 Type 0: 2500 / 1750 4500 / 4000 4000 / 4000 2000 / 2050
(warp/weft) Type II: 4200 / 4000 Type II: 5000 / 4500 Type II: 5000 / 4500 Type I: 3000 / 3000 4000 / 3700
to DIN 53 354 Type III: 5800 / 5400 Type III: 7000 / 6000 Type III: 5000 / 5000
[N/50 mm] Type IV: 7500 / 6500 Type IV: 8000 / 7000 Type IV: 8000 / 8000
Type V: 10 000 / 9000
Tear propagation Type I: 300 / 300 Type I: 700 / 700 Type I: 300 / 300 Type 0: 350 / 400 250 / 250 798 / 752 365 / 330
resistance1 (warp/ Type II: 500 / 500 Type II: 600 / 600 Type II: 350 / 350 Type II: 300 / 300 669 / 550
weft) to DIN 53 363 Type III: 850 / 800 Type III: 500 / 500 Type III: 400 / 400
[N] Type IV: 1200 / 1200 Type IV: 500 / 500 Type IV: 500 / 500
Type V: 1800 / 1800
Service life 15 – 20 No data available > 25 > 20 > 25 > 25 > 30
Cost of raw 15 – 45 % 60 – 140 % 50 – 150 % 110 – 180 % 100 –180 % 100 – 140 % 120 –170 %
materials 2
Examples Fig. D 1.1, p. 134; Examples 17–22, Fig. D 1.21, p. 142 Figs. D 1.32 & D Fig. D 1.37, p. 149;
Figs. D 1.14– pp. 262–281 1.33, p. 147; Fig. E 4.1, p. 196;
D 1.17, p. 141; example 23, Fig. E 4.51, p. 210
Fig. E 4.50, p. 210 pp. 282–285
1 2
Mean values Compared with the average price for PTFE/glass (100 %)
C 5.6
102
Textile membranes
Low E coatings
So-called low E (low emissivity) coatings lower
the heat radiation effect considerably and are
currently being offered for various membrane
materials, e.g. PTFE/glass, (Fig. C 5.15, p. 107).
How such coatings work is described in the
chapter entitled “Selectivity and low E surfaces”
(p. 116).
e f
103
Textile membranes
104
Textile membranes
7000
105
Textile membranes
9,0
Elongation [%]
Stress [kN/m]
Warp Weft
20,0
6,0
15,0
3,0
10,0 0,0
5,0 -3,0
0,0 -6,0
Time Time
a b C 5.13
biaxial test for a type IV PTFE/glass membrane. always to minimise the amount of waste when to cool down slowly while still under pressure
In this case an isotropic prestress of 3 kN/m calculating the cutting pattern and positioning enables the weld seam to reach strengths of up
was initially applied to the specimen, i.e. the the pattern on the unrolled material. For some to 90 % of that of the parent material.
same pretension in the warp and weft direc- materials, fabricators and manufacturers have Impulse welding is a special form of hot-plate
tions, and subsequently increased alternately set up a direct return system for waste, which is welding in which electrical impulses in thin metal
in the warp and weft directions. It is obvious then recycled and reused. The coating first has bars raise the temperature through resistance
from the graphs that the strain differs in the two to be separated from the fibres in the case of heating. The rapid cooling of the thin metal bars
directions. This effect can be less pronounced polyester-PVC membrane waste, but ETFE foil while still applying the contact pressure results
in other materials. Nowadays, special methods waste can be melted down again directly. in a faster processing speed.
of manufacture for polyester-PVC membranes
result in equal stiffness characteristics in the Welding Welding on site
warp and weft directions. Thermoplastic coatings can be fused together Welding work on site is usually necessary for
through a combination of heat and pressure – larger membrane structures, mostly for finish-
a process known as welding. The heat required ing clamped joints and open corner details.
Fabrication for this is provided by high-frequency radiation, Occasionally, however, even prefabricated
heating elements or electric impulses. membrane sections are laid out and joined in
The steps in the fabrication of textile membrane Once the weld seam has cooled sufficiently while situ. It must be guaranteed, however, that the
and foil designs are to a large extent very simi- applying constant pressure, it can reach about necessary weld seam strengths can be achieved
lar and so this section deals with the fabrication 90 % of the strength of the parent material de- on the building site.
of foils. Specific steps that apply only to ETFE pending on the particular material and the A heat gun (called a hot-air welder) plus a roller
foil are described in more detail on p. 98. welding process. The strength depends on the for pressing the surfaces together are usually
contact pressure, the shape of the contact elem- sufficient for polyester-PVC membranes. How-
The fabrication of a membrane for covering a ents (smooth, serrated), the welding temperature ever, PTFE/glass membranes require a special
large area assembled from individual webs of and the pressure application time. Typical seam manual welding device because of the high
material is carried out in several stages: widths lie between 50 and 100 mm. The fabri- pressure and temperature necessary (Fig. C 5.14).
• Preparing the cutting pattern, e.g. with a cator prepares specimens for carrying out uni-
cutting plotter axial tests perpendicular to the weld seams to
• Welding the individual sections together check their strength (see “Testing and approval”,
• Welding or folding over the edges, incorpor- p. 154).
ating keders or sewing on belts
• Fitting components integrated into the mem- High-frequency welding
brane when there are edge belts Also called radiofrequency (RF) welding, this
• Attaching corner fittings if applicable type of welding can be used for thermoplastics
• Folding or rolling and packaging, e.g. in pro- with a polar molecular structure (e.g. PVC).
tective foil, ready for shipping High-frequency electromagnetic waves excite
certain molecular groups in the coating, which
Cutting pattern causes them to vibrate, heat up and join the
A three-dimensional, curved membrane surface molecules together. The advantage of this
must be assembled from individual webs of method is its speed.
material. The edge of each web must be con-
cave on the outside when mechanical pre- Hot-plate and impulse welding
stressing is to be used, convex for pneumatic PTFE-coated materials that cannot be joined
prestressing (see “Cutting pattern”, p. 147). It using high-frequency welding can nevertheless
is normal these days for the curved pieces of still be welded by applying the necessary heat
the cutting pattern to be cut to size directly directly (hot-plate welding). The two opposing
from the roll of material with a computer-con- platens of a press at a temperature of approx.
trolled cutting plotter on a vacuum table. The 340 °C join together the membrane coating with
cutting plotter is able to cut curved as well as an intermediate foil made from a thermoplastic
straight lines. Laser cutters are unsuitable be- fluoropolymer. Applying a pressure of about
cause of the high temperatures used. The aim is 50 N/cm2 for 40 s and allowing the connection
106
Textile membranes
107
Building physics and energy
aspects
C 6.1
Whether polymers are suitable for a construction Heat transfer
application, and especially in the building envel- Heat transfer is a form of energy flow that always
ope, calls for an assessment that goes beyond takes place from a warmer, and hence higher-
just considering the factors purely specific to energy, side to a colder side. For any layer in a
their materials, fabrication and design. It must component, the quantity of energy transferred
be remembered that building physics contexts per unit of time depends on the temperature
and principles, which affect all the materials difference between the two sides of the layer,
described in this book to the same extent, are the distance covered by the energy (= thick-
also important. Fig. C 6.4 provides an overview ness of layer) and the thermal conductivity of
of the characteristics and aspects relevant in the material(s) forming that layer.
this context.
The focus in this chapter is on individual ma- Heat is transported by three different
terials and individual products, whereas the mechanisms:
chapter entitled “Complex building envelopes” • Conduction (through gases λg and through
(pp. 212 – 223) looks at combinations of materials solids λs)
and their interaction within the building envelope. • Convection λv
However, in some areas it is difficult to draw a • Radiation λr
precise borderline between these two, espe-
cially when considering fire protection, sound The proportions of these three mechanisms
insulation and room acoustics, but also the (Fig. C 6.2) in the total energy transfer depend on
subject of integrating active solar energy sys- the temperature of the material and the material
tems, for example. itself, as well as other factors. The quantity of
heat Q as an energy form is specified in joules
(J). The heat flow Φ is defined as the quantity
Thermal insulation characteristics of heat transferred per unit of time.
- +
Radiation
Reflection Transmission
- +
108
Building physics and energy aspects
109
Building physics and energy aspects
0.10
Δ PS
0.04
Rigid polyurethane
foam
35.4 kg/m³
ε2 0.02
T2 0
0 10 20 30 40 50
Moisture content by volume [%]
C 6.5 C 6.6 C 6.7
because this difference is included in the result moisture content and the ageing behaviour of by a skeleton of material that itself exhibits a
as a quantity to the power of four. In interiors the insulating material. low thermal conductivity and whose proportion
with a highly radiation-permeable enclosure The relationship between the heat transfer paths by volume is minimised.
overhead (e.g. glass roof), this leads to consid- and the total energy transport is specific to the Furthermore, this skeleton must suppress con-
erable radiation heat losses on clear nights (an particular material. In porous materials this re- vection within the voids and reduce the radiation
extremely cold boundary surface), especially in sults in an equivalent thermal conductivity due permeability because stationary air cannot pre-
summer. So heat losses can be reduced via a to… vent either of these mechanisms. In practice
material’s specific surface emissivity, which is • conduction via the solid skeleton, optimised materials such as lightweight poly-
an effect that has been exploited for many years • conduction via the stationary gas, mer foams or fibre mats achieve thermal con-
in the form of low E coatings (= low emissivity) • convection of the gas and/or gas-solid inter- ductivities that approach that of stationary air.
on insulating glazing. This is also possible with action, and The proportion of gas by volume in such materials
polymers and membranes by using appropriate • radiation between the boundary walls and the is generally much greater than 90 %.
coatings or by modifying the polymer structure. solid particles themselves.
Heat storage
Thermal conductivity To what extent heat transfer takes place within In principle, the specific heat capacity of a material
Only in homogeneous and isotropic materials a material depends on the following (and other) is approximately proportional to its density, with
does heat transfer take place exclusively via factors: the exception of water, which has an exception-
conduction. In all other materials, other heat • Specific density ρ ally high specific heat capacity. Consequently,
transfer mechanisms are also involved. Never- • Structure of the material the majority of polymers can store heat to only
theless, we speak of thermal conductivity but • Moisture content (Fig. C 6.6) a very limited extent. This applies to membrane
mean the total effect of the individual effective • Nature, magnitude and distribution of pores structures above all because their mass per
mechanisms. In the building industry, the mag- • Air pressure unit area is very low.
nitude of the thermal conductivity is relevant • Temperature of the material Therefore, the integration of latent heat storage
not only for solid materials, but also for gaseous media (phase change materials, PCM, e.g.
substances (e.g. argon in the cavities of insu- The thermal conductivity of stationary, dry air is based on paraffins or salt hydrates) in mem-
lating glass units) and liquids, e.g. water (Fig. approx. 0.026 W/mK and thus much lower than branes is the subject of ongoing research. Such
C 6.8). In building contexts, the basis for calcu- that of the majority of solid materials. Therefore, technology is already available in the market-
lating the heat flow through components is usu- conventional insulating materials are based on place in the form of functional clothing. For
ally assumed to be the characteristic value λR the principle of containing a maximum quantity building applications, however, the quantity
taken from a standard or an approval document, of stationary air. In addition, the insulating effect that can be integrated, the durability and the fire
which also takes into account a certain residual increases when the stationary air is surrounded safety aspects still represent major challenges.
110
Building physics and energy aspects
Heat transfer in a porous insulating material • Minimising the heat radiation λr through the Gas λg [W/mK]
The total heat transfer (λ) in a porous insulating even distribution of a high-density material Hydrogen (H2) 0.175
material is made up of conduction through solids that is impermeable to infrared radiation (a
Helium (He) 0.143
(λs), conduction through gases (λg), heat radi- so-called opacifier) throughout the skeleton
ation (λr), convection (λv) and coupling effects of insulating material, e.g. polystyrene foams Air, nitrogen (N2), oxygen (O2) 0.026
(λc), in other words: optimised through the addition of a opacifier Argon (Ar) 0.016
(Fig. C 6.7) Pentane (C5H12) 0.013
λ = λs + λg + λr + λv + λc Krypton (Kr) 0.0095
As the conduction through the gas accounts for
Trichlorofluoromethane (R11) 0.0085
The individual values depend on the following a relatively high proportion of the total heat
factors: transfer, an effective strategy is to choose a (Vacuum) (0)
λ Structure, density, pressure on material gas with a low conductivity which remains, as C 6.11
λg Type of gas, porosity, structure and size far as possible, permanently in the pores (Fig.
of pores C 6.11). But reducing the quantity of gas, i.e.
λr Density, particle size, temperature evacuating the pores, is much more effective. Getter
λv Type of gas, porosity, structure and, Vacuum inside material
above all, size of pores Vacuum insulation systems Core material
λc λs and λg The function of a typical vacuum insulation sys-
tem is based on the optimisation principles given
The absorption of moisture means that water above (Fig. C 6.12). In practice, polymers are
becomes stored in the structure of the insulating used for both the gastight enclosing material
material. The thermal conductivity therefore and for the core material itself. Although up
rises due to the relatively high thermal conduct- until now no polymer has been discovered that
ivity of water (0.60 W/mK). The structure of the exhibits a gastightness equal to that of glass or
solid at molecular level also has an influence metals, by combining and modifying polymers Spacer
on the thermal conductivity. Flaws in the lattice, it is possible to produce suitable so-called bar- Evacuation connection
foreign matter inclusions, low symmetry or dis- rier foils. In order to satisfy the various require- (if applicable)
ruptions in the crystalline lattice, also hairline ments in an optimum way, multi-ply systems are
Testing device
cracks and pores lead to a diminished thermal generally used in which every ply performs a
conductivity. specific function, e.g. loadbearing or protective Gastight enclosure
C 6.12
(PA, PET), barrier or sealing layer (PE, PP). Poly-
Strategies for optimising a porous insulating material mer foils or polymer composite foils are fre-
The details given above allow us to deduce the quently used for the hermetic edge seals to
PA or PET ply, 15 μm
following optimisation strategies for porous in- vacuum insulation systems because it is much
sulating materials with respect to the individual easier to form the gastight joints (weld seams) Metallising, 30 nm
Adhesive, 2 μm
heat transfer mechanisms: using polymers than it is using metals and es- Metallising, 30 nm
pecially glass. PP interlayer, 15 μm
• Minimising the conduction through the solid Adhesive, 2 μm
λs by choosing a material with a low specific PET interlayer, 12 μm
thermal conductivity, i.e. as far as possible a Metallising, 30 nm
dry, non-crystalline structure with point-like Adhesive, 2 μm
material transitions and minimum density.
• Reducing the conduction through the gas λg
by choosing a gas with low conductive prop-
erties (e.g. the heavy gases in polyurethane PE-LD seal, 60 μm
foams) and a skeleton of material with max-
imum porosity but minimum pore size. Micro-
porous materials such as aerogels or fumed
silica can thus reach thermal conductivities C 6.13
which, at approx. 0.018 W/mK, are already
well below that of stationary air. 40
Thermal conductivity [mW/mK]
30
25
Thermal conductivity
[mW/mK] 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 20
Foamed glass 15
Rock wool/glass wool
10
Rigid polystyrene foam
Expanded polyurethane foam 5
Microporous silicic acid/aerogels 0
Evacuated insulation 0.001 0.01 0.1 1 10 100 1000
Gas pressure pGas [mbar]
C 6.10 C 6.14
111
Building physics and energy aspects
The main requirements for the core material are microporous fumed (or pyrogenic) silica (rein- Transparent thermal insulation
a low thermal conductivity for a minimum vacuum forced with fibres and mixed with an infrared Transparent or translucent thermal insulation
and at the same time adequate stability to resist opacifier), and in future we can expect to see (TTI) is a material or component that functions
the atmospheric pressure. A completely open- the use of perlite as well. as thermal insulation and at the same time allows
cell structure is also essential because other- sunlight for natural illumination and solar radi-
wise it is impossible to reduce the number of gas Sandwich elements, foil insulation ation for assisting the heating system to infiltrate
molecules trapped in the pores. An adequate One key area for the use of various organic foam through to the interior. In most cases TTI con-
compressive strength is required not only to en- insulating materials (Fig. C 6.10, p. 111) is sists of vertical absorbent honeycomb or capil-
sure the mechanical stability of the system (atmos- sandwich elements. In this case the process of lary structures made from PMMA or PC, which
pheric pressure = approx. 10.3 t/m2), but indeed filling a mould with foam, e.g. polyurethane foam, on the outside are covered with a transparent
is also linked directly with the thermal conduc- is exploited to create a bone-like component protective layer made from glass or polymer.
tivity of the core material, which generally rises structure in which two outer leaves are joined The combustibility and maximum service tem-
approximately linearly with increasing density. together by a shear-resistant foam skeleton (Fig. perature of the TTI material must comply with
Fig. C 6.14 (p. 111) reveals that although special C 6.15). This makes the component extremely the constructional or legislative requirements.
open-cell polymer foams represent one option rigid in relation to its weight. The disadvantage The customary applications for TTI are “solar
for vacuum insulation systems, up until now they is that this process produces a composite com- wall heating systems”, solar-heated thermal in-
have been unsuitable for building applications ponent that is extremely difficult to separate sulation or daylighting systems.
because of the very high demands placed on into its constituent materials when it comes to TTI materials are divided into organic and inor-
the vacuum and the ensuing short service life be recycled at the end of its life. ganic types. The latter include, first and fore-
of the system. Starting with the same internal There are other ways of using polymers to limit most, silica aerogels, i.e. silicon compounds
pressure, i.e. the pressure in the vacuum insula- the heat transfer in components, besides foams with pore sizes from 10 to 100 nm and a pore
tion system directly after production, the thermal and vacuum insulation systems. One option is volume exceeding 80 % (Fig. C 6.17). Current
conductivity rises relatively quickly over the life foil insulation (Fig. C 6.16), which in most in- aerogel materials are available in opaque to
of the panel because of the inevitable ventilation. stances consists of several layers of air-filled translucent versions, are incombustible, can
However, as systems based on such polymer pockets separated by metallised foil interlayers. be directly recycled, resist temperatures up to
foams are comparatively inexpensive, they are The thermal conductivities of such products, 600 °C, are UV-resistant and hydrophobic and
used for applications where a longer service life measured according to the standard conditions, offer long-term stability. They are therefore es-
is not relevant, e.g. for extremely lightweight and tends to be high. But the interlayers also reflect pecially suitable for building applications. They
highly efficient containers for transporting blood a large proportion of the heat radiation so these have a density of 90 – 100 kg/m3 and an internal
supplies. products could be particularly suitable for appli- surface area of 600 – 800 m2/g, and their thermal
The core material mostly used for vacuum insu- cations in which the radiation heat losses are conductivity, at 0.018 W/mK, is below that of
lation systems in the construction industry is disproportionately high. stationary air (approx. 0.024 W/mK).
C 6.15 C 6.16
C 6.17 C 6.18
112
Building physics and energy aspects
Aerogels are supplied in the form of powders, tiles) (see “Aerogels in tensile surface structures”, a surface temperature of approx. 5778 K emits
granulates and monolithic blocks; the powder pp. 220 – 221). electromagnetic radiation with a spectral inten-
is suitable for opaque applications only but the There is also a group of organic, light-permeable sity distribution specific to this very high tem-
granulates can also be used for translucent products in addition to the group of inorganic perature. [1] Individual components of the light
products, and using a monolithic aerogel results TTI materials. Those products include honey- are filtered and attenuated on their way to the
in an almost completely transparent thermal comb-like structures with various geometries earth, e.g. by the atmosphere, and vary depend-
insulation component. However, this latter prod- (e.g. capillary, cellular or slotted structures) ing on local circumstances and according to
uct is currently very difficult to obtain, compli- made from various materials such as polymers daily and seasonal cycles. The radiation that
cated to produce and therefore very expensive. based on polymethyl methacrylate (PMMA), reaches the earth’s surface can be described
That was originally the situation for the produc- polycarbonate (PC), cellulose acetate (CA) and by the solar spectrum (Fig. C 6.27, p. 114) –
tion of any form of aerogel because the super- cellulose triacetate (CTA), also amorphous, wavelengths between approx. 300 and 2500 nm,
critical drying necessary was a very important transparent copolymers based on cyclic olefins i.e. there are ranges either side of visible light:
stage in the manufacture. and ethylene. Here, the material, the amount of short-wave ultraviolet (UV) light and long-wave
It was not until the 1990s that the method of material per unit volume and the three-dimen- near infrared (NIR) light. The solar NIR light
producing the granulate could be simplified to sional geometry of the structure influence the should not be confused with the heat radiation
such an extent that it seemed like the way was light transmittance and energy parameters such that is emitted by the materials of building com-
paved for the widespread use of this group of as thermal resistance and g-value. ponents with customary exterior or interior tem-
materials. Aerogel granulates can now be pro- peratures. This heat (or thermal) radiation
duced in a continuous process and – in con- therefore takes place in a frequency range with
trast to the products of the first generation – are Light and heat radiation characteristics much longer wavelengths which is further re-
hydrophobic and much less expensive. There moved from visible light and is therefore also
are now numerous products on the market in- Visible light is in physical terms electromagnetic designated far infrared (FIR) (Fig. C 6.27, p. 114).
corporating aerogel granulate as a translucent radiation in a range of frequencies that can be
insulating material, e.g. PC twin-wall sheets perceived by the human eye. Those frequencies
(Fig. C 6.19), GFRP panels, lightweight building have wavelengths between approx. 380 and
elements (e.g. for rooflights), etc. By now, this 780 nm. All materials emit a specific spectrum
insulating material is also being used in combi- depending on their temperature (see “Radiation”,
nation with membrane materials (foils and tex- pp. 109 – 110). Consequently, even the sun with
Material type/make-up Thick- Manufacturer Product name U-value Thermal Light Light g-value, g-value, Remarks
ness (example) [W/m2K] conduc- transmit- transmit- vertical diffuse
[mm] tivity tance, tance, [%] [%]
[W/mK] direct [%] diffuse approx.
[%]
PC multi-wall sheets
Sheet/air space/sheet 64 Bayer Sheet Europe 0.8 48 49 40
Aerogel
Aerogel granulate 25 Cabot Nanogel 0.7 53 52 Hydrophobic
Aerogel-filled polyester 50 Scobalit Scobatherm 0.41 0.022 25
twin-wall sheets
Aerogel-filled PC multi-wall 25 Roda Lexan 0.91 47
sheets Thermoclear
Aerogel-filled coated PC 25 Roda Lexan 0.91 34 Solar transmission
multi-wall sheets Thermoclear IR 20 %
Aerogel-filled insulating glass 38 Okalux Okagel 0.6 52 52
(30 mm filling)
Cellulose honeycomb
Glass/air space/cellulose 98 gap-solar gap – 0.74 0 14 9 Opaque system
honeycomb facade panel
30 mm backing sheet
Tough. safety glass + honey- 50 gap-solar gap – 0.92 44 <2 28 11 Honeycomb inlay
comb + tough. safety glass + special effect casts shadows w.
noble gas + tough. safety glass panel sun high in sky
Capillary inlay sheet (PMMA)
Tough. safety glass capillary 49 Okalux KAPILUX-TWD 0.7 72 62 49
sheet, 40 mm
(noble gas)/tough. safety glass
Profiled glass with capillary 70 Glasfabrik Linit-TWD 1.2 35 36
inlay sheet, 40 mm Lamberts
Prismatic sheet, PCM
Glass + prismatic sheet + 78 GlassX GLASSXcrystal 0.48 1–4 48 29 TTI, overheating
glass + noble gas + glass + protection, thermal
PCM + glass storage in one unit
Cellulose diacetate
Multi-ply cellulose diacetate 10 – 60 Isoflex Moniflex 0.057 B 1 material to
as thermal insulation material DIN 4102
Polymer honeycomb
Glass + honeycomb (150 mm) 158 Wacotech TIMax CA 0.4 83 45 48 Honeycomb
+ glass 20 – 150 mm
Glass-fibre spun fabric
Glass + spun fabric (60 mm) 68 Wacotech TIMax GL 1.05 23 16 24
+ glass
C 6.23
113
Building physics and energy aspects
70 25
1200
60
1000 20
50
800 15
40
Material Emissivity ε (IR)
Clay brick wall 0.93 600
30 10
Concrete wall 0.96
400
Glass 0.95 20
Ceramic tiles 0.87 5
(white, glazed) 200 10
Timber 0.89
0
Polymers 0.90
0.10 1 10 100
Aluminium (polished) 0.02 – 0.04 Wavelength [µm]
0.38 0.78
C 6.26 C 6.27
114
Building physics and energy aspects
Designation Solar trans- Solar Visual trans- Visual UV trans- UV Normal thermal
mittance reflectance mittance reflectance mittance reflectance emissivity
ε(T) at T = 300 K
Float glass, standard, 3 mm 0.87 0.08 0.90 0.08 0.66 0.08 0.90
Polymer sheets
PC sheet, 8 mm 0.76 0.09 0.86 0.10 0.00 0.06 0.94
PC multi-wall sheet, 16 mm 0.53 0.35 0.58 0.39 0.00 0.17 0.94
PMMA solid sheet, 8 mm 0.80 0.07 0.92 0.08 0.01 0.04 0.96
PMMA twin-wall sheet, lattice, 16 mm 0.51 0.10 0.56 0.11 0.00 0.04 0.96
GFRP sheet, solid, natural colour 0.36 0.14 0.37 0.18 0.00 0.06 0.95
Woven fabrics
Polyester-PVC 0.09 0.78 0.07 0.88 0.00 0.10 0.95
Polyester-THV 0.25 0.58 0.25 0.66 0.03 0.17 0.97
Silicone coated glass-fibre fabric 0.20 0.66 0.22 0.72 0.01 0.15 0.95
PVDF fabric 0.80 0.14 0.80 0.15 0.78 0.17 0.81
PTFE/glass-PF type II (bleached) 0.15 0.78 0.15 0.82 0.03 0.63 0.95
PTFE-laminated glass-fibre fabric (bleached) 0.47 0.40 0.47 0.45 0.30 0.42 0.89
PTFE fabric 0.41 0.51 0.38 0.59 0.12 0.09 0.95
Foils
ETFE, 200 μm, with approx. 65 % silver printing 0.57 0.30 0.57 0.30 0.52 0.34 0.61
ETFE, 200 μm, clear 0.93 0.06 0.92 0.07 0.86 0.12 0.83
ETFE, 250 μm, white 0.44 0.48 0.37 0.62 0.01 0.07 0.90
PE foil, standard, with UV stabiliser, 200 μm 0.88 0.09 0.88 0.10 0.82 0.11 0.60
all measured values ± 0.02
C 6.31
115
Building physics and energy aspects
Sheets Woven fabrics C 6.32 Optical measurements of various polymer and Material Water vapour diffusion
PC multi-wall sheet, Polyester-PVC membrane materials in the range of solar radia- resistance index µ
16 mm tion (0.25 – 2.5 μm wavelength)
a Spectral transmittance (solar range) Clay brick wall 5 – 25
PMMA twin-wall sheet, PTFE/glass,
lattice, 16 mm type II (bleached) b Spectral reflectance (solar range) Concrete wall 70 – 150
c Spectral diffuse component of reflectance
GFRP sheet, solid, PTFE fabric Timber 40
(solar range)
natural colour
C 6.33 Specific water vapour diffusion resistance index PU thermal insulation 30 – 100
Foils Glass for selected materials
ETFE foil, (for comparison) C 6.34 Light-redirecting grid made from a highly Bitumen 2 – 20 000
200 μm, clear Float glass, reflective coated polymer PVC foil 20 – 50 000
ETFE foil, standard, 3 mm C 6.35 Licht-redirecting louvres in the cavity of an
insulating glass unit PE foil 100 000
250 μm, white
PE foil, standard, C 6.36 PUR-coated glass-fibre fabric for scattering
C 6.33
with UV stabiliser, 200 μm daylight; university library, Berlin (D), 2005,
Foster & Partners
Selectivity and low E surfaces
1.0 UV Visible Infrared (IR)
Spectral transmittance (solar range)
UV Infrared (IR)
spectrum, which is critical for interior tempera-
0.9
tures, results physically in a likewise low surface
0.8 emissivity ε. Such coating treatments are then
known as low E coatings.
0.7
This technology has long since been used for
0.6 insulating glass; the heat losses from the interior
0.5
are reduced by the lower heat radiation on the
outside of the inner pane of glass (which has a
0.4 low E coating).
0.3 This development is starting to be used with
polymers and membranes (Figs. C 6.28 and
0.2
C 6.29, p. 115; see also “Passenger terminal
0.1 complex, Suvarnabhumi International Airport,
0 Bangkok”, pp. 277 – 279, and “Shopping centre,
0.25 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 Amadora”, pp. 256 – 257) and we can expect to
b Wavelength [µm] see many more applications for these types of
modified materials in the future (see “Complex
1.0 UV Visible Infrared (IR)
Spectral diffuse component of reflectance (solar range)
116
Building physics and energy aspects
Moisture characteristics to be absorbed in enclosed volumes, as is the floor), sound waves propagate through the
case, for example, in the spacers of insulating mass of the building components (structure-
Moisture characteristics are of interest to the glass units. The getter material buffers, up to its borne sound), which in turn can excite a layer
construction industry on two counts: firstly, the saturation point, the residual water vapour that of air on the other side of the component – the
gastightness of a material, for water vapour es- remains in the cavity between the panes after vibrations are thus re-propagated in the form of
pecially, and secondly, the moisture absorption manufacture and also the water vapour in the airborne sound.
capacity. Compared with glass and metals of a air that infiltrates via the minimal leaks in the Sound waves can travel long distances by means
thickness that can be regarded as gastight, all hermetic edge seal – up to the saturation point of of structure-borne propagation. Where the solid
polymers are to some extent permeable for gases the getter material. Therefore, this water vapour components of a building are coupled together,
like water vapour. The water vapour diffusion cannot condensate on the glass when the tem- i.e. rigidly connected with each other (e.g. a
resistance Z of a layer of material is calculated perature drops below the dew point, and so the waste-water pipe cast directly into a solid wall),
for a reference temperature of 10 °C according to service life of the product is prolonged. sound may well be able to propagate through-
DIN 4108-3 as follows: out an entire building in this way. We speak of
flanking transmissions when the propagation of
Z = 1.5 · 106 · μ · d [(m2 h Pa)/kg] Sound insulation and room acoustics the sound is not direct, but rather via indirect
routes. Insulation against structure-borne sound
μ Water vapour diffusion resistance index Polymers play a major role in sound insulation and places especially high demands on the planning
specific to material (Fig. C 6.33) room acoustics and are employed for diverse team and calls for a high standard of workman-
d Thickness of layer [m] measures associated with these fields (Fig. ship on site because sound propagates through
C 6.39, p. 119). The various applications make even the smallest of (unintentional) acoustic
The product sd = μ · d is designated the (water use of polymers, and especially polymer foams, bridges. The solution here is to be found in
vapour) diffusion-equivalent air layer thickness for decoupling, deadening, attenuating and acoustic decoupling, i.e. all connections between
and is classified as follows: absorbing purposes, also for configuring the relevant components (e.g. between the floor
sd ≤ 0.5 diffusion-permeable reflection characteristics. covering and the structural floor underneath, or
0.5 < sd < 1500 diffusion-retardant In buildings, sound is important as both an between the sanitary installation and the wall)
sd ≥ 1500 diffusion-tight external condition and an internal requirement are in a “soft” form so that vibrations cannot be
(sound insulation, room acoustics) because the transmitted directly.
Polymers on their own are generally unsuitable source of the sound can be on either side of One possible strategy against airborne sound
for applications requiring very high gastightness, the building envelope. So there are three areas propagation is to increase the mass of the sep-
e.g. glazing or vacuum insulation systems. But to consider: noise immissions (noise from out- arating components, making them as heavy as
by combining various polymers and coatings, side), noise emissions (sound from inside) and possible and thus more inert from the sound
especially in conjunction with metals and oxides, room acoustics (noise level in a room, audibility transmission point of view. This means using a
it is possible to achieve a high gastightness of speech, suitability for other uses, e.g. music). material with a maximum density which is not
(e.g. for barrier foil; Fig. C 6.13, p. 111). When it comes to the building envelope, the in- easily excited by the incident sound waves in
formation given in DIN 4109 “Sound insulation the air. Another important measure for insulating
In building envelopes made from polymers and in buildings” and, first and foremost, VDI Direct- against the propagation of airborne sound is to
membranes, their share of the weight of the en- ive 2719 “Sound isolation of windows and their seal all joints, gaps and cracks as effectively as
velope and their moisture absorption properties auxiliary equipment” are the most important possible.
are comparatively low, i.e. these components works of reference in Germany. The VDI Direct-
cannot make an effective contribution to buffer- ive specifies six sound insulation classes based
ing moisture. This fact must be taken into account on the exterior noise level which must comply
when planning the building and its HVAC ser- with sound reduction index values between 30
vices and compensated for elsewhere if neces- and 50 dB depending on the use of the build-
sary. In principle, however, it is possible to inte- ing. Other requirements apply where the exterior
grate absorbent substances, so-called getter noise level exceeds 70 dB.
materials (e.g. silica gels, zeolites or other ad- In air, sound waves propagate approximately
sorbents), in the polymer matrix to a limited extent. spherically from their source (airborne sound).
This is especially interesting for applications in Once a solid material has been excited, e.g.
which residual gases, e.g. water vapour, have through mechanical actions (footsteps on a
117
Building physics and energy aspects
C 6.37 a c C 6.38
It is also possible to dampen airborne sound means that the incident sound energy is com- and 0.8 mm. Around the edges of these perfo-
transmissions by using a double-leaf form of pletely reflected, and no reflections means that rations, the ensuing friction converts the sound
construction without a rigid connection between the incident sound energy has been completely energy into heat, which in turn reduces rever-
the leaves plus an insulated cavity (mass–spring– absorbed, i.e. α = 1. With a high sound absorp- beration times and noise levels (Fig. C 6.38a).
mass principle). Such a measure is especially tion coefficient, an absorbent, usually soft, ma- Providing two layers of such a material increases
effective when the two leaves are of different terial absorbs the sound energy to a large extent the sound-absorbent effect further (Fig. C 6.38c).
thicknesses and weights and therefore exhibit and converts it into internal heat. This diminishes Owing to their very low weight (and the “invisi-
different natural frequencies. the reflected component in particular. In a highly bility” of the transparent variation), acoustic foils
reverberant room, for example, an absorbent are suitable for retrofitting in existing buildings.
Polymer and membrane structures lining on the ceiling can reduce the reverberation These acoustic foils with their microperforations
Polymer and, principally, membrane structures time significantly and thus improve the audibility can also be used in conjunction with thermo-
have an extremely small mass; for membranes of speech. active floors because they do not impair the
this lies between only approx. 0.1 and 1.5 kg/m2, These processes do not take place uniformly function of such floors. Using a printed foil with
for instance. This makes it difficult to achieve over the entire frequency spectrum, but instead a reflective silver design, e.g. below a flat glass
adequate insulation against the propagation of tend to display a rather non-uniform intensity roof, results in a further benefit because the foil
sound. One option is to integrate heavyweight distribution. The sound absorption coefficient is with its microperforations has a positive effect
intermediate layers. In the case of the building therefore measured for various frequencies. on the interior climate thanks to the reflection of
envelope to the airport passenger terminal in The rule of thumb is: the thicker the absorbent long-wave heat radiation and the associated
Bangkok (see pp. 277 – 279), an intermediate material, the better it is at absorbing low frequen- reduction in heat losses.
layer of polycarbonate sheets (7.2 kg/m2) was cies as well. The products on the market are:
incorporated and this helped to achieve a sound The relationships described above are also • UV-stabilised or UV-stable,
reduction index R’w of 35 dB. valid for multiple reflections and their reverber- • not readily flammable (DIN 4102 building
ation times. A differentiated assessment of the materials class B1 or B2),
Designs with air-filled cushions pose a special frequency-dependent reflection and absorption • chlorine-resistant, and
problem: raindrops falling on the uppermost processes is critical for the room acoustics situ- • electrostatically neutral.
layer act like a drumstick hitting a drum, caus- ation (e.g. suitability for performances of music,
ing the cushions to vibrate. This is particularly audibility of speech). The smoother and harder Room acoustics and membrane structures
noticeable with foil materials, whereas coated the surfaces, the less distorted and more com- When assessing and optimising the room acous-
textiles tend to dampen the noise somewhat plete are the reflections. It is primarily the fre- tics qualities of foil and membrane structures, it
because of their surface characteristics and quency-related uniformity of the reflections and must be remembered that due to their very low
their greater inhomogeneity. Although in practice a reverberation time adapted to the intended mass and the flexible nature of their structures
this drumming effect is only annoying during use that are crucial for good room acoustics. and surfaces, airborne sound is transmitted di-
heavy rainfall, which is generally of short duration, Diverse measures can be employed to achieve rectly and hardly reflected, especially in the
this form of construction is nevertheless unsuit- this goal, which are based on optimising/activat- low-frequency range. The materials used for
able for acoustically sensitive uses. Outer layers ing the surfaces of the room and in some cases pneumatic structures are airtight on the inside
that interrupt the rainfall, e.g. fine nets, can re- installing additional elements: and so it is not possible to integrate additional
duce the noise level but have a negative effect • Perforated surfaces with suitable backing absorbent materials at this point. So, as the
on the view through the material and cleaning. layers building envelope is often unavailable in such
And when ice and heavy snowfall is to be ex- • Layers of insulation in ceilings (open- and situations, measures to improve the room
pected, such additional nets are unlikely to be closed-cell materials) acoustics must frequently be realised on the in-
viable from the technical viewpoint. • Components in the form of baffles, sound side. With prestressed, multi-layer designs, on
absorbers (e.g. with microperforations), the other hand, the quality of the inner layer
Room acoustics screens, etc. can also be designed and fabricated to meet
Sound waves are always reflected to some de- acoustic criteria.
gree by all the surfaces enclosing a room and Acoustic foil Weather-resistant, coated spacer fabrics repre-
the objects in the room. The non-reflected com- Specially developed acoustic foils, available in sent another option for improving the sound in-
ponent is absorbed and/or transmitted depend- transparent, translucent and printed variations, sulation. These are attached to a membrane
ing on the material and form of construction. are available for improving room acoustics. backing and support a second layer at a certain
The sound absorption coefficient α specifies The effectiveness of these foils is based on distance (currently up to 500 mm). The ensuing
how much sound is absorbed. A value of α = 0 microperforations, with diameters between 0.2 cavity can be filled with sand, for example, and
118
Building physics and energy aspects
Measure
Sound insulation Sound insulation/sound attenuation Profiled foams (e.g. with studs) Flexible PUR foam
PE foam (closed-cell)
Attenuating structure-borne sound/dam- Heavyweight foil e.g. elastomer-modified heavyweight bitumen
ping drumming sheet
Edge absorber/low-pitch absorber Foam Flexible, open-cell melamine foam
Improving room acoustics Low-pitch absorber
Broadband absorber High sound absorption capacity over a wide Flexible, open-cell melamine resin foam, flexible
range of frequencies (porous absorber) PUR foam
Baffles (self-supporting sound-absorbing High sound absorption capacity over a wide Flexible, open-cell melamine resin foam, flexible
element) range of frequencies (porous absorber) PUR foam
Sound-absorbing fascia panels Foil with microperforations/open fabric
Demountable partitions Foil with microperforations/open fabric
Roller blinds Foil with microperforations/open fabric
C 6.39
with even just a minimal thickness and weight it there are countless statutory and technical reg- B Combustible materials
is possible to achieve a sound insulating effect, ulations and directives on diverse levels, e.g. in B 1 not readily flammable
e.g. approx. 35 dB for 20 mm. the building regulations of the federal states, in B 2 flammable
directives from TÜV, DIN, VDE, etc., which cover B 3 highly flammable
the choice of building materials, their properties
Reaction to fire and fire protection and corresponding forms of construction plus Considering the course of a fire, it should be
protective measures. noted that classes B 2 and B 3 cannot be re-
Standards and directives play a decisive role in garded as self-extinguishing, i.e. a fire involving
ensuring that planned construction measures Fire protection aspects represent a consider- these materials can keep itself going. According
are approved, but in practice almost always able obstacle to the further spread of polymers to cl. 17 para. 2 of Germany’s Model Building
leave room for interpretation. Besides the feasi- for building applications in general and for Code (MBO), highly flammable materials (B 3)
bility of a design concept from the constructional building envelopes in particular. A number of may not be used at all if they still remain highly
viewpoint, it is usually necessary to prove the synthetic materials have through the catastrophic flammable in the installed condition.
suitability of the building products to be used, consequences of their use attained a sad notori-
especially with respect to their ageing behaviour ety with respect to their behaviour in fire, e.g.
and safety. For the latter, reaction to fire is one the widely used polyvinyl chloride (PVC) and
critical aspect. Considering a fire incident must polystyrene foams involved in the fire at Düssel-
be viewed as relevant to all tasks in building, al- dorf Airport in 1996.
though it is not always the fire that is so danger-
ous, but rather its consequences (e.g. extremely The first fire protection and materials-related
irrational sociopsychological behaviour patterns level of consideration is the classification of the
of the persons affected which can be triggered materials or products to be used into building
by a fire during an event attended by large num- materials classes in line with current standards.
bers of people). In Germany that standard is DIN 4102-1:
Fire protection aims at preventing or delaying A Incombustible materials
the spread of fire, maintaining the load-carrying A 1 without organic constituents,
capacity of the structure for a certain period of no verification required
time and, first and foremost, protecting the lives A 2 with organic constituents,
and health of the users of a building. This is why verification required
119
Building physics and energy aspects
Since 2010, DIN 4102 has been replaced by • Whether the polymer is installed exposed or to the incombustible mass components that is
the European standard DIN EN 13501 parts 1 concealed, and hence, in the latter case, can- crucial for the fire protection classification. This
and 2 and the draft standard E DIN EN 1634-1. not be visually inspected. is the case with PTFE-coated glass-fibre fabric,
The European classification contains seven • Which parts of the building components lose for example; this is why the fire protection char-
classes (A 1, A 2, B, C, D, E and F) plus uniform their structural functions at which temperatures acteristics of this group of materials varies con-
methods of testing. and what consequences are to be expected. siderably depending on the proportion of the
The characteristic feature is now the time taken fibres with respect to the coating.
for the building material to burn completely Considering this last point, the extremely low
(flashover). This point may not be reached at all mass of polymers can in some instances be Fire protection for polymers in building services
for classes A 1, A 2 and B, whereas it is reached critical in a positive way. For example, in the Besides the issue of structural fire protection, it
after a time of between 10 and 2 min. for classes event of a fire an ETFE cushion roof loses its is also necessary to consider the sound and
C, D and E. In addition, further sub-classes for structural function at a relatively low temperature thermal insulation (and the latter includes both
smoke development (s 1, s 2 and s 3) and flam- and the foil splits as a result, but this allows heat hot and cold systems) required for pipes and
ing droplets (d 0, d 1 and d 2) have been intro- and smoke to escape from the interior quickly. ducts. Lagging around cold pipework has to
duced (Fig. C 6.40, p. 119). These classes must Furthermore, owing to its very low weight, the satisfy particularly high demands because in
now be specified on the product packaging. ETFE foil of such a roof does not count as a contrast to “normal” thermal insulation it is also
Proof of the allocation of a building material or relevant fire load, and the foil does not produce essential to protect against saturation caused
building product to a building materials class is any flaming droplets, either. A fire brigade would by condensation. In this case satisfying fire
carried out with the help of fire tests. evaluate such a fire scenario as relatively posi- protection stipulations and normal processing
tive! criteria are joined by the need for closed-cell
In the case of polymers, it is not only the actual structures and a very high water vapour diffusion
basic material that is critical for the reaction to The constructional boundary conditions, e.g. resistance. Owing to these special requirements,
fire, but more often than not the semi-finished where can toxic fumes spread to in the event of the use of incombustible insulating materials is
product or final construction product subse- a fire, which temperatures are necessary in the limited when it comes to lagging for cold pipe-
quently made from that material. The additional occupied internal zones in order for a fire to work and so combustible polymers have to be
layers, coatings and treatments, but also polymer start at the point concerned (distance from fire used. These may not produce any droplets,
modifications and possibly the combination loads) and how the situation should then be especially flaming droplets, must be self-extin-
with other materials to form composites, have a assessed for the rescue of persons (fire scenario), guishing and may not cause a fire to spread
significant influence on the properties relevant must be considered when choosing materials through wall or floor penetrations, i.e. penetra-
to fire protection. During the planning work it is and products. tions with insulated pipes or ducts may not im-
therefore not sensible to rely on general state- pair the fire resistance of the components.
ments regarding the fire protection classifica- Further aspects at building level that can be
tion of a certain type of polymer, but instead to exploited in advance by employing compensa- Incineration as subsequent usage
find out about and verify the fire safety aspects tory measures are, for instance, limiting the Although the reaction to fire of polymers is so
of the intended products with the help of the number of users (e.g. by regulating visitor flows), disadvantageous for their use in construction
approval documentation. increasing and improving the escape options, applications, it does, however, lead to a fourth
or adapting the building services (e.g. controlled option after the end of their useful lives: inciner-
Despite diverse modification options, only very fresh and exhaust air, fire detection and sprinkler ation for energy generation. (The other three
few types of polymer are non-flammable. This installations). options are reuse and the recycling of their
property is indeed desirable for many applica- These aspects, which in some cases can cause constituents or raw materials.) Polymers usually
tions, but in the end not always the compelling considerable additional costs, are not regulated contain a very high proportion of carbon com-
and sole requirement. The issues are much by National Technical Approvals. Therefore, pounds and therefore have a comparatively high
more involved and need to be considered sep- decisions regarding the choice of materials calorific value. If a certain polymer is therefore
arately in each individual case. Often compen- and forms of construction should be taken as unsuitable for the other three end-of-life options,
satory measures are possible which permit an early as possible by an interdisciplinary team then incineration, taking into account economical
alternative to the non-flammable building materials that includes the approving authority and fire and ecological criteria, is a reasonable alternative.
called for by standards and legislation. safety specialists.
120
Building physics and energy aspects
Hydrophobic Hydrophilic
121
Building physics and energy aspects
122
Building physics and energy aspects
✁
mer absorber, Fraunhofer Institute for Solar Energy
Systems (ISE)
C 6.46 PV module with polymer sheets as substrate Solar cell foil
(PC or PMMA)
C 6.47 Methods of production for PV modules for use
with ETFE foil and woven fabrics
C 6.48 Flexible PV module (a-Si) integrated into the top
layer of an ETFE foil cushion
C 6.49 “GROW”, a prototype of a combination of thin-
film PV and piezoelectric generators, embedded Adapted modules laminated Production of standard modules in various lengths
in an ETFE foil to ETFE foil substrate
C 6.50 Laboratory specimen of a flexible PV module
(a-Si) applied to PTFE/glass
C 6.51 Prototype of a thin-film PV strip in a textile material
Wind power
The rotor blades of large wind turbines represent Fabrication of ETFE modules
another major application for fibre-reinforced according to cutting pattern
polymer composites, alongside aircraft and
ships. And in the construction sector, such poly- Modules applied to
mers could in future open up new applications fabricated textile backing
in the field of building-integrated micro wind
turbines. The first tests and studies are in
progress.
C 6.47
C 6.48 C 6.50
References:
[1] Williams, David R.: Sun Fact Sheet, Greenbelt 2004
(http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/planetary/factsheet/
sunfact.html, 16 Aug 2010)
C 6.49 C 6.51
123
Environmental impact of
polymers
C 7.1
There is a growing demand for ever-increasing applicable. We distinguish between “cradle-to-
efficiency in the operation of buildings. Associ- grave” assessments that investigate the entire
ated with this is an ever greater focus on the life cycle of a product, and “cradle-to-gate”
energy consumption and environmental impact assessments that consider only the life of a
of the production and disposal of the materials product up to the time it leaves the factory.
used. In the light of the dwindling reserves of DIN EN ISO 14040 describes the LCA method.
our planet’s resources, the effects of planning There are four parts to an LCA: definition of
decisions extend further and further into the goal and scope, inventory analysis, impact
future. Whereas other branches of industry have assessment and interpretation (Fig. C 7.2).
already experienced significant increases in
efficiency, this development has not really been Definition of goal and scope
evident in the building sector: efficiency in the First of all, we describe the product and its
use of materials and rationalisation are lacking, function (functional unit) to be evaluated. Speci-
the recycling rate is low. fying the system boundaries defines which
The plastics industry is playing a leading role processes are to be included in the LCA of the
here. For example, we have already seen some product and which are to be left out. In the
increases in efficiency in the use of the enormous ideal case the inputs and outputs of the prod-
amounts of energy needed for the production uct system are elementary streams – indivisible
of polymers. Nevertheless, or perhaps for this substances, i.e. chemical elements and com-
very reason, polymers offer plenty of scope for pounds that are obtained from nature (inputs)
a two-sided discussion. On the one hand, poly- and elements that are returned to nature (out-
mers contain a high amount of primary energy puts). The boundaries of the assessment of the
compared to their mass, and emissions from product system, so-called cut-off criteria, are
the materials can represent dangers for the en- typically set at 1 % of the mass of the material,
vironment and users. On the other, they have a embodied energy and environmental relevance.
potential for generating savings through forms [1] In doing so, the total of the mass of the material
of construction that utilise materials efficiently. neglected may not exceed 5 %. [2] Ecologically
The use of polymer products can substantially critical substances (e.g. plasticisers in polymers)
reduce the amount of operating energy required, must always be investigated.
with additives enabling individual adaptation to
the specific circumstances of a project. Inventory analysis
Life cycle assessments can be used here as a The inventory analysis embraces and quantifies
key evaluation criterion in the objectification of the material and energy conversion processes
the discussion on plastics. relevant to the product system, taking into account
the system boundaries and the cut-off criteria.
Energy, raw materials and operating resources
Life cycle assessment inputs as well as products, joint products (prod-
uct systems with more than one final product)
The life cycle assessment (LCA) approach has plus waste and emissions affecting air, water
been around since the late 20th century and and soil must all be considered.
provides a good foundation for a transparent
evaluation of the complex environmental impacts Impact assessment
of products and processes. The effects can The impact assessment determines what influ-
C 7.1 Perceiving the environment in the “Mobile Action thus be evaluated from many different angles ence the results of the inventory analysis might
Space”, Berlin (D), 2009, raumlabor berlin relevant to planning. have on defined potential environmental im-
C 7.2 The sequence and phases of a life cycle An LCA analyses the life of a product, which pacts. To do this, the results of the inventory
assessment (LCA) can have one or more functions. To do this, we analysis are linked to impact categories, each
C 7.3 Product category rules (PCR), position as of
Aug 2010
consider the stages in that life such as obtain- of which describes one potential environmental
C 7.4 Examples of environmental or environmental ing the raw materials, production, processing impact (e.g. climate change) and is specified
declaration labels and transport, also use, reuse and disposal if by means of a so-called material equivalent
124
Environmental impact of polymers
125
Environmental impact of polymers
250
Metals
Concrete and
concrete
blocks
Stone
Glass
Wood and
wood-based
products
Polymers
coverings made from insulated glass and PC database is based on concrete product LCA
twin-wall sheets for identical load-carrying
capacities and U-values
data provided by individual manufacturers,
C 7.7 Life cycle assessment (LCA) values for polymer where this is available, or on averaged data
products according to functional unit records for individual product categories. As
C 7.5
more and more specific EPDs become avail-
able, so these will replace the averaged data
Steel beam GFRP beam, records. So far, the database contains about
IPE 200 pultruded
IPE 360
800 data records and is therefore the most
g = 0.224 kN /m2 g = 0.227 kN /m2 comprehensive freely accessible database in
Identical deformation PEI non-renew. [MJ] 421.30 1038.62
Germany. Ökobau.dat can be reached via the
CCP [kg CO2 equiv] 47.98 161.17 website of the BMVBS. The connection with the
ODP [kg R11 equiv] 1.32 · 10-6 2.36 · 10-6 IBU guarantees that the data records are con-
AP [kg SO2 equiv] 0.14 3.18 stantly updated.
EP [kg PO4 equiv] 0.0135 0.0427 The European Union publishes data records at
POCP [kg C2H4 equiv] 0.0214 0.0906 the inventory analysis level plus background in-
formation to product LCAs on its own website
via the European Platform on Life Cycle Assess-
ment (ELCD). Even though the database is regu-
Steel beam GFRP beam, larly updated, it should be remembered when
IPE 360 pultruded using the data that some data records could be
IPE 360 more than 10 years old and may be affected by
g = 0.571 kN /m g = 0.227 kN /m disparate regional reference variables (Germany,
Identical bending moment capacity PEI non-renew. [MJ] 1073.94 1038.62 Europe), which can lead to significant differences
CCP [kg CO2 equiv] 122.31 161.17 in the results.
ODP [kg R11 equiv] 3.35 · 10-6 2.36 · 10-6 The publicly accessible databases are comple-
AP [kg SO2 equiv] 0.356 3.18 mented by data prepared by commercial pro-
EP [kg PO4 equiv] 0.0343 0.0427 viders. Those providers can also prepare LCAs
a POCP [kg C2H4 equiv] 0.0545 0.0906 for products not included in the public data-
bases. Such approaches will, however, remain
the exception in the planning process, for rea-
sons of cost alone.
Identical load-carrying capacity Insulating glass PC double-wall
sheet The data situation for polymers
g = 0.20 kN/m2 g = 0.028 kN/m2 The plastics industry published eco-profiles for
2.2 m 2.2 m
PEI non-renew. [MJ] 432.00 431.20 a whole series of primary and final products made
CCP [kg CO2 equiv] 37.50 21.98 from various polymers as long ago as the mid-
ODP [kg R11 equiv] 0.838 · 10-6 1.40 · 10-6 1990s via its trade association Plastics Europe.
AP [kg SO2 equiv] 0.16 0.04 The eco-profiles were produced, like the LCAs,
EP [kg PO4 equiv] 0.0200 0.0048 based on the stipulations of DIN EN ISO 14040.
POCP [kg C2H4 equiv] 0.01 0.01
They make use of averaged data records at in-
ventory analysis level prepared with the help of
the respective manufacturers. The data records
Insulating glass PC double-wall are available via the EU’s ELCD database. The
sheet data is currently being updated and changed
Identical U-value (1.3 W/m K)2
g = 0.20 kN /m 2
g = 0.034 kN /m2
to the EPD format.
PEI non-renew. [MJ] 432.00 523.60
CCP [kg CO2 equiv] 37.50 26.69
ODP [kg R11 equiv] 0.838 · 10-6 1.70 · 10-6
AP [kg SO2 equiv] 0.1620 0.0047
EP [kg PO4 equiv] 0.0244 0.0058
POCP [kg C2H4 equiv] 0.0108 0.0068
b
PEI non-renew.: primary energy intensity from non-renewable energy sources; CCP: climate change potential (formally
global warming potential, GWP); ODP: ozone depletion potential; AP: acidification potential; EP: eutrophication potential;
POCP: photochemical ozone creation potential
C 7.6
126
Environmental impact of polymers
Thick- Weight Primary Primary Climate Ozone deple- Acidification Eutrophi- Photochem- Service
ness energy in- energy in- change po- tion potential potential (AP) cation poten- ical ozone life
tensity (non- tensity tential (CCP) (ODP) tial (EP) creation
renew.) (renew.) potential
[kg CO2 [kg R11 [kg SO2 [kg PO4 equiv] [kg C2H4 [a]
Solid sheets (1 m2) [mm] [kg] [MJ] [MJ] equiv] equiv] equiv] equiv]
PVC 10 12.2 961.36 15.62 42.21 3.25 · 10-6 0.0760 0.00754 0.02050 30 – 50
-6
UP 10 20.0 1820.00 17.00 89.80 3.42 · 10 0.1620 0.02600 0.02340 32 – 50
PC 10 12.0 1848.00 28.92 94.20 6.01 · 10-6 0.1656 0.02040 0.02388 33 – 50
PMMA (extruded) 10 11.9 1654.10 18.09 79.73 3.83 · 10-6 0.2106 0.01880 0.03987 34 – 50
Glass 10 25.0 350.00 2.00 22.00 7.08 · 10-7 0.1602 0.02250 0.01325 35 – 50
Disposal
Burning of polymers in
– 1 -27.00 0.40 0.81 -6.50 · 10-8 0.0010 0.00010 0.00010 –
waste incineration plant.
Life cycle assessments for functional units according to values from the Ökobau.dat database (cradle-to-gate, Germany, 2009); additional disposal data records for own calculations.
C 7.7
127
Environmental impact of polymers
Comparison with LCA data same time, they can draw attention to the need
A comparison via the mass or the volume is for engineering and architecture that does justice
generally not meaningful because of the differ- to the materials. Polymers can achieve a similar
Compact, Non-compact, ent physical properties of products. More inter- performance to many other materials, but with
8 units 8 units esting for architects and engineers, within the a lower weight, and this has a positive effect on
30 % increase scope of a holistic planning approach, is to the respective LCA.
compare forms of construction that are equiva- According to surveys on the subject of environ-
Lightweight
construction 20 kWh / m2ERAa 26kWh/m2ERAa lent in terms of their building physics but can mental impact, the number one objective in the
be decidedly different in terms of their environ- planning of a building seems to be the minimisa-
15 % increase 19 % increase mental impact. Such a comparison must be tion of material (Fig. C 7.8). [4] This can be
carried out in a similar way to the LCA method achieved, however, in different ways, through
described in DIN EN ISO 14 040 and be based parameters such as intelligent construction, in-
Heavyweight on a functional unit, e.g. 1 m2 of external wall tegration of functions or adapting the perform-
construction 23 kWh / m2ERAa 31kWh/m2ERAa
with the same U-value, or a pipe 1 m long. Fig. ance of the polymer. It is necessary, in every
35 % increase C 7.7 (p. 127) contains the LCAs for various project, to reappraise and choose the assess-
polymers according to their applications and ment framework to suit the loadbearing structure
C 7.8 functional units. Textiles for membrane construc- and the functional performance.
tion have been deliberately omitted because no
reliable LCAs are currently available in the pub- Intelligent construction
C 7.8 Comparison of the grey energy content of lic domain (position as of May 2010). Intelligent construction is based on a technical
lightweight timber structures and heavyweight and constructional assessment of the building
masonry and concrete structures for compact
LCAs and sustainability certification task. The following aspects are just some that
and non-compact forms of construction,
ERA = energy reference area In architecture the building is the ultimate func- then need our attention:
C 7.9 Constructional optimisation of a loadbearing tional unit. In order to assess this total perform- • Loadbearing system
system for a building envelope; “Oval”, Baseler ance, worldwide assessment systems with • Materials of the loadbearing system
Platz, Frankfurt am Main (D), 2004,
country-specific priorities for indicating the sus- • Jointing methods
Albert Speer & Partner
C 7.10 Facade outer leaf; Unilever group headquarters, tainability of buildings have been under develop- • Dead loads
Hamburg (D), 2009, Behnisch Architekten ment since the early 1990s. The most widely
C 7.11 Waste disposal agency offices and operations used systems are LEED (Leadership in Energy The architectural minimisation of material can
building, Remscheid (D), 2006, Architektur and Environmental Design) from the USA and be reached via these aspects on various levels.
Contor Müller Schlüter
a LCA for facade
BREEAM (Building Research Establishment
b Constructional optimisation of building Environmental Assessment Method) from the UK. Product systems optimised for construction
envelope through the use of twin-wall sheets The environmental impacts of building materials First of all, a product optimised specifically for
are included in the assessment in every system, a particular building task can be used. The
but sometimes in different ways. example of a facade of twin-wall sheets (sheets
The quality label of the German Sustainable clamped along their edges to linear metal sup-
Building Council (DGNB), which was developed ports) can be used to explain the relationships.
in 2007 – 2008, is one of the first methods to The sheet is responsible for, at a rough estimate,
prescribe a certification system that looks at the 40 % of the environmental impact of the func-
entire life cycle of a building and also includes tional unit (Germany) and therefore as a product
a type of building LCA. The basis for this build- normally governs the LCA. If the polymer sheet
ing LCA in the German system are the EPDs of itself can perform a structural function and thus
the individual construction products. The environ- obviate the need for any further supporting
mental impact of a whole building, and hence members, then this reduces the environmental
also the LCAs of construction products, is thus impact of the functional unit. As a rule, this also
becoming a focus of attention for planners, users applies when the thickness of the sheet has to be
and investors. increased to cope with the structural function.
This is particularly beneficial for surfaces that
extend over several storeys and is limited tech-
The influence of the LCA in the life cycle of nically by the maximum permissible unsupported
C 7.9 a polymer span for that type of sheet.
An optimisation level for the environmental im-
In relation to their weight, polymers exert a high pact is created by the constructional require-
environmental impact when compared with many ments for connection and fixing details. A design
other typical building materials (Fig. C 7.5, p. 126). that enables a large area to be covered with a
However, these values are put into perspective minimum number of details reduces the grey (or
when they are related to a functional unit (Fig. embodied) energy in the material. For example,
C 7.7, p. 127). twin-wall sheets spanning in just one direction
A comparison between glass and polymer in a reduce the amount of material required in the
facade (reference size 1 m2) reveals that a facade construction and hence the environmental impact.
of twin-wall sheets can have a much lower en- At the building component level, this complex
vironmental impact than a facade of glass (Fig. theme can be demonstrated by taking window
C 7.6, p. 126). The main reason for this is the frames as an example. Windows with wooden
different masses of the materials. Such compari- and polymer frames exhibit a much lower thermal
sons, however, are not always absolute when transmittance than those with metal frames.
we consider the actual characteristics of the And compared with wooden frames, the advan-
materials, e.g. view out, view through. At the tages of polymer frames are to be found in the
C 7.10
128
Environmental impact of polymers
50 000 44 773 kg
Climate change potential (kg CO₂ equiv/total measure)
149 %
40 385 kg
134 %
40 000 35 752 kg
119 %
30 082 kg
30 000 100 %
20 000
10 000
0
Profiled glass Polycarbonate PMMA GFRP (epoxy resin)
Mass: 19 468 kg 3634 kg 3677 kg 6421 kg
a b C 7.11
easy workability of the material and the low level: if we investigate the environmental impact telligent construction and integrated functions
material content, which leads to a high cost of a particular roof design, we might find out go hand in hand. Economic and ecological
efficiency. As a wooden frame is, however, stiffer, that it is no longer the functional layer itself, but benefits are then combined.
it is sometimes possible to use narrower frame more likely the details (junctions, edges, rain-
members, which in turn can result in the more water drainage, etc.) that are the critical factors Optimised functional performance
efficient use of solar energy for passive heating in the LCA. [5] And this is also true at the mater- As the operating phase of a building (taken as
purposes. In the end, it is therefore the total ials level because the properties of polymers 50 years) accounts for about 75 % [8] of the
area of glazing in the window, assuming frames themselves, through the use of different raw total LCA, improved functional performance
with identical Uf values, that becomes one of the materials, can be changed to suit projects, leads directly to a marked reduction in the en-
most meaningful parameters for the designer. adapted to suit technical requirements. For vironmental impact of a building. Needing less
Materials with a chemical function also become example, the addition of fibres does indeed energy to run the building might therefore be
important in this context where they constitute produce a stiffer polymer, but at the same time more effective than the savings realised through
part of the building fabric. They can help to in- creates a composite material whose reusability other measures.
crease the storage capacity of the building is limited because it is difficult to separate out When used for insulation and energy generation
(e.g. by way of latent heat storage) or change the individual constituents at a later date. The in a building envelope, transparent and trans-
the vapour diffusion behaviour (e.g. smart foils). situation is similar for specific coatings that are lucent polymers have an especially positive
This can result in, for example, a facade design applied to increase UV stability, for instance. effect on the overall LCA. In this situation, the
in which individual layers become totally un- facade has the task of, on the one hand, tapping
necessary and that can often reduce the environ- Integration of functions additional energy sources for the building (e.g.
mental impact. Polymers are ideal for “multitasking”, i.e. carry- as a microclimatic envelope or an air collector,
ing out various functional tasks simultaneously or by providing process heat to back up the
Loadbearing systems designed to save materials with just one component. The two main appli- building services) and, on the other, generating
A standard product is generally overdesigned cations for such an approach are functional this flow of energy to suit the needs of the build-
by its manufacturer because it is intended to surfaces and facades. In a facade, polymers ing and its users (e.g. via selective reflection,
cover diverse applications for a wide market. have an effect on, for example, humidity, thermal sunshading or anti-glare systems) (Fig. C 7.10).
The alternative is a tailor-made loadbearing balance, lighting or energy generation. Accord- With polymers in the facade (like with glazing) it
system that saves materials and has already ing to research, a low level of technology in a is therefore the g- and U-values that need to be
been optimised for its task during the planning building, i.e. minimal building services compared adapted. The minimum U-values given in the
phase. In the polymers sector, foil structures with the size of the building, tends to reduce 2009 edition of Germany’s Energy Conserva-
can reach the limits of optimisation in terms of the environmental impact and running costs. tion Act should be regarded as high for trans-
the efficiency of the material. With foil weights [6] The use of technology (e.g. solar-tracking parent and translucent polymer products and
of 170 g/m2, it is possible to achieve a thermal sunshading louvres) is therefore generally less membranes in particular. On the other hand,
break between interior and exterior with material effective in terms of energy consumption and polymers generally offer good g-values, which
contents less than 0.5 kg/ m2. In such situations environmental impact than a solution involving means that the higher passive solar energy gains
it is usually the supporting framework necessary the building fabric itself (e.g. overhangs that can reduce the energy consumption. As this
that governs the LCA rather than the membrane cast shadows). raises the risk of overheating in the building,
itself. The example of the offices and operations build- advantageous in the end are those forms of
The question that must be asked in the context ing of the waste disposal agency responsible polymer construction that can be regulated to
of such optimisation is: Are we really reducing for Remscheid, Germany, proves that the use suit users’ needs or whose energy can be
the environmental impact or only postponing it? of a product system optimised for the particular released into the environment again if necessary.
We can use the Olympic Stadium in Munich to design plus a “multitasking” approach can in- Membranes and foils in pneumatic structures
illustrate this point. The apparently lightweight crease the advantage in terms of use of resources must be investigated particularly carefully be-
architecture is only possible because of the by a factor of 10 and hence achieve a reduction cause this is where an appropriate U-value can
massive foundations, which govern the LCA for in costs of up to 50 % (Fig. C 7.11). The exact only be achieved through the permanent use of
the structure. Only through skilfully selected level of savings is based on the dimensions of energy (e.g. for mechanical plant to dry the air
designs in which the forces are “short-circuited” the facade, its support and connection points and maintain the pressure). This means that the
can such an effect be realised as a “lightweight” and the supporting structure required. [7] Such technical performance of the material (e.g. dimen-
construction with, as a result, a low environ- a design becomes particularly efficient in terms sional stability) only becomes possible through
mental impact (Fig. C 7.9). This effect is relevant of materials usage when the facade renders a permanent, technical input as part of the
for different scales, e.g. at building component additional insulation unnecessary, i.e. when in- operation of the building (see “Air supplies”,
129
Environmental impact of polymers
pp. 192 – 193). Compared with the annual trans- days and this can function as a new type of Materials in long-term use
mission heat losses of the component, this energy communication interface between designers Polymers generally exhibit a moderate durability,
requirement can easily account for 10 %. On and manufacturers, which calls for a creative which depends on the nature of the application,
the other hand, the solar heat gains through the planning approach. the environmental influences and the particular
component must be included in the balance as polymer. The prediction for the service life of a
a positive factor. However, the lower environ- Health aspects membrane is currently 25 – 30 years [9], but it
mental impact due to the material does not always The use of polymers can result in health risks, seems that fluoropolymers can last even longer.
outweigh the additional environmental impact of especially in conjunction with functional surfaces. Facades made from twin-wall sheets can be
the operation. In energy terms, there would seem The transmission of harmful substances from used for 30 – 50 years, and windows with polymer
to be a limit to optimisation, where a further de- polymers can take place in two ways: frames can be expected to last 40 – 60 years.
crease in material is no longer sensible because Firstly, there is the chance that polymers emit The shorter the service life, i.e. the poorer the
the environmental impact is no longer reduced, harmful substances into the surrounding air which durability, the more important it is to recoup the
simply postponed (Fig. C 7.12). From the energy are then inhaled by persons. Volatile organic embodied energy in the material’s life cycle.
viewpoint, designs that require mechanical compounds (VOC) must be mentioned at this The increased use of non-composite polymers
plant are therefore more suited to structures with point. The chemicals of this group can escape will lead to better recyclability. The designer
short life cycles (Fig. C 7.1, p. 124). In the case from a material over a long period of time. Safety can therefore exert a positive influence on the
of longer life cycles, solar-active membranes for the planner is only possible in the shape of LCA by choosing a “reversible” form of con-
can function as an integral, energy-generating the specific tests that depend on the product struction.
component and thus cut the energy consumption category and lead to type I environmental label-
markedly (Fig. C 7.13). ling, e.g. “Der Blaue Engel”, EMICODE, EU End-of-life options for polymers
There is no universally applicable definition of “Flower”. Product-related type III EPDs must Although only about 4 % of the petroleum ex-
how such an integrated material performance also include such information. tracted from the earth is used for manufacturing
can be indicated in the LCA, for instance. In Secondly, the direct absorption of harmful sub- polymers, dwindling resources will ensure that
the end, the design team must employ static stances from polymers has been discussed the production of polymers will in future depend
or dynamic computer simulations to check recently. For example, the use of bisphenol A more and more on reusing existing primary
whether and when an optimum situation is (BPA), a chemical with an oestrogenic effect, products. There are four ways of dealing with
reached for the building’s life cycle. One deci- has been banned voluntarily by manufacturers of polymers that have reached the end of their
sive advantage of polymers is their essentially baby pacifiers in the USA and Canada, where- (first) useful lives (Fig. C 7.14):
closed industrial production cycle. So-called as the EU has relaxed the limiting values for • Reuse
customised mass production enables an bisphenol A. The evaluation of the health risks • Recycling the material
adapted design without significant additional or otherwise of products changes with the status • Recycling the raw materials (monomers,
material consumption (e.g. through wastage). of research. Such unverified risk potential should gases, oils)
Projects are processed in digital form these also be included in a type III EPD. • Incineration
60
PEI, non-renewable [GJ]
Reuse
Generally, reusing a product is the best solution
50
from the environmental viewpoint. Incineration
Twin-wall sheet, no plant
should be avoided if at all possible because
Design w. mech. plant for maintaining
40 the resource is then lost forever. The theoretical
air pressure & drying air
recyclability and its practical realisation there-
30 fore play an especially important role when it
Fan power Fan power comes to polymers. Architects can thus deter-
3W/m² 0.4W/m²
mine the options for the reuses and/or recycling
20
of polymers through foresight in their designs
and choices of materials.
10
Recycling the material
0 This is the treatment of scrap polymers to form
15 30 45 new polymer products made from recycled
Time [a] material. The polymer chains remain intact and
C 7.12 are used to produce a new product; the poly-
mer is formed anew. Therefore, only thermo-
plastics can be recycled in this way. They are
first crushed, sorted and washed. Afterwards,
the crushed material is dried, melted and pro-
cessed to form a new granulate. In thermosets
and elastomers the polymers are irreversibly
cross-linked. In the sense of recycling the material,
these materials can only be crushed and used
as a bulk fill product (particle recycling).
Polymer waste cannot be completely separated
into uncontaminated waste streams and always
contain fillers and additives. The recycled mater-
ial thus obtained generally has a lower quality
than the original polymer. In addition, the structure
of the polymer is changed during the recycling
process; the polymer chains are shortened.
C 7.13
130
Environmental impact of polymers
When manufacturing products from 100 % re- cannot be used to produce a flexible foam from
Monomer from primary production
cycled polymers, changes to the properties of waste flexible foam. A prerequisite for monomer
the component start to appear after just three recycling is sorted waste streams. Problematic
processing cycles, and after five cycles signifi- for high-quality polymers is guaranteeing a suf-
cant damage appears that affects all the con- ficient amount of waste for setting up an econom- Polymer granulate
stituents (polymer chains, stabilisers, colourants, ically viable recycling system.
flame retardants, etc.) of the compound. Re-
cycled material is therefore not normally used Petrochemical recycling Polymer component
exclusively, but rather mixed with new polymer Owing to their chemical relationship with petrol-
material. However, even this affects the quality eum, polymer waste can be employed as a raw
of the new product, which is why the proportion material in petrochemical processes and hence
of recycled material cannot be increased beyond contribute to saving that valuable resource oil. Building
a certain limit. In injection-moulding, for instance, The polymers are cleaned, crushed and subse-
the amount of recycled material is limited to 5 % quently fed directly into the petroleum stream.
in order to maintain the quality of the polymer The waste should not contain any heavy metals Recycling
product. [10] and at worst only traces of chlorine if damage
Owing to the modified properties of the recycled to the plant (e.g. corrosion) is to be avoided.
material, this type of recycling is actually down- This is not always the case when the waste Recycling of material
cycling. Only a few polymers, e.g. polyethylene contains large amounts of PVC (e.g. packaging
terephthalate (PET), can be recycled without waste). Petrochemical recycling is particularly
experiencing a loss in quality. suitable for small-format, soiled products with
Product developments have a major influence different configurations or compositions where Recycling of raw materials
on the prerequisites for recycling the polymer sorting in order to reuse the materials directly is
material. The following factors enable or ease impossible or too costly.
this type of recycling and should be considered Incineration
in the planning of a building: Incineration
• Reducing the diversity of polymers in the Polymer waste can be burned in a waste incin-
building. Using a large number of different eration plant. The energy stored in the polymer
Energy
polymers leads to increased work and costs is then released and used for producing heat
during the sorting of the polymer waste. and generating electricity. In this case the poly- C 7.14
• Using reversible compounds wherever pos- mer waste replaces other energy media and
sible which enable the polymer constituents therefore can reduce the consumption of fossil,
to be readily exchanged (design for recycling, non-renewable energy sources. Owing to the
DfR). production processes used, polymers have a
C 7.12 Primary energy consumption development for
• Using essentially compatible polymers, e.g. similar (high) calorific value to that of petroleum pneumatic structures with air pressure
polycarbonate (PC) and acrylonitrile-butadiene- or natural gas. Although incineration makes use maintained by mechanical plant compared with
styrene (ABS), for indivisible forms of con- of this embodied energy, instead of just dispos- a system without mechanical plant
struction. ing of the polymers in landfill, the waste is then C 7.13 Sunshading system in the form of a three-ply foil,
light transmittance 5–50 % (manufacturer’s data)
• Ensuring accurate documentation and/or label- no longer available for any other use. This end- C 7.14 Recycling options for polymers depending on
ling of the polymers. This can be marked of-life option should therefore always be regarded type of recycling
directly on the component according to the as the last alternative.
stipulations of DIN 11 469 (recycling code).
Furthermore, special markers in the polymer
(e.g. fluorescent dyes) ease the sorting of
waste streams.
• Avoiding painting.
References:
Recycling the raw materials [1] Köpfler, Walter; Grahl, Birgit: Ökobilanzierung. Ein
This is the chemical decomposition of the macro- Leitfaden für Ausbildung und Beruf. Weinheim,
molecules and the reuse of the fragments in new 2009, p. 30
[2] Institute Construction & Environment (IBU): Leitfaden
synthesis processes.
für die Formulierung der Anforderungen an die Produkt-
kategorien der AUB Deklarationen (Typ III), 2006
Monomer recycling [3] http://www.bau-umwelt.de, 20 Aug 2010
In monomer recycling the polymers are broken [4] Preisig, Hansruedi: Massiv- oder Leichtbauweise?
down into their basic chemical constituents In: TEC21, No. 42/2002, p. 17
[5] Hegger, Manfred, et al.: Construction Materials
(depolymerisation). These monomers can always Manual. Munich, 2006, p. 101
be repolymerised afterwards with the help of [6] Sigg, René; Kälin, Werner; Plattner, Hugo: LUKRETIA
catalysts. Thermal depolymerisation can be used – Lebenszyklus – Ressourcen – Technisierung. In:
for acrylic resins (e.g. PMMA). This process is 14th Swiss Status Seminar, Energie- und Umwelt-
forschung im Bauwesen, Zurich, 2006, p. 390
not influenced by additives (e.g. pigments) or
[7] Müller, Michael, et al.: Research report: Ökologische/
soiling. In the case of PMMA, the MMA mono- Ökonomische Bewertung zweier Fassadenkonzepte
mers obtained can be used again for other – Glasfassade versus Kunststofffassade. Remscheid,
compounds such as casting resins. 2007, pp. 68ff.
The monomers of some polymers (e.g. PUR) [8] http://www.dgnb.de, 20 Aug 2010
[9] LeCuyer, Annette: ETFE – Technology and Design.
are modified during depolymerisation, which Basel/Boston/Berlin, 2009, p. 35
leads to new polymerised products with other [10] Hellerich, Walter; Harsch, Günther; Haenle, Siegfried:
properties. In the case of PUR, monomer recycling Werkstoffführer Kunststoffe. Munich, 2004, p. 54
131
Part D Planning and form-finding
1 Loadbearing structure
and form 134
Structural systems 134
Geometry of lightweight
surface structures 136
Tensile surface structures 138
133
Loadbearing structure
and form
D 1.1
Owing to their low density but at the same time - Plate carrying in-plane loads
high strength, polymers embody the potential - Folded plate
for creating lightweight structures. Besides the • Form-active structures
low weights of the materials themselves, the - Cable structure
good weathering resistance and low thermal - Membrane structure
conductivity of the majority of polymers makes - Inverted catenary arch and shell
them suitable for lightweight systems in which • Hybrid structures
the elements of the construction can be both - Superimposition and/or coupling of section-
loadbearing structure and enclosing envelope and form-active structures (e.g. trussed
at the same time. Being able to design an effi- beam)
cient loadbearing geometry (lightweight struc- - Superimposition of vector- and surface-
ture) is extremely important if we are to exploit active structures (e.g. gridshell)
this potential to the full. Loadbearing structures
are efficient when they develop a high load- Section-active structures
carrying capacity and a high stiffness with as Loadbearing structures that carry external
little material as possible while still transferring loads primarily by way of bending moments are
the loads safely to the supports. The efficiency referred to as section-active systems because
of a loadbearing structure depends on the follow- the bending moment is defined as an internal
ing factors: action effect imposed on a section through the
• Global form = geometry structural member. Such loadbearing systems
• Arrangement of loadbearing elements = account for the majority of everyday loadbear-
topology ing structures. Owing to the linear progression
• Character of loadbearing elements = of the strain between the extreme fibres of the
cross-section and material section, a large part of the central area of the
cross-section of a beam, grillage or floor plate
Fig. D 1.4 shows different types of loadbearing in bending plays only a small part in carrying
structure categorised according to the way the loads. More efficient are sandwich types of
D 1.1 Membrane sail as a form-active structure; they carry the loads and their efficiency. The construction in which stiff facing, i.e. outer,
Saudi Arabia, 1990, Rasch + Bradatsch efficiency of the loadbearing structure increases plies carry the bending moments and a light-
D 1.2 Gridshell made from GFRP tubes, created by
bending straight bars; research project, Ecole here from the simple beam in bending to the weight core, which provides a shear-resistant
des Ponts ParisTech plate, shell and membrane structures in tension, connection between the facing plies, carries
D 1.3 GFRP arches in a bending-active structure; which are the focus of attention in this chapter. the shear forces. With a two-dimensional struc-
research pavilion, Institute of Building Structures ture subjected to bending (plate carrying out-
& Structural design (ITKE), University of Stuttgart
of-plane loads), the surface geometry of the
D 1.4 Types of loadbearing structure
1 Beam Structural systems area can therefore be defined in any way.
2 Grillage
3 Slab In this chapter structural systems are subdivided Bending-active structures
4 Sandwich slab into the following categories on the basis of One special form of the section-active structure
5 Tied arch, made by bending straight bars
6 Gridshell, made by bending straight bars
various load-carrying principles [1]: is the curved structure whose geometry and
7 Shell with curved folds, made by bending • Section-active structures system stiffness are realised through the elastic
flat plates - Beam deformation of the loadbearing element. The
8 Truss - Frame principle of such bending-active structures are
9 Spatial frame
- Grillage geometries based on elastic deformation. For
10 Folded plate
11 Shell - Plate carrying out-of-plane loads example, gridshells are based on a planar lattice
12 Arch • Vector-active structures of linear members bent into a double-curvature
13 Lattice shell as inverted catenary arch - Truss shell form (Fig. D 1.2), or shell forms created by
(thrust line) - Plane and curved trusses curved folds lying within the plane of the mater-
14 Inverted catenary arch (thrust line)
15 Cable
- Spatial framework ial. The advantage of this principle lies in being
16 Cable net • Surface-active structures able to produce forms with complex curvature
17 Membrane structure - Shell from simple straight or planar components.
134
Loadbearing structure and form
D 1.2 D 1.3
Thin components help because they permit Linear Planar
very small bending radii and at the same time Uniaxial Biaxial
restrict the induced bending stresses to a low b
level with adequate reserves of strength. The b
necessary stiffness is achieved by joining to- Load h h
gether several bending elements and their in-
duced bending stresses (Fig. D 1.3).
l l > h, b l l≈b>h
Vector-active structures
Joining together straight members to form a Section-active 1 2 3
planar framework or grillages to form a spatial
framework can increase the efficiency of a load-
bearing system because the bending moments Bending 4
-
are resolved into tensile and compressive forces. +
The forces carried by the straight members,
following the force vectors, are exclusively in
the form of normal (i.e. axial) forces. Connecting
Bending-active 5 6 7
the straight members to form a triangulated
framework with articulated (i.e. pinned or hinged)
joints (nodes) produces a stable structural sys-
tem in which every component is loaded in either
tension or compression. Each member’s cross-
sectional area can therefore be matched to the
respective magnitude of the force. Compared
Vector-active 8 9
with a structure in bending, this type of load-
bearing structure uses the cross-section of the Compression
component to the full and therefore results in a
favourable relationship between the loads to be
Tension
carried and the self-weight of the construction.
135
Loadbearing structure and form
r1
K=0
r1=∞
r1
Tangential plane
r1
K<0
r2
K>0
r2
r1
D 1.5 Principal curvatures r1 and r2, and Gaussian
r2 curvature K of curved surfaces
D 1.6 The principles for forming curved surfaces
D 1.5
Form-active structures pairs of arches bent to various radii. Owing to Geometry of lightweight surface structures
The characteristic feature of form-active struc- the comparatively low elastic modulus of GFRP,
tures is that they carry external loads either by however, the ensuing restraint stresses are only Lightweight surface structures are form- or sur-
way of pure tension (cables, membranes) or minimal. The residual elasticity is used for pre- face-active loadbearing systems that carry
pure compression (arches) without shear forces stressing the membrane. external loads primarily by way of tensile and
or bending moments. In order to achieve this, it Free-form polymer elements covering large areas compressive stresses in the tangential direction
is necessary to match the geometry of the load- in the form of surface-active structures are (axial). One important factor for the loadbearing
bearing structure to the flow of forces. With vary- mostly designed as components with an integral behaviour of lightweight surface structures is
ing external actions (e.g. wind or snow), the form in which further functions can be integrated. the curvature of the surface.
geometry must be able to change as well (i.e. The form can be adapted ideally to the structural
deform). Form-active structures in tension are requirements through the double curvature of Curvature
among the most efficient loadbearing systems the thin-wall moulded components. The curvature of a surface can be described
because failure by buckling is impossible. We by two different parameters: principal curvature
therefore speak of lightweight tensile surface The use of polymers in sandwich designs has and Gaussian curvature.
structures in this context. The basic principles also proven to be especially efficient. Both the
for the design of such tensile surface structures structural engineering and building physics Principal curvature
are explained in more detail below. demands placed on a building envelope can The principal curvatures of a surface describe
be satisfied with fibre-reinforced polymer lamin- the magnitude and direction of the minimum
Polymers in structural systems ates for the facing plies and a lightweight core and maximum curvatures at one point on a sur-
Most section- and vector-active structures made material (Fig. E 2.36, p. 184). face. These result from the intersection of planes
from polymers are comprised of interconnected Up until now, loadbearing polymers have been with the curved surface. The intersecting planes
semi-finished products and are therefore not so used in construction primarily in conjunction are perpendicular to the tangential plane at the
very different from conventional steel or timber with form-active tensile surface structures. Only point considered and are arranged so that the
loadbearing structures. Linear members made polymer-coated synthetic or glass-fibre fabrics lines of intersection exhibit minimum or maxi-
from pultruded fibre-reinforced polymers can, exhibit the strength and durability necessary for mum radii of curvature (r1, r2) (Fig. D 1.5). The
for example, be produced with cross-sectional such long-span membrane structures. Espe- principal curvatures (k1 and k2) correspond to
forms similar to those of typical steel sections cially important in this context – besides the low the inverse values of the radii of curvature
(see “Sections made from fibre-reinforced poly- density and high weathering resistance – is the (ki=1/ri). The direction of curvature is indicated
mers”, pp. 84 – 85), and they are used by struc- elasticity of the material (see “Textile mem- by the +/- signs of the radii; positive curvature,
tural engineers in a similar way. The important branes”, p. 49). The lower the stiffness, the curving towards the observer, is designated
thing here is to ensure that the connections greater the elongation must be when introduc- convex, negative curvature, curving away from
between the semi-finished products and with ing the prestress. Only a sufficient amount of the observer, is concave.
other components are designed to suit the elongation guarantees that small changes in
material (see “Connections for fibre-reinforced geometry and relaxation of the material do not Gaussian curvature
polymers”, pp. 152 – 153, and “Building with lead to a significant decrease in the prestress. Gaussian curvature K is a measure of the curva-
free-form polymers”, pp. 174 – 187). It should This requirement is satisfied by many polymers ture of a surface; again, the +/- signs indicate
also be remembered that polymers and fibre- especially because of their high elongation at the nature of the curvature, which is the product
reinforced polymers have a lower elastic modu- rupture coupled with high strength. of the two principal curvatures k1 and k2.
lus than steel. Larger cross-sections must
1 1
therefore be chosen in order to limit the deform- K = k1 ∙ k 2 = ∙
r1 r2
ations, which may well cancel out the original
weight advantage.
However, the low stiffness in conjunction with For surfaces in single curvature, one of the radii
the high strength can be exploited by using fibre- of curvature tends towards infinity; the Gaussian
reinforced polymers for bending-active structures. curvature is therefore zero. Such surfaces are
Figs. D 1.2 and D 1.3 (p. 135) show prototypes developable, i.e. they can be unrolled onto a
of such structures. The bars used are actually plane, e.g. the surfaces of cylinders or cones.
produced as straight elements and are subse- We distinguish between positive and negative
quently forced into their curved form. A system Gaussian curvature for surfaces in double curva-
in equilibrium is created by joining together ture. The curvature is positive (K > 0) when the
136
Loadbearing structure and form
centres of the radii of the two principal curva- order, control points and a knot vector. Altering with respect to the axis produces an anticlastic
tures are located on the same side of the sur- any of these parameters enables the form to form, or saddle-shaped surface.
face, also referred to as synclastic curvature. be adjusted virtually ad infinitum. This type of
This type of curvature applies to domes and graphical data processing using splines, whose Translation surface
pneumatically prestressed membranes, for control points are not located on the curve it- A translation surface is created through the
instance. self, is attributed to the French engineer Pierre parallel translation of a generatrix along a direc-
The Gaussian curvature is negative (K < 0) Etienne Bézier. Any free form can be represented trix. The planes of the group of generatrix lines
when the centres of the radii of the two principal with the help of the Bézier splines. This approach must also be parallel with each other. If the
curvatures are located on different sides of the originally intended for the design of car bodies Gaussian curvature of the two curves is positive,
surface and therefore one of the radii is nega- and ships is today also used for designing free- the result is a synclastic form, or dome; if it is
tive. In this case the curvature can be called form surfaces in architecture. negative, then an anticlastic form, or saddle-
anticlastic. This is the situation with, for example, shaped surface is created. The advantage of
saddle-shaped surfaces in mechanically pre- Geometrical surfaces stretching the surface between identical, parallel-
stressed membranes. Surfaces with a simple geometrical definition translated curves is that translation surfaces can
have advantages in fabrication and erection be covered with planar squares or rectangles
Designing the form because geometrical laws such as defined curva- (e.g. panes of glass).
The surface curvature necessary for carrying ture, developability or the option of covering a
the load axially can be generated through vari- surface with flat squares or rectangles are Ruled surface
ous geometrical and physical approaches. In guaranteed. A geometrical surface is created A ruled surface is created through the movement
principle, we can distinguish between free, geo- by a generator and a directrix. If such a surface of a straight line in space along curves of any
metrical and structural optimisation methods is defined by a polynomial, we speak of an alge- form. Ruled surfaces in single curvature are
(Fig. D 1.6). braic surface. Surfaces of revolution, translation generated from one group of straight lines,
surfaces and ruled surfaces are examples of double-curvature surfaces from two groups of
Free-form surfaces geometrical surfaces and are described below. straight lines. Every point on the surface is inter-
Free-form surfaces can also be referred to as cepted by a straight line that lies within the ruled
random or irregular surfaces and are those sur- Surface of revolution surface. Some surfaces of revolution and trans-
faces that do not conform to any physical or A surface of revolution is created by rotating a lation surfaces can also be described as ruled
geometrical laws. So-called non-uniform ration- curve (the generatrix) about a straight line in its surfaces. These include the hyperboloid and
al B-splines (NURBS) allow free forms to be plane (the axis). If the generatrix is concave the hyperbolic paraboloid. Double-curvature geo-
described mathematically. with respect to the axis, the result is a synclastic metries that can be described as ruled surfaces
A NURBS surface or curve is calculated via its form, or dome, whereas a generatrix convex can also be realised with straight components.
Free forms
Geometrical
forms
Rotation
Translation
Ruled surface
Structure-
optimised
surfaces
D 1.6
137
Loadbearing structure and form
Structure-optimised surfaces be optimised for one loading case, usually self- sure difference between inside and outside in
External loads do not necessarily lead to pure weight, and loads distributed differently lead to the form of a uniformly distributed load perpen-
tensile or compressive states of stress in curved bending stresses. A shell in double curvature dicular to the surface also has to be included in
surfaces. For this reason, the aim of the struc- with appropriate support conditions is also able the form-finding calculations.
tural optimisation of surface structures is to de- to carry uniformly distributed loads via a mem-
vise geometries for defined loads and support brane state of stress even in the case of devia- Experimental form-finding
conditions which result, preferably, in pure tions from the pure catenary form. It was during the 1950s that Frei Otto developed
membrane states of stress and hence efficient The difficulty of such an approach is its realisa- the engineering principles for building with
loadbearing systems. Form-finding is the term tion in practice because the ensuing complex membranes (see “Development of tensile sur-
used to describe the search for a structure geom- form first has to be produced in an original face structures”, pp. 16 – 21). The form-finding
etry that achieves a state of equilibrium for a given mould in the factory or as formwork on site with methods of those days were purely experimental.
stress condition taking into account defined a loadbearing supporting construction in order Physical models made from stretched rubber,
boundary conditions and, if applicable, external to create the final shell. fabrics, nets and soap films (Figs. D 1.7 and
loads. The planning and design of surface struc- D 1.8) were used to create forms that were in
tures with an optimised form is therefore consider- equilibrium. Photogrammetry or other analogue
ably different to that of conventional forms of Tensile surface structures methods of measurement could be used to
design because the development of the form is transfer the ensuing surface geometries to the
closely associated with the analysis of the load- The special characteristics of tensile surface planning process. The approach with soap film
bearing structure. structures represent the chief content of this has a special status because the film has zero
chapter. The typical structural forms and aspects stiffness and therefore assumes a homogeneous
One widely used method for optimising the geom- of their realisation in practice are demonstrated and isotropic stress condition, which means
etry of a shell in compression is the catenary as well as the special form-finding methods. that the stresses at every point are identical in
form, actually the inversion of a catenary loaded every direction. The outcome of this is that the
purely in tension (a rope or chain suspended Form-finding resulting forms have minimal surface areas. A
between two points) to generate a form loaded Form optimisation methods are employed to minimal surface describes the surface with the
exclusively in compression. The catenary form determine the geometry of tensile surface smallest area within an enclosing boundary; the
can either be designed as a self-weight form or structures. The aim of this form-finding process values of the two principal curvatures are iden-
optimised for particular external loads by attach- is to achieve a form that is in equilibrium with tical at every point on the surface. Strictly speak-
ing weights. This approach can be used with the given distribution of stresses, i.e. prestress ing, a minimal surface cannot be achieved in
chains for linear structures, arches, or suspend- in the surface, within the geometrical boundary practice because the self-weight of the membrane
ed nets and clots for surface structures. How- conditions. In the case of air-supported, i.e. is not considered in the form-finding process.
ever, it should be noted that an arch can only pneumatically prestressed, surfaces, the pres- However, the low weight of membrane struc-
a a a
138
Loadbearing structure and form
tures means that the minimal surface approach of the material and the absolute magnitude of to form the so-called force density, the condi-
is a reasonable starting point for a form-finding the prestress. As a result, only geometrical tional equations become linear and the system in
process. parameters and the distribution of the prestress equilibrium can therefore be calculated directly.
Models made from fabric or tensioned nets have are specified. Typical numerical form-finding A further development of the force density
in the meantime given way to the numerical methods used these days are the finite element method enables the meshes to be linked directly
methods of form-finding commonly used these method, force density method and dynamic to triangular elements and thus permit the struc-
days, although the fabric model is still a favour- relaxation. tural analysis of membrane surfaces (Fig. D 1.9b).
ite for developing concepts and for presentation
purposes. It is easy to make from simple mater- Finite element method (FEM) Dynamic relaxation
ials and is generally helpful in the early stages In the finite element model the entire structure In the dynamic relaxation a discretionary initial
of form-finding. Highly elastic materials in par- is subdivided (discretised) into elements joined mesh composed of springs is prestressed, thus
ticular, e.g. nylon or Perlon, are suitable for together by nodes. The specific properties of inducing osciallations. An artificially generated
high-quality presentation models (Fig. D 1.8). typical linear or planar elements are represented decay process enables the equilibrium form to be
The material is stretched gently and evenly over by spring models. By considering the stress, found for the mesh by means of viscoelastic or
the support points (tubes, dressmaking pins or distortion and displacement variables in the elem- kinetic damping. This means that the original,
similar items). The perimeter members are then ents and complying with the condition that dis- actually static problem is converted into a dynamic
applied directly to the material using thin strips placements of adjacent elements must be iden- problem.
of adhesive, offset slightly inwards. This gives tical at their common nodes, it is possible to
the edge a certain stiffness and prevents it from calculate the forces and deformations of the
fraying. Excess material is then cut away and structure approximately. A state of stress equi-
the corners are pulled into their final positions. librium in special membrane elements ignoring
the elastic stiffness is calculated for membrane
Numerical form-finding form-finding tasks. When prescribing an iso-
These days, the final form-finding work for ten- tropic prestress, this method ist also referred to
sile surface structures is almost always carried as a soap film analogy.
out with the help of numerical methods, which
are characterised by their high precision, flexi- Force density method (FDM)
bility and speed. Furthermore, the digital models The force density method was specifically de-
produced are easily integrated into the subse- veloped for calculating pretensioned cable net
quent structural analysis and computer-assist- designs. When used for form-finding, it is based
ed design and fabrication processes. This type on the equilibrium of forces at the nodes of the
of form-finding is not dependent on the stiffness mesh. By summarising the force/length quotients
Iteration
Stresses permissible?
Choice of materials Structural calculations
Deformations permissible?
OK
Detailed design Design
Final form-finding
Cutting pattern
Development
Practical realisation
139
Loadbearing structure and form
V2 V2 V2
F
R2 R2 V2' F
V1 V1 V1
F
V1'
V2 V2 V2
V2'
R1
R1
V1 V1 V1 V1'
F
α β α β F
V1 V2 V1 R1 V2
R1 R2 R2 |V1'| < |V1| |V2'| > |V2| R2
V1 V2 V1 V2
β α β R1
α
F |V1| = |V2| α=β |R1| = |R2| |V1| < |V2| α>β |R1| = |R2| |R1'| < |R2'| R1' + R2' + F = 0
D 1.11 a b c D 1.12
Form-finding process and therefore must be prevented by applying a resultant R2opposing the external force (Fig.
Despite the often user-friendly software suites an appropriate prestress. Also very dangerous D 1.12c). The geometry adapts to the loads
available, the close relationships between mater- are horizontal, level areas in which water can acting perpendicular to the surface until a new
ial, form and loadbearing behaviour plus the collect (ponding). A pool of water that grows as state of equilibrium is reached. Consequently,
consequences for fabrication and erection call more and more water flows into it brings with it external loads can only be carried through de-
for a great deal of experience and interdisciplin- the risk that this heavy load will cause sudden formations in the membrane surface; linked with
ary knowledge in all these areas in order to failure of the material. During the design of a this is an intense interaction between form and
achieve a successful design. The result, which membrane structure it is therefore important to loadbearing behaviour.
can be influenced by changing the boundary ensure that water can always drain away, even It is the task of the designer to define the geo-
conditions and the magnitude of the prestress, when rainfall is accompanied by high winds. metrical boundary conditions in such a way
must satisfy the requirements imposed by geom- A prestress is applied to generate a state of that the form-finding leads to an equilibrium
etry, loadbearing behaviour, materials and form constant tensile stress and therefore increase the form that is sensible in terms of both its con-
of construction. This turns form-finding into a stiffness of the membrane surface. We distinguish struction and aesthetics. From the functional
complex iterative procedure that continues right between mechanical and pneumatic prestressing. viewpoint, the deformations caused by external
through the planning (Fig. D 1.10, p. 139). Follow- The former is generated by applying loads, e.g. loads should be reduced to such an extent that
ing the first form-finding step, in which the by displacing the supports (Fig. D 1.12), the the limits of serviceability are not exceeded and,
boundary conditions are defined, it is normally latter by creating a pressure difference between for example, the membrane does not flutter when
necessary to carry out further form-finding steps the top and bottom surfaces of the membrane, subjected to wind loads.
in the subsequent planning process. The geom- which as a uniformly distributed load causes a
etry of the mesh used for the form-finding work, tangential force in the membrane (Fig. D 1.23, The complex geometrical diversity of membrane
which at the start of the planning phase is gener- p. 143). structures can be reduced to four basic types:
ally still based on the system lines of the load- • Saddle and sail surfaces
bearing structure, must track the boundary and Mechanically prestressed surfaces • Surfaces with elements forming ridges and
support points as more and more detail is A membrane structure consists of flexible, pre- valleys
added to the design. Accordingly, the final form- stressed surface elements and flexible, pre- • Surfaces supported with high or low points
finding for the cutting pattern for the material of stressed, or stiff perimeter elements. The three- • Surfaces supported by arches
the surface is usually not carried out until all the dimensional arrangement of the perimeter elem-
dimensions of the loadbearing structure have ents in space and, possibly, further supporting Saddle and sail surfaces
been specified and the detailed design work elements in the surface creates a membrane A sail surface must be stretched between at
has been completed. form in double curvature. Such a membrane least four non-planar (i.e. not lying in the same
prestressed mechanically is stabilised by a plane) fixed points in space in order to produce
Loadbearing behaviour state of equilibrium between the opposing sag- a surface in double curvature (Fig. D 1.11).
The stiffness of a tensile surface or membrane ging and hogging curvatures (Fig. D 1.11). Fig. Curved, flexible cables or belts or straight, stiff
structure is influenced by the geometry, i.e. in D 1.12 shows this basic principle in a simplified perimeter elements can be designed to tension
particular by the curvature of the surface, the form by way of two intersecting cables (wire the edges of the sail surface (Figs. D 1.13a and
prestress and the stiffness of the material. We ropes). The resulting vertical forces R1 and R2 c). Saddle surfaces with a least one rigid edge
speak of geometrical stiffness that is dependent at the intersection must be identical but of op- can be stretched over a triangular plan form
on the surface curvature and prestress and posite sign in order to remain in equilibrium. In when the stiff edge is curved perpendicular to
elastic stiffness that are dependent on the prop- the associated force diagrams it can be seen the surface (Fig. D 1.13d,). Such surfaces also
erties of the material. that the intersection rises and therefore changes ensue when ridge or valley cables divide the
The most important geometrical variable in a the angle of the force when the pretension in surface into triangular zones (Fig. D 1.13g).
tensile surface structure is the curvature of the one of the cables is increased (Fig. D 1.12b).
surface. Only with sufficient double curvature is As a result, the ensuing vertical force R2 and
a membrane able to carry external loads safely. the opposing force R1 remain identical in mag-
A limited amount of curvature requires high pre- nitude. The equilibrium condition is therefore
stress values to be assumed in the calculations also satisfied for anisotropic (i.e. different in two
in order to limit the deformations of the membrane directions) prestresses. Introducing an external
surface subjected to external loads. Wind-induced load F causes the system to deform due to the
high-frequency flutter in particular can damage change in the angle and the membrane forces
the material and the supporting construction change from V1 and V2 to V1’ and V2’, producing
140
Loadbearing structure and form
D 1.11 Basic principle for the mechanical prestressing k High-point surface with cable eye loop
of a surface l High-point with “hump”
D 1.12 a – c States of equilibrium for a mechanically m Arch-supported surface with arches along
prestressed membrane using the example of two two edges
intersecting cables n Arch-supported surface with inner arch
D 1.13 Mechanically prestressed surfaces stabilised by membrane
a Four-point sail with flexible edges o Addition of arch-supported surfaces
b Four-point sail with rigid edges p Arch along edge stabilised by outer
c Five-point sail with flexible edges and sail batten flexible edge
d Triangular surface with rigid arch along D 1.14 Undulating star; “Dance Pavilion”, Cologne (D),
one edge refurbishment, 2001, Rasch + Bradatsch
e Sail with alternating ridge and valley cables D 1.15 Surface with parallel elements forming ridges
f Sail with ridge cable and planar flexible edges and valleys; movable membrane roof, City Hall,
g Undulating star with alternating ridge and Vienna (A), 2000, Silja Tillner, Schlaich,
valley cables Bergermann & Partner (structural engineering)
h High-point surface with eye loop and ridge D 1.16 Low-point surface with individual supports;
cables convertible umbrella canopies, Wasseralfingen
i Low-point surface with stiff ring Palace (D), 1994, Rasch + Bradatsch
j High-point surface with cable loop supported D 1.17 Arch-supported surface; Poruklu Marina (TR), 2008,
at two points Lightweight Structures Group (LWSG), studio LD
D 1.14
b j
D 1.15
k
c
d
l
e
D 1.16
f
n
g o
h p
D 1.13 D 1.17
141
Loadbearing structure and form
142
Loadbearing structure and form
Free corners more precisely, the curvature of the surface. The are added to a primary structure to form a build-
Incorporating elastic bars (sail battens) in the tangential surface tension is proportional to the ing envelope (Figs. D 1.18 and D 1.22a – d).
membrane surface enables free corners to be pressure difference between inside and outside The geometry of each individual cushion de-
created which are stabilised solely by the bar and the radius of curvature of the surface (see pends on the layout of the primary structure
in turn restrained by the surface without the “Pneumatically prestressed surfaces”, p. 147). framing the cushions. As pneumatic forms are
need for any guy cables or supports. Owing to We distinguish between air-inflated structures, always trying to attain the shape of a spherical
its elasticity, such a bar essentially adapts to i.e. cushion- and tube-like designs in which an cap, at least approximately, surfaces with op-
the curvature of the surface, but can carry com- enclosed volume is subjected to a partial vacuum posite curvature occur in cushions bounded by
pressive forces because it is restrained against or overpressure, and air-supported structures frames with sharp corners (Fig. D 1.25). High
buckling by the membrane (Fig. D 1.13c, p. 141). in which the entire interior is maintained at an stresses and wrinkles occur in these local, anti-
overpressure. clastic zones which must be considered when
Pneumatically prestressed surfaces designing the stiff edges around the cushions.
Rigid perimeter members restrain the surface Cushions The recommendation is to avoid corners with
in the case of pneumatic designs. A difference The main span of a cushion made from a typical acute angles in order to guarantee the durability
in pressure between the inside and outside material (e.g. ETFE foil) is limited to a few metres. of the design. The curvature of the cushion
results in a uniformly distributed load that To overcome this limitation, groups of cushions (height difference between high and low points)
causes a membrane state of stress. Pneumati-
cally prestressed surfaces – apart from those
with acute-angled corners (Fig. D 1.22c) –
generate synclastic forms. Where the internal
pressure is greater than the atmospheric pres-
sure, a cushion-type form curving outwards is D 1.18 ETFE cushions; Allianz Arena, Munich (D), 2005, e Air-supported building
the outcome, in the opposite situation an Herzog & de Meuron f Air-supported surface with reinforcing cables
inward-curving form (Figs. D 1.22a and g D 1.19 Air-supported building; Biel Expo (CH), 2002, g Negative pressure cushion
respectively). formTL h Tube
D 1.20 Negative pressure cushions; Dynaform BMW i Addition of tubes
In most pneumatically prestressed designs the
Pavillon, IAA, Frankfurt am Main (D), 2001, j Tensairity beam with stiff top and bottom
membrane stresses are resisted by rigid perim- Franken Architekten chords
eter members so that – in contrast to many me- D 1.21 Tensairity beams; multi-storey car park, k Tensairity beam with stiff top chord and cable
chanically prestressed designs – no large ten- Montreux (CH), 2004, Luscher Architectes bottom chord
sioning forces have to be transferred to the D 1.22 Pneumatically prestressed surfaces D 1.23 Basic principle for the pneumatic prestressing of
a Square cushion a surface
subsoil. The limited stiffness of pneumatic b Rectangular cushion D 1.24 How an air-filled cushion carries the load
cushions means that, unlike surfaces with mech- c Triangular cushion D 1.25 Pneumatically prestressed surfaces based on
anical prestressing, they cannot replace any d Hexagonal cushion various plan forms compared with a spherical cap
ties in the loadbearing structure and therefore
Prestress in surface P
cannot contribute to the stiffness of the system.
Such cushions therefore serve only as covering
or enclosing elements, are not part of the load-
bearing structure. Their low weight, long spans
and comparatively generous tolerances for de- - Prestress in surface P
formations make cushions a good choice for con-
structing building envelopes. + External load
The load on the membrane is a result of the Pi
difference between the internal and external
pressures plus the wind pressure/suction, and
snow loads if applicable. Assuming that the air
Ptop < P
is incompressible (constant volume), it is true to
say that any downward loads such as snow or
wind pressure relieve the upper membrane of
the cushion, while the tensile force in the lower
membrane increases (Fig. D 1.24). The internal Pbtm. > P
overpressure should therefore be specified to D 1.23 D 1.24
be greater than the anticipated external loads
so that the upper membrane does not become
slack. This situation is reversed in the case of
suction loads, e.g. due to wind. However, the
fan regulating the pressure cannot react quickly
enough to changing conditions and so the
deformation of the cushion caused by gusts of
wind can lead to severe pressure fluctuations
in the cushion (because according to the Boyle-
Mariotte law the product of pressure and volume
is always constant). These pressure fluctuations
must be taken into account when designing the
cushion membrane. Another difference between
pneumatically and mechanically prestressed
surfaces is that in the former the prestress in
the surface is dependent on the geometry or,
D 1.25
143
Loadbearing structure and form
100
should also be adapted in order to be able to
Sm
handle higher snow or wind loads where nec-
essary.
Tubes
Tube-like air-filled elements are either used singly
or in groups to form a combination of primary
structure and building envelope (Figs. D 1.22h
and i, p. 142). Used singly, they can also be
l
employed as “smart” loadbearing elements
l
whose stiffness can be adapted via the internal
pressure to suit the loading. By using an appro-
priate cutting pattern with a shortened internal
80 radius it is also possible to produce curved
tubes.
D 1.26 Tensairity
In terms of the way it works, a Tensairity system
can be considered as a trussed framework made
up of thin bars and cables in which an air-filled
tube acts as a stabilising element. The tube
holds the compression and tension members of
the structure apart and thus creates a structural
depth. At the same time, it stabilises the com-
pression member against buckling. The tension
members can either be in the form of cables in
60 tension forming a spiral around the tube (Fig.
D 1.22k, p. 142) or in the form of a steel section
forming a complete bottom chord (Figs. D 1.21
and D 1.22j, p. 142; Fig. E 3.19, p. 195).
Air-supported building
In contrast to cushion and tube systems, in an
air-supported building, or air house, the entire
interior is itself the air-filled structure (Figs. D 1.19
and D 1.22e, p. 142). Air-supported buildings
can therefore only be entered and left via air
locks. Owing to the large radius of curvature, a
40
pressure only about 0.2 mbar (25 mm head of
water) above that of the surrounding air is
enough to support and stabilise an airtight
membrane. Such a pressure does not cause
any discomfort within the interior.
Comparing all design principles, pneumatic
structures in the form of air-supported buildings
are among the lightest. Strengthened with a
cable net, it is possible to achieve spans of
more than 200 m. However, owing to the high
cost of energy for maintaining the internal pres-
sure and a number of spectacular failures
caused by snow loads and storms, this type of
20 construction has not become widespread for
such large structures. But for shorter spans, e.g.
temporary roofs over tennis courts or venues for
events, air-supported buildings are frequently
specified because of their lightness, flexibility
and very compact transport dimensions.
Prestress
1 kN/m
2 kN/m
3 kN/m
4 kN/m
0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Height difference S m /l [%]
D 1.27
144
Loadbearing structure and form
Fixed points
A fixed point is generally a support point for a 400
mechanically prestressed membrane at which
350 F=r∙P
the tensile stresses are transferred to the sub-
soil either directly or indirectly via columns, guy 300 F Force in edge cable [kN]
cables, booms, etc. The architectural boundary P Prestress in surface [kN/m]
250 r Radius of curvature of edge [m]
conditions normally dictate the geometrical pos-
sc “Rise” [m]
itions of the fixed points. Where there are no 200 l Secant length or span between edge points
additional elements such as high points, arches,
150 P [kN/m] l2 s
ridges or valleys, then an adequate but shallow 1 kN/m s c/l and r are in the ratio: r = + c
8 ∙ sc 2
difference in height between the fixed points 100 2 kN/m
should be chosen. This difference in height is 3 kN/m
equal to the sag of a cable sc or a membrane 50
surface sm between its support points. In the
0
case of membrane surfaces with isotropic pre- 0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3 0.35 0.4 0.45 0.5
stressing, the maximum difference in height sc/l [-]
occurs at the point at which hogging and sagging b D 1.28
principal curvatures meet, i.e. at half the height
D 1.26 Relationship between the sag of a surface (differ- D 1.28 Relationship between surface prestress P, force
between the high and low points (Fig. D 1.26). ence in height between high and low points), in edge cable F and curvature of edge cable r
Fig. D 1.27 compares the curvature-dependent span and difference between heights of corners for mechanically prestressed membranes with
deformations of various four-point membranes D 1.27 Comparison of the curvature-dependent deform- flexible edges (approximation)
with the same material properties, prestressing, ations of various four-point sails with the same a Edge cable geometry, definition of parameters
material properties, prestresses, spans and wind b How the force in the cable depends on geom-
spans and wind loads (constant load per unit loads. The deformation of the flat membrane etry and pretension
area perpendicular to surface). The deformation under wind loads is taken as the reference point c Forces at the head of a mast, shown on plan
under wind load is greatest for a flat sail and for (100 %). D 1.29 How anisotropic prestress and ridge cables
reference purposes this is regarded as 100 %. influence the curvature of the surface
With a difference in height fm/l of about 10 %,
the deformation is only 30 % of that of the flat sail,
and the geometrical stiffness hardly increases
beyond a difference of 25 %. Deformations can
be reduced by increasing the prestress, but
only up to a certain point. Consequently, a higher
prestress must be chosen for a shallow curva-
ture, which, however, leads to high support
d/h 0.25 d/h 0.50 d/h 0.75 d/h 1.0 d/h 1.25
reactions and stresses in the membrane and
S:K = 1:1 S:K = 1:1 S:K = 1:1 S:K = 1:1 S:K = 1:1
edge cables.
d
Curvature of edge cables
As the local membrane stresses predominantly
act at 90° to the edge of the membrane, flexible K h
membrane edges describe a circular arc approx- S
imately. It is therefore also possible to specify
the relationship between the stress in the surface Prestress ratio S:K S:K = 1:1.5 S:K = 1:2 S:K = 1:3
P [kN/m], the force in the edge cable F [kN] and d/h = 1
the radius of curvature of the edge cable r [m]
approximately using the two-dimensional hoop
stress formula F = r ∙ P. This formula makes it
clear that the force in the edge cable depends
only on the stress in the surface and the radius
of curvature, not the span. Nevertheless, the d/h = 1; S:K = 1:1
span is indirectly significant because for reasons Ridge cable pretension F [kN] F=1 kN F=2 kN F=3 kN
D 1.29
145
Loadbearing structure and form
of geometry and construction, the radius of nal clearance required or to avoid ponding. structure. With a markedly anisotropically pre-
curvature normally increases with the span. If a Ridge and valley cables, also anisotropic pre- stressed membrane, the creep behaviour of
membrane is to cover as large an area as pos- stressing (different in the warp and weft direc- many membrane materials can lead to more
sible, then the edge cables should be tensioned tions), can be used to adjust the curvature of the severe creep in the zones with higher stresses
to the maximum possible and economically surface. These options are best demonstrated and hence the originally anisotropically pre-
viable extent. With very long spans it can prove using the example of the curved surface of a stressed membrane gradually approximating to
worthwhile to design the edges as scalloped, cylinder. The curvature must be limited for high- an evenly stressed surface due to stress redistri-
with the membrane connected to a polygonal, point and cylinder surfaces because these can butions. In such a situation there is theoretically
pretensioned cable in a series of small arcs. In collapse to a minimum stress. Fig. D 1.29 (p. 145) too much material available for an evenly stressed
geometry terms, the resulting minimum radius shows that the diameter of the isotropically pre- form, which can lead to wrinkles.
for an edge cable is half the span. Fig. D 1.28b stressed membrane forming the surface of the In the end, adjusting the prestress and using
(p. 145) shows the relationship between the cylinder decreases to such an extent beyond a ridge and/or valley cables, taking into account
“rise” of an edge cable and the force for three certain height h that it collapses into two sepa- the aforementioned criteria sensibly, is up to the
different pretensions. It can be seen that the force rate surfaces. In such cases further measures judgement of the designer. Accordingly, an
in the edge cable increases considerably below such as the introduction of ridge or valley cables optimum solution for any specific project can only
a rise of sc/l < 10 %. At the same time, the force or changing the prestressing ratios must be con- be found by considering form, material properties,
drops only minimally where sc/l > 20 %. From sidered. Fig. D 1.29 (p. 145) shows the options loading assumptions and the desired appearance.
this we can deduce that a sensible rise for an for influencing the “necking” of a cylinder with a
edge cable is approx. 10 %. diameter (d) and height (h) ratio of 1:1. Prestressing values
Where the pretension and the radius of the edge It may be worthwhile optimising the curvature The minimum value of the prestressing depends
cable are fixed, then it is possible to determine of the surface for relevant loading cases from on the geometrical and elastic stiffness of the
not only the magnitude but also the direction of the structural as well as the geometrical view- membrane. Forms with shallower curvature must
the force in the cable at the support. The direc- point. An attempt is often made to introduce be prestressed to a greater extent than forms
tion is given by the tangent of the edge cable arc more stiffness into the sagging curvature in with more pronounced curvature. Further, it is
at the point of support. If several cables meet at order to prevent ponding and large deformations important to guarantee that every fibre in the
one point, adding together the force vectors under snow loads. With a dominant wind suction material is adequately stretched in order to cre-
produces the resultant support reaction. In Fig. loading case, the stresses in the membrane ate an evenly prestressed, wrinkle-free surface
D 1.28c (p. 145) the edge cable vectors F1 and can be reduced by choosing a smaller radius whose prestress is not completely cancelled out
F2 and the ridge cable vector F10 of a funnel- of curvature for the vertical curvature. under the action of external loads. At the same
type membrane are added together. Such simple time, in order to have sufficient loadbearing re-
preliminary considerations enable the direction of Ridge and valley cables are frequently used in serves for external loads and to avoid excessive
the support reactions to be estimated and hence conjunction with isotropically prestressed support reactions, a certain level of prestress-
the arrangement of loadbearing members, e.g. membranes. They increase the stiffness of the ing should not be exceeded. In practice, the
masts and guy cables, to be optimised. In doing membrane surface and hence reduce the deform- magnitude of the prestress is customarily cho-
so, however, it is important to remember that the ations of and stresses in the membrane. At the sen so that it is retained over as large an area
magnitudes of the forces and hence the magni- same time, they divide the area into zones, as possible when the membrane is loaded and
tudes and directions of the resultants vary with which limits creep deformation in larger roof the deformations due to wind pressure or snow
varying loads (e.g. wind), which means that structures and is often desirable from the erection loads do not lead to noticeable depressions in
masts require two guy cables. viewpoint, too. With high-point forms, ridge cables the surface in which water could collect. Typical
are also frequently used as retaining cables for values for the prestress lie between 1 and
Curvature of the surface the masts in the event of membrane failure. The 5 kN/m.
Specifying the edge points in space means that constructional details of ridge and valley cables
the curvature of the surface can only be influ- are often complicated if they are not located at
enced within certain limits. A curvature given by joints between membrane sections or as stitched-
the edge points and isotropic prestressing (i.e. on belts. Separate tension cables can slip on
equal in both directions) will frequently have to the membrane and so additional welded pockets
be adjusted for functional or structural reasons. for the cables will be necessary in most cases.
For example, it may be necessary to reduce the Isotropic stress conditions are advantageous
sag of a membrane in order to achieve the inter- for the long-term behaviour of a membrane
1400
P [kN/m]
Pi [Pa]
Pi = 100 [Pa]
2.5
Pi = 500 [Pa]
1200 Pi = 1000 [Pa]
P 0.5 [kN/m] 2
1000
P 0.8 [kN/m]
P 1.0 [kN/m]
800 1.5 Z
600 Y
1 X
400
0.5
200
0
0 5 10 15 20 25
r [m]
D 1.30 D 1.31
146
Loadbearing structure and form
Pneumatically prestressed surfaces Practical realisation Ideally, the cutting pattern should follow the
In principle, for pneumatically prestressed sur- The result of every form-finding process is a principal curvatures and the primary load-carry-
faces there is a relationship between the curva- three-dimensional, geometrical form for a pre- ing direction. The increased stiffness parallel to
ture of the surface and the level of pressure stressed membrane structure. To form the the seam results in a maximum stiffness for the
necessary for the supporting effect. This relation- membrane surface, flat, unstretched webs of surface and hence small deformations when
ship can again be illustrated by the hoop stress material have to be cut and joined together in external loads are applied. The cutting lines on
formula, which approximates to P = 0.5 ∙ Pi ∙ r for such a way that the form in the constructed the web should therefore also run in the stiff,
a three-dimensional spherical cap. From this for- condition achieves the planned double-curvature warp direction wherever possible. The recom-
mula we can see that a larger radius of curvature geometry and the intended level of prestress. mendation here is to agree the exact layout of
r [m] requires a lower internal pressure in order to A membrane surface can also be constructed the webs with all those involved in the design
generate the same prestress P [kN/m], as is the without the need for complicated cutting patterns because the seams will remain clearly visible,
case with relatively highly curved, smaller de- with curved edges, and instead simply through especially when lit from behind, and are there-
signs. This is familiar from everyday life – just the uneven overlapping of webs of membrane fore important factors in the final appearance
compare the level of pressure P [Pa] in the tyre material or the use of open fabrics, the mesh of (Figs. D 1.32 and D 1.33). It is mainly the seams
of a racing bicycle (7 – 10 bar) with that in a car which can distort severely. As a rule, however, that reveal the curvature of the surface through
tyre (approx. 2 bar), for instance. the curvature of the surface is achieved by the diffuse light on the underside of the mem-
In contrast to mechanically prestressed surfaces, curving the edges of the webs of material. An brane. Laying the webs, for example, parallel
the degree of pneumatic prestressing can be anticlastic double curvature is produced by with one of the principal curvatures enables the
regulated by controlling the internal pressure. removing material from the centre of the web double curvature of the surface to be empha-
The overpressure necessary in cushions made and, vice versa, synclastic double curvature by sized visually. At the same time, the direction of
from foils and membranes is therefore also adding material to the centre of the web. ETFE the cut must be closely coordinated with the
dependent on the volume and the structural cushions represent a special case: their form is prestressing direction during erection in order
requirements. It should be set higher than the achieved through the elastic and plastic defor- to guarantee that the material stretches and is
load expected from snow or wind and is nor- mation of the foil material as well as the use of a not distorted diagonally.
mally in the region of 100 – 1000 Pa (10 000 Pa cutting pattern. The final shape of the cushion Figs. D 1.34a – h (p. 148) show various typical
= 1 bar = 10 kN/m2); this is comparatively low is therefore not established until after a few cutting patterns for the four basic forms and the
but must be maintained. In some structural loading cycles. A cutting pattern should still be direction of the warp threads (K). A typical cut-
concepts the pressure is adjusted to suit differ- used, however, where considerable curvature ting pattern along the principal curvatures is
ent loading cases; for example, the internal is required and if wrinkles at the corners are to shown in Fig. D 1.34a. Here, the stiffer direc-
pressure is doubled during heavy snowfall only be avoided. tion, due to the warp threads and welded
and therefore does not have to be maintained seams, is the sagging curvature, with snow loads
at that level for the whole year. Fig. D 1.30 shows Cutting pattern being carried with a reduced risk of ponding.
the relationships between prestress P, internal Groups of radial or parallel geodesic lines are In the case of sail surfaces it is also important
pressure Pi and radius of curvature r for three plotted on the surface of the membrane in order to avoid tensioning warp threads exactly between
given prestressing values (solid lines) and also to determine the cutting pattern. A geodesic two corners and therefore forming an unwanted
for three given internal pressures Pi (dotted lines). line describes the shortest distance between ridge that overstresses the material. If for this
In the former case it becomes clear that the two points on a surface spanning between those reason the cutting lines are rotated through 45°
overpressure for a radius of curvature < 5 m points. The three-dimensional form is divided with respect to the principal curvatures, then
must rise steeply in order to maintain a typical into strips along these lines which, for example, the low shear stiffness of the membrane mater-
tension in the membrane. But if a minimum in- have been developed by triangulation into flat ial results in a very flexible surface. One com-
ternal pressure has to be maintained because of strips of material. Care should be taken here to promise is a design turned through 22.5°, as
external loads, then the stress in the membrane ensure that the maximum distance between two shown in Fig. D 1.34b.
rises in proportion to the curvature. cutting lines does not exceed the width of the Surfaces with high or low points are typically cut
web available (including an allowance for the radially (Fig. D 1.34e). However, webs tapering
seam) in the chosen membrane material. The to a point means considerable wastage.
distortion of the strips when they are transferred Fig. D 1.34f shows an alternative with less waste.
to two dimensions depends on the degree of Arch membranes are usually cut at 90° to the
curvature and the width of the web; the strips stiff perimeter arches (Figs. D 1.34g and h),
should therefore be kept relatively narrow in although with very shallow designs the cuts
zones with significant curvature. can be parallel with the arches.
P = 0.5 ∙ Pi ∙ r
147
Loadbearing structure and form
148
Loadbearing structure and form
for mechanically prestressed membrane surfaces tances. These two steps, opening the roof and References:
is limited because the double-curvature form can- tensioning the membrane, are therefore usually [1] Engel, Heino: Tragsysteme – Structure Systems.
Ostfildern-Ruit, 1999, p. 41
not usually be rolled up without wrinkles; gather- carried out by separate systems.
ing mechanisms are therefore more popular. In a system in which the membrane is gathered
These days, many sports stadiums are roofed in parallel folds (Fig. D 1.36b), the prestressing
over with a membrane that is gathered in the at 90° to the direction of travel can generally
middle (Figs. D 1.36d and D 1.38). In most be preserved. Such systems have been de-
cases the membrane rolls over rigid rails or rived from the traditional Spanish awning (toldo)
wire cables. These should be designed in such and are initially tensioned through their self-
a way that the travelling direction coincides weight only. In order to activate a mechanical
with the prestressing direction, so the edge prestressing, a toldo can be stabilised with
points move away from each other during the alternating ridge and valley cables (Fig. D 1.15,
travel and transfer the prestress to the surface. p. 141).
Such systems can therefore only be gathered Apart from systems using cables, membranes
from the periphery to the middle. Gathering in can also be gathered by means of folding
the opposite direction only works when the mechanisms (Fig. D 1.37). Fibre-reinforced poly-
inner edge points are splayed apart vertically mers are ideal for the movable parts of such
(e.g. flying mast). When opening and closing designs because of their low self-weight. These
such a roof, large distances must be covered days, such kinematic mechanisms are calculated
at high speeds but with minimal forces, where- with the help of elaborate computer simulations
as the prestressing requires comparatively because of the numerous kinematic degrees of
large forces applied over small tensioning dis- freedom.
a b
c d D 1.35 d D 1.36
D 1.37 D 1.38
149
Detailed design aspects
D 2.1
Once the form of a loadbearing structure has Orientation of fibres
been fixed and suitable materials or semi-finished The load-carrying capacity and the distribution
products have been selected, the next step is of stresses in fibre-reinforced polymers and
the vital one of sizing the loadbearing elements textile membranes are defined by the types
to ensure a design best suited to the materials and quantities of the fibres used, their process-
and to enable the detailed design work to begin. ing forms and orientation. It is the orientation of
This stage of the work involves determining the the fibres that determines the stiffness, or rather
dimensions of the loadbearing members and the elastic modulus, of a component and hence
also examining the feasibility with respect to the alignment of the flow of forces. For example,
the specific boundary conditions of the project. a greater stiffness can be expected in the lon-
The series of tests required for most applications gitudinal direction of the fibres.
represent another crucial aspect here because Semi-finished textile products are always used
it is normally necessary to check the properties in a composite form, i.e. given a thermoplastic
of the polymers or membranes that have been coating or embedded in a thermosetting resin.
specified prior to commencing work on site. The two components function together and per-
The limitations with respect to processing and form different structural tasks. Overstretching of
quality demands can then be taken into account the protective polymer must be avoided under
in preliminary decisions regarding the construc- load because it can tear, exposing the fibres to
tion details and the sequence of work on site. the weather.
Fibre-reinforced polymers
D 2.1 Numerical model of a roof structure made from Calculations Laminates made from fibres and thermosets
a fibre-reinforced polymer consist of several plies in which the fibres are
D 2.2 Loadbearing behaviour of fibre-reinforced The first step is to determine the cross-sections arranged in parallel in one direction. The tensile
polymers
a Rupture due to tension in the direction of
required for the loadbearing polymer and mem- and compressive stresses in the direction of
the fibres brane elements and to size the connections. the fibres are resisted by the fibres, whereas
b Rupture due to compression in the direction Certain aspects related to the material must be the surrounding polymer serves merely as a
of the fibres taken into account here. On the one hand, dur- stabilising medium (Figs. D 2.2a and b). How-
c Inter-fibre failure as a result of shear and lateral
ation of loading, temperature and environmental ever, transverse loads and shear stresses are
tension
d Inter-fibre failure as a result of lateral tension media have a direct influence on the strength and carried by the polymer directly (Figs. D 2.2c–e).
e Inter-fibre failure as a result of lateral elastic modulus of synthetic materials and poly- These latter actions are usually critical because
compression mer fibres. On the other hand, it is also important the adhesion between polymer and fibres and
D 2.3 Anisotropic stress–strain behaviour of textile to consider the interaction between the fibres the load-carrying capacity of the polymer itself
membranes
a Loaded in the warp direction
and the polymer when using textile membranes are comparatively low. Delamination of the
b Loaded in the weft direction and fibre-reinforced polymers because, in con- component, i.e. the loss of the bond between
c Loaded at 45° trast to other materials, the behaviour of com- the individual plies, is possible under shear
d Positions of test specimens cut from the textile ponents with integral fibres is highly dependent loads.
membrane
on direction. The properties of the material and
D 2.4 How the duration of loading influences the
mechanical properties of polymers the distribution of stresses in the component Textile membranes
1 Wind, snow (H ≤ 1000 m), imposed load in vary depending on the orientation and quantity The stiffness of a textile membrane material
places of assembly, traffic on access roads of the fibres. also depends on the direction. Maximum stiff-
2 Snow (H ≥ 1000 m), imposed load in residential Only the characteristics related to the materials ness is generally reserved for the warp direc-
and office buildings, traffic on public roads
3 Imposed load in factories, traffic on trunk roads
which need to be considered when analysing tion. The stiffness values in the weft direction
4 Self-weight loadbearing structures made from polymers or are somewhat lower because the weft threads
D 2.5 How media classes influence the mechanical membranes are considered in the following, undulate above and below the warp threads as
properties of thermosets together with a brief overview of the most impor- a consequence of the manufacturing process.
1 Interior climate
tant parameters. The reader should refer to the The shear stiffness of a membrane material
2 Natural weathering
3 Severe UV exposure appropriate standards and recommendations depends on its coating, which is generally very
D 2.6 How the ambient temperature influences the for full information on the structural calculations low and can be neglected in the case of uncoated
mechanical properties of polymers necessary. fabrics (Fig. D 2.3).
150
Detailed design aspects
z z z F F
σ11
τ σ σ
σ11
y σ11
y
σ11
τ ε ε
σ11 y
x a F b F
x
a z c z e F
σ11
σ
Weft direction
σ11 σ11
y y
σ11
ε
x x F Warp direction
b d D 2.2 c d D 2.3
Generally speaking, assessing the stiffness of a Therefore, in contrast to materials such as steel, Safety factors for the loads must also be included
membrane for a structural analysis by using a the period of use and the ambient conditions must in the calculations.
constant elastic modulus is difficult because the be estimated as part of the design procedure.
stiffness values are very different for uniaxial These criteria are incorporated directly in the Duration of loading
and biaxial states of stress. Furthermore, the calculations for the components by way of reduc- It is not only the magnitude of the loading that
state of stress is dependent on the loading his- tion factors. is critical, but first and foremost its duration. For
tory and the magnitude and duration of external example, wind loads occur relatively frequently,
loads acting on the structure. It has been dem- Design concept for polymers but a gust of wind lasts for only a few seconds.
onstrated, however, that when analysing mem- How loading conditions such as duration of If all the gusts of wind over the lifetime of a struc-
brane structures with sufficient geometrical loading, temperature or environmental media ture are added together, the result is a relatively
stiffness, the elastic modulus has only a limited influence the mechanical parameters of polymers short duration and hence a minor influence on
influence on the stresses in the membrane. But and fibre-reinforced polymers is estimated the creep rupture strength. However, factors such
when calculating deformations, e.g. to check quantitatively via the material safety factor and as self-weight, dead loads and prestressing act
the possibility of ponding for the wind pressure three further influencing factors: constantly on the component throughout its pe-
loading case, the elastic modulus is indeed riod of use and therefore have a much more
fk
significant. fd = [1] significant effect on reducing the mechanical
γM · A1 · A2 · A3
parameters.
Factors affecting mechanical parameters The higher the fibre content of a fibre-reinforced
The behaviour of polymers and polymer fibres fd Design value for strength polymer, the less pronounced is its behaviour
(synthetic fibres) generally varies over time, i.e. fk Characteristic strength, taken from calcula- over time because the glass and carbon fibres
deformations increase (creep) or a prestressed tions or tests for short-term loading at room normally used do not exhibit creep.
component is relieved (relaxation) in the case temperature Fibre composites exhibit different values for loads
of long-term loads (see “Creep, creep rupture γM Safety factor for polymer or fibre-reinforced parallel with and perpendicular to the direction
strength and relaxation”, p. 36). In addition, the polymer of the fibres (Fig. D 2.4). Tension in the direction
strengths of polymers and polymer fibres are A1 Influencing factor “duration of loading” of the fibres is carried almost exclusively by the
lower for permanent loads than they are for brief (Fig. D 2.4) fibres themselves, which means that the influence
loads (creep rupture strength). Another aspect A2 Influencing factor “media class” (Fig. D 2.5) of creep is low in this situation. But with loads
is their temperature-dependent behaviour: both A3 Influencing factor “service temperature” perpendicular to the fibres or shear forces, it is
the elastic modulus and the strength of a polymer (Fig. D 2.6) mainly the polymer that resists the actions and
or polymer fibre drop as the ambient temperature this increases the component’s tendency to creep.
rises. Moreover, the mechanical parameters are The safety factor for unreinforced and manually Compressive forces in the direction of the fibres
influenced by damaging media such as water, produced fibre-reinforced polymers is γM = 1.5 also lead to high stresses in the polymer because
salt solutions or UV radiation. and for industrially produced materials γM = 1.2. it stabilises the fibres against local buckling.
4
Influencing factor A1
Influencing factor A3
PMMA
Fibre-reinforced polymer ⊥, 3
2.4 3.8
machine production
Fibre-reinforced polymer, 1.4 PF (strength)
2.2 manual production 3.4
2 UP (strength)
Fibre-reinforced polymer II,
2.0 machine production 1.3 3.0
1.8 1 2.6
non-annealed
1.2
1.6 2.2
1.4 1.8
1.1 PMMA UP (elastic modulus)
annealed (strength)
1.2 1.4 VE (elastic modulus)
PF (elastic modulus)
1.0 1 1.0
1 min 1 wk 6 mth 10 y 50 y 1 2 3 -20 20 60 100 140 180 220
Duration of loading Media class Ambient temperature [ ˚C]
D 2.4 D 2.5 D 2.6
151
Detailed design aspects
a b c d e
D 2.7
Influence of environmental media a limit. This decrease is reversible as long as the Bolted connections
First of all, it is imperative to clarify to what ex- service temperature has not yet been exceeded. Detachable connections are generally in the form
tent a polymer is suitable or otherwise for an The extent to which values of parameters de- of bolted connections in shear. The forces that
application in a certain environment. The ther- crease can be estimated quantatively within can be transferred via a bolted joint are much
mosets traditionally used for fibre-reinforced the scope of the design procedure (Fig. D 2.6, lower than the load-carrying capacity of the
polymers are comparatively durable, although p. 151). It is the compressive strength that suf- gross cross-sectional area because the fibre re-
constant exposure to the weather can lead to a fers especially as a result of high temperatures inforcement in the fibre composite is essentially
decline in their mechanical parameters. As pol- because the polymer gradually softens and is aligned in one direction and there is a lack of
ymers react differently to moisture, water or then at risk of buckling. Whole components or plastic redistribution of stresses. The maximum
chemicals, the ambient conditions are de- even just certain zones reinforced with longitu- load-carrying capacity is determined by the
scribed by way of “media classes” depending dinal fibres (rovings) can accommodate tensile potential failure mechanisms (Fig. D 2.7). Besides
on the potential for causing damage (Fig. forces well above the limits of the application the tensile failure of the net cross-section (a) or a
D 2.5, p. 151). The heat treatment of fibre-rein- because the polymer in the zones with such fibres bearing failure (b) (Fig. D 2.8), the cross-section
forced polymers (annealing) has a positive does not perform any primary loadbearing can also fail as a result of excessive local stress
effect on their resistance to various media. For function. peaks, e.g. tensile splitting (c), local overstresses
example, glass fibre-reinforced polymers should (d) or diagonal strut (e) failures. Failure mech-
be annealed for a maximum of eight days Connections for fibre-reinforced polymers anism (b) usually governs in fibre-reinforced
after production for one hour per millimetre When building with semi-finished polymer prod- polymers. A much simplified calculation for the
laminate thickness at a temperature of 50 – ucts it is mostly the connections that are the load-carrying capacity of a bolted connection
100 °C (depending on the resin used). critical points in the design. In particular, the between pultruded fibre-reinforced polymer
The embedded fibres themselves exhibit very bolted or glued loadbearing connections typic- components, depending on the shear strength
disparate characteristics: whereas carbon fibres ally used for fibre-reinforced polymers can handle of the laminate, is as follows: [2]
generally exhibit a high chemical resistance, only low forces. Local concentrations of stresses
glass fibres can resist acidic media but suffer occur in the component and, furthermore, fibre- FR = 2 ∙ e1 - d0 ∙ t ∙ fτ
( )
in alkaline media, especially when the ambient reinforced polymers can accommodate only 2
temperature is high at the same time. comparatively low shear stresses. Bolts can
tear through the material, adhesive joints can where:
Temperature suffer delamination. The preferred connections e1 ≥ 3.5 d0 and b ≥ 4.0 d0
A polymer loses its load-carrying ability when for loadbearing components made from fibre-
its maximum service temperature is exceeded. reinforced polymers are described below. The FR Admissible shear force
But the strength and elastic modulus of a polymer information also applies to unreinforced polymers t Thickness of laminate
start to fall even at temperatures well below such in principle. d0 Diameter of hole
152
Detailed design aspects
τ
F
τ
F F
F
La F Lc b c
a c a
F F
F Lb F
La Lb Lc L
b d e
D 2.9
e1 Edge distance in direction of force connected components, or the internal struc- σE 2 τ 2
b Width of laminate ture of the fibre composite, that are critical for ( ) ( )
σR
+ E ≤1
τR
fτ Admissible shear stress in direction of the distribution of stresses in the adhesive joint.
force (determined in tests or taken from Local stress concentrations cause the adhesive σE Tensile stress acting perpendicular to
manufacturer’s data) joint to fail first, and the crack propagates over adhesive joint
the entire adhesive joint. Increasing the length σR Admissible tensile stress perpendicular to
The admissible shear stress of a pultruded cross- of the adhesive joint in the direction of the force, adhesive joint
section is approx. fτ = 25 N/mm2. With e1 = 3.5 ∙ and thus increasing the area of the adhesive, τE Shear stress acting parallel with adhesive
d0 and b = 4.0 ∙ d0, this results in an admissible hardly improves the load-carrying capacity be- joint
shear force of FR = 150 N/mm2 · t · d0. Assuming cause it is the peak stresses at the start and τR Admissible shear stress parallel with
a bolt with a diameter of 10 mm and a pultruded end of the joint that determine the load-carrying adhesive joint
GFRP component with 10 mm wall thickness, capacity, and only relatively low stresses prevail
this corresponds to a force of 15 kN. This value in the middle zone (Fig. D 2.9). Stresses of approx. σR = 1.0 N/mm2 and τR =
must be reduced by the safety and other factors. The load-carrying capacity of the connection is 8.0 N/mm2 are possible with common pultruded
also determined by the characteristics of the sections, which with an adhesive joint measur-
Glued connections mating surfaces. The theoretical analysis of the ing 4 ≈ 5 cm on plan equates to a shear force
Gluing is a method of jointing that is very much load-carrying capacity of a glued joint therefore of 16 kN. As with bolted connections, the admis-
suited to polymers and fibre-reinforced polymers depends on many influencing factors and can sible stresses must be reduced by the safety
which guarantees a load transfer over a certain only be carried out for the component as a whole. and other factors.
area. In principle, a glued connection can fail Various adhesives can be used for glued joints
by one of the following three mechanisms: in building (see “Adhesives”, pp. 54 – 57). In Design concept for textile membranes
• Cohesive failure of the adhesive (failure of the connections between components made from As the majority of textile membranes are made
adhesive substance) fibre-reinforced polymers it is not generally the from synthetic fibres (in some cases with a poly-
• Adhesive failure between glue and component adhesive joint itself that fails, but rather the ad- mer coating), the methods of analysis are similar
(loss of adhesion between the two materials) hesion between the individual plies of the com- to those already described for polymer designs.
• Failure of the component in shear (failure of posite component because of the low interlaminar In addition to the duration of loading, tempera-
the material or delamination of the fibre com- shear strength in the components themselves. ture and other ambient conditions, it is also
posite; Fig. D 2.10) The interaction relationship given below has necessary to take into account production- and
been confirmed in several series of tests. It de- design-related influences such as details at
What all three failure mechanisms have in com- scribes the relationship between the utilisation seams or edges.
mon is that besides the mechanical properties of the shear and axial stress capabilities at one The following factors have an influence on the
of the adhesive, it is also the dimensions of the point of the glued surface. [3] strengths of membranes and foils:
• Magnitude and duration of loads
• Ambient temperature and fluctuations thereof
• Age
• Seam details
• Creep behaviour of fibres and coatings
• Production methods and the ensuing
tolerances
• Environmental influences
153
Detailed design aspects
fluencing factors which are combined to form A1 = 1.6 – 1.7 certain whether a material is suitable for the in-
one safety factor for different loading cases. As Reduction factor for taking into account the in- tended application and the products supplied
a rule, these values are 3 – 4 for short-term loads fluence of long-term loading effects that reduce by a manufacturer comply with the technical
(e.g. wind) and 5 – 7 for long-term loads (e.g. the strength. specification.
prestress). Despite the different design methods, The actual approval procedures vary consider-
there is reasonable agreement between the safety A2 = 1.1 – 1.2 ably from country to country. In some instances
factors that have been determined. Reduction factor for environmental effects (media, it is up to the discretion of the client to decide
radiation, etc.) that reduce the strength. what demands are being placed on components
There is no regulated design concept for foils and how these are to be tested; in other cases
and membranes in Germany. The only standard A3 = 1.1 – 1.25 an official approval from a certain authority
available is DIN 4134 “Air-supported structures; Reduction factor for high temperatures. must be obtained or the engineer responsible
structural design, construction and operation”. for checking the structural calculations will ask
This document cannot be used directly for foil The following safety factors are proposed for the for appropriate proof. Approval is not usually
cushions or mechanically prestressed mem- applied loads in typical loading combinations: required for non-loadbearing components where
branes, but does form the basis for a modern Permanent load: 1.0 ∙ G + 1.3 ∙ P failure represents no danger to users.
design method employing reduction factors. Winter storm: 1.0 ∙ G + 1.1 ∙ P + 1.6 ∙ W In Germany all loadbearing components made
The method was developed at the Institute of Summer storm: 1.0 ∙ G + 1.1 ∙ P + 0.7 ∙ W from polymers must be approved. Such an ap-
Plastics Processing, RWTH Aachen University, Maximum snow: 1.0 ∙ G + 1.1 ∙ P + 1.5 ∙ S proval can be in the form of a general approval
and is based on data obtained empirically from for a product (National Technical Approval, abZ)
tests on the customary membrane materials PTFE/ P Prestress or a limited approval that is obtained during the
glass and polyester-PVC. Here, the dissertation G Self-weight scope of and applies to just one construction
by Jörg Minte still forms an important basis for W Wind load project (Individual Approval, ZiE). The latter is
the procedure and the determination of the re- S Snow load issued by the senior building authority in the
duction factors. These factors decrease the per- federal state in which the project is located.
missible stresses and increase the applied loads. In order to take proper account of unforeseen Application for an approval is requested infor-
The permissible stresses fd are calculated as stress peaks during erection, the designer is ad- mally from the appropriate authority by the client
follows: vised to check a loading case with an increased or the client’s representative. The authority then
prestress, e.g. erection: 1.0 ∙ G + 2 ∙ P. either agrees to the expert proposed by the client
fk
fd = [N/5 cm] or will itself propose an expert to be responsible
γm ∙ Ai
for the approval. Following successful tests, an
Testing and approval Individual Approval (ZiE) can be granted.
fd Design value for stress [N/50 mm] A National Technical Approval (abZ) for products
fk Uniaxial tensile strength to DIN EN ISO Some products, such as textile membranes, foil produced in series is issued by the German
1421 [N/5 cm] or acrylic or polycarbonate sheets, were spe- Institute of Building Technology (Deutsches
γm Safety factor (1.4 for surfaces, 1.5 for cially developed and tested for building appli- Institut für Bautechnik, DIBt) based in Berlin.
connections) cations. Frequently, however, the manufacturers The boundary conditions for this approval pro-
Ai Combination of reduction factors depending involved in the production of components made cedure are more general, not related to any
on application and loading case from polymers do not work exclusively for the particular project. The application procedure
building industry. On the one hand, therefore, and the tests and calculations required are
The uniaxial tensile strength is measured on a the suitability of the products for particular appli- considerably more comprehensive than those
strip 5 cm wide, the individual reduction factors cations must be confirmed by testing and, on required for an Individual Approval. A number
are based on tests. The following classification the other hand, the manufacturers must become of approvals for CFRP laminates for strengthen-
is used: involved in the procedures specific to the build- ing building components have already been
ing industry. issued in Germany and one approval for pul-
A0 = 1.0 – 1.2 There are no membranes or polymers on the mar- truded GFRP sections is in preparation. National
Reduction factor for taking into account the in- ket that are universally approved and standard- Technical Approvals also stipulate boundary
fluence of multi-axial (biaxial) stress states that ised as building materials. In many cases it is conditions with which an application must com-
reduce the strength with respect to that for a therefore necessary to carry out tests on such ply, e.g. restricted to non-dynamic loads, com-
uniaxial condition. materials in advance of their use in order to as- pulsory additional products such as adhesives,
154
Detailed design aspects
working procedures, etc. Where these conditions seams are also tested uniaxially transverse to are determined in uniaxially tensioned samples
are satisfied, the approved product can be used the seam (Fig. D 2.13). in fatigue strength tests.
without the need for any further approval or Every batch of membrane material used in a
testing. project must be tested for an Individual Approval Reaction to fire
(ZiE). A testing institute approved by the DIBt The combustibility of textile membranes essen-
Membranes determines the uniaxial tensile strengths in the tially depends on their coatings, and that of foils
An Individual Approval (ZiE) is required for any warp and weft directions at room temperature depends on the foil itself. Most membrane
structure employing a membrane or foil. To (23 °C) and at a higher temperature (70 °C) materials can achieve class B1 to DIN 4102 or
obtain this, a series of tests is carried out on according to DIN 53 354 or EN ISO 1421 (Fig. DIN EN 13 501. Each material is tested for its
material produced specifically for the particular D 2.15). Strips of material 50 mm wide are nor- flammability, smoke development and formation
construction project. Tests are performed to mally used for the tests; however, some samples of droplets.
ascertain the uniaxial tensile strengths of the 100 mm wide are tested in order to minimise
material itself and the seams in the warp and weft the extent to which manufacturing tolerances
directions, possibly supplemented by biaxial and the number of fibres in the fabric could affect
tests (see “Strain stiffness”, p. 105). the results.
The biaxial state of stress in a membrane has In addition to testing the material itself and con-
a considerable influence on its stiffness and nections such as stitched or welded seams, the
strength. Special machines have therefore been tear propagation resistance is also tested in
developed for the biaxial testing of samples of some instances by way of uniaxial and biaxial
material, welded seams and connection details tests. However, this value is often simply speci-
(Figs. D 2.11 and D 2.12). Slitting the sample of fied by the manufacturer and testing within the
material at the sides and clamping the resulting scope of the approval is not compulsory.
separate strips in the jaws of the testing machine
guarantee the homogeneous introduction of the Creep and relaxation behaviour
tensile force. The creep and relaxation behaviour of textile
To ascertain the maximum state of stress under membranes and foils can vary considerably
external loads, in which the stress in one direc- depending on the backing material, the coating
tion of the fabric is often much greater than in and the magnitude of the permanent loads
the other direction, the tensile strengths in the (prestress). Important to mention are the high
warp and weft directions are tested separately creep figures of PTFE coatings and PTFE
in uniaxial testing machines. The strengths of threads. The exact creep and relaxation values
155
Detailed design aspects
Polymers should be scratched first in order to simulate strength is determined by way of dynamic test-
Universally applicable standards for materials potential damage. Following the period of im- ing. For painted components in particular, it is
and quality directives, as are available for mersion, the mechanical and visual or optical also important to investigate whether the coat-
structural steelwork or concrete or masonry, for effects of the underwater storage are investi- ing can accommodate the strains that ensue or
example, have not yet been published for poly- gated. The specimens may lose some of their whether visible cracking occurs.
mers or fibre-reinforced polymers. The suitability strength or their visual appearance or optical
of a material for a particular requirements pro- properties may be impaired by the formation of Fire tests
file, including its long-term behaviour, must be blisters or discolouration. The combustibility of a polymer is frequently a
investigated in every individual case. Fig. D 2.14 critical factor for a building application. Fire
(p. 155) shows an example of the series of tests Freeze-thaw cycles and temperature loads class B to DIN EN 13 501, which is frequently
recommended for investigating fibre-reinforced The performance of surface coatings, e.g. paint- specified for buildings, can only be achieved
polymers. ing, can be investigated in a freeze-thaw cycle with selected materials or components. The fire
test, which involves immersing a sample alter- resistance requirements should therefore always
Mechanical properties (short-term strength) nately in icy water and hot water. The abrupt be established right at the start of the planning
The basic variables required for structural calcu- change in temperature can lead to cracking of phase. The tests for verifying class B are very
lations (tensile, compressive, shear and bending the coating or to the coating becoming detached wide in their scope: besides combustibility, the
properties) are first tested at room temperature from the backing material. resulting energy, the development of smoke
without the application of any external actions in In addition, the material should be subjected to and fumes and the occurrence of (flaming)
short-term tests (Figs. D 2.16 and D 2.17, p. 155). high and low temperatures in order to determine droplets must all be assessed. A fire class is
Five small specimens (cut from the laminate) for whether and to what extent such cycles affect the seldom specified for a civil engineering structure.
each parameter are often adequate for machine- strength and elastic modulus. This also enables
made components. But for manually laminated the maximum service temperature to be ascer- Load-carrying capacities of connections
components, a wider scatter of the characteristic tained. Three tests are generally sufficient but these
values can be expected, depending on the posi- must be carried out on full-size mock-ups of the
tion in the laminate or the particular batch, and Accelerated weathering actual connections. The load-carrying capacity
so in this case several series each consisting of Accelerated weathering tests are employed to of a connection depends not only on the mech-
five tests are recommended. It is important to estimate how moisture, temperature and UV anical properties of the bolts or the adhesive,
test samples from different areas, e.g. at the radiation affect a polymer. The specimens are but also on those of the laminate, plus the geom-
overlaps between reinforcing mats or at small tested in a climatic test chamber (Fig. D 2.20) etry and the combination of the applied loads.
radii. in which three environmental conditions are
varied over a cycle lasting, for instance, more
Durability with respect to environmental influences than 1000 hours. Afterwards, the specimens Quality control and industrial safety
Environmental conditions such as temperature are tested or examined to establish how such
or the weather have an effect not only on the conditions have affected their mechanical, visual All the members of the design team should be
mechanical properties of a polymer, but also or optical properties. conversant with the fundamental principles of
on the quality of its surface. For architectural It should be noted, however, that a direct correl- quality control and industrial safety with respect
applications this is frequently just as important ation between accelerated and natural weather- to site supervision duties and the coordination
as guaranteeing the load-carrying capacity. As ing is impossible. Instead, the tests can only of health and safety matters. A quality assurance
buildings and structures are used for a much provide estimations of tendencies and provide plan must be drawn up for the individual project
longer length of time than other everyday arte- a means of selecting the product best suited to in consultation with the manufacturer.
facts or vehicles, the figures required are fre- the respective location from a range of products.
quently unavailable and therefore have to be Spray tests are normally used for assessing the Manufacturing quality and erection
estimated through experiments. resistance to de-icing salts (see “Weathering Whereas membrane and foil materials comply
Such tests often help in selecting the polymer resistance”, p. 55). with standards of quality that are very consistent,
or the surface coating best suited to a particular the fabrication, transport and erection operations
application. Dynamic loads can lead to considerable damage to materials.
Dynamic loads such as vibrations or impacts Folding for shipping can result in broken fibres
Storage underwater can lead to fatigue failures. Adequate fatigue in the material (especially in glass-fibre fabrics),
The specimens are stored underwater for several strength must be guaranteed for structures or which sometimes do not become obvious until
days. The surfaces of painted components bridges susceptible to vibration. The fatigue after a long period of exposure to the weather.
156
Detailed design aspects
It is therefore very important to transport and Maintenance and repairs or extracted immediately at source.
erect membrane materials susceptible to flex Loadbearing structures made from polymers Various protective measures can be considered
cracking, e.g. PTFE/glass and ETFE foil, without should be maintained at regular intervals in for working with polymers:
folds or creases. Folding twice is especially order to detect the following changes in good • Special clothing to protect skin and mucous
problematic because it involves very tight radii time: membranes
(Fig. D 2.18). • Mechanical damage • Dust extraction equipment
During erection, members of the erection crew • Visible cracks in the laminate • Tools with water sprays to bind dust, or water
may only wear soft, clean footwear when walk- • Swelling and blisters jet cutting
ing on the membrane, and all workers must be • Severe deformations and bulges
secured by safety harnesses or other measures. Water that contains dust should be disposed of
Semi-finished thermoplastic products are manu- The recommendation is to replace areas of mech- in airtight containers immediately after completing
factured in factories and are therefore subject anical damage, or at least to repair them by the work. Storing the dust in containers is not
to only minor quality fluctuations. In fibre com- providing a new, undamaged surface. Cracks really advisable because the water evaporates
posites, however, the properties can sometimes are an indication of either errors during produc- and the remaining dust could then be inhaled
vary quite considerably. During their production tion (shrinkage cracks) or excessive loads. Areas again.
it is important to carry out continuous monitoring that have absorbed a high amount of water must
with respect to the following criteria: certainly be replaced. Exposed cut edges can
• Dimensional deviations absorb water and so all such edges must be References:
• Fibre reinforcement orientation, fibre content sealed. This also applies to openings cut at a [1] Bundesvereinigung der Prüfingenieure für Bautechnik
and saturation of the fibres by the matrix later date and to drilled holes. e.V.: BÜV-Empfehlung, Tragende Kunststoffbauteile
(polymer) Any flaws in the coating to a membrane must im Bauwesen (TKB). Berlin, 2010, p. 28 (www.bvpi.
de/bvpi-content/ingenieur-box/richtlinien/richtlinien.
• The surface characteristics of the laminate always be repaired. htm; 26 Aug 2010)
[2] Oppe, Matthias: Zur Bemessung geschraubter Ver-
Industrial methods of manufacture such as Health and safety advice bindungen von pultrudierten faserverstärkten Polymer-
pultrusion are always subjected to tighter pro- Industrial safety during the fabrication of mem- profilen. Dissertation. RWTH Aachen 2008. In: Schriften-
duction tolerances than manual methods such brane materials is not normally a critical area. reihe Stahlbau, No. 66, p. 77
[3] Vallée, Till: Adhesively bonded lap joints of pultruded
as hand lay-up. But even in industrial methods, Only during the processing of PTFE-coated GFRP shapes. Dissertation. Composite Construction
irregularities in the orientation of the fibres can membranes is it important to ensure good ven- Laboratory (CCLAB), EPFL Lausanne, 2003, p. 78
occur, e.g. areas with insufficient saturation of tilation at the place of work because poisonous
the fibres or foreign matter inclusions (Fig. fumes can be released during welding. For this
D 2.19). Burning off the matrix in a furnace reason, smoking must be prohibited in all areas
enables the fibre reinforcement to be revealed where membrane materials containing fluoro-
for examination. polymers such as ETFE and PTFE are in use
Flaws such as air pockets in the matrix itself because otherwise the PTFE dust could be
must be determined by non-destructive means, burned in a cigarette, leading to the inhalation
i.e. on the intact specimen, e.g. by way of ultra- of the ensuing toxic smoke.
sonic testing or by measuring the thermal trans-
mittance. This latter method involves heating Fibres with a length > 5 μm and a diameter
the material on one side with a flash of light and < 3 μm can be inhaled and penetrate the tissue
determining the thermal transmittance by means of the lungs. Carbon fibres are therefore produced
of thermography in order to localise flaws or irregu- as standard with a diameter > 7 μm; glass fibres
larities. have a much larger diameter anyway (Fig. B 2.10,
The surface characteristics are important for p. 50). During cutting and machining operations,
ensuring that the fibres have adequate protection both types of fibre break transversely and there-
against environmental influences. Severe shrink- fore maintain their diameter and are not respir-
age of the matrix can lead to the appearance of able. However, the polymer matrix can decom-
cracks in the surface during curing. A flawed or pose into smaller particles while it is being worked
unsealed surface can eventually lead to the for- and lead to itching and to irritation of mucus mem-
mation of blisters. In both cases the problem branes. Dust from cutting and grinding operations
areas must either be replaced or repaired. should therefore always be suppressed with water
157
Part E Building with
polymers and membranes
159
Building with semi-finished
polymer products
E 1.1
Building with semi-finished products made from Thermal expansion
polymers or fibre-reinforced polymers means, The coefficients of thermal expansion of unrein-
first and foremost, selecting suitable components forced polymers are much higher than those of
and suitable connections between them. How- glass and most metals. Expansion joints of ad-
ever, the use of prefabricated semi-finished equate width must be provided where a con-
products does limit the design freedoms. Pre- struction has to be supported free from restraint.
fabricated semi-finished products are normally The coefficients of thermal expansion of fibre-
less expensive than individual, tailor-made reinforced polymers are lower, depending on
components and require little planning input. the nature, orientation and proportion of fibres
Such components are therefore preferred for in the material. Polymers reinforced with carbon
economic reasons when building with polymers. fibres can be adjusted during production so that
In contrast to designs employing free-form they do not expand at all as the temperature
elements (see “Building with free-form polymers”, rises.
pp. 174 – 187), semi-finished products are simply The high thermal expansion does not necessarily
added together in order to create buildings and lead to high restraint stresses because polymers
structures. To do this, they are worked, e.g. cut are comparatively resilient. Therefore, in some
to length, drilled, or in some cases even shaped, circumstances zero-restraint supports are un-
within the scope of their assembly or erection. necessary. Comparing the mechanical para-
So the choice of connections and the design of meters of various polymers (Fig. E 1.6), we see
the connection details are critical aspects. It is that polymers have relatively high tensile strengths
not necessary to distinguish between polymers but low elastic moduli. In bars or sheets restrained
and fibre-reinforced polymers for the majority of at both ends, restraint stresses occur in the mater-
basic details, and therefore the term “polymer” ial as a result of a change in temperature. These
is used to cover both groups of materials on the stresses depend on the elastic modulus of the
following pages. material as well as its coefficient of thermal ex-
pansion. And the degree of utilisation can be cal-
Design principles culated by comparing these stresses with the
Polymers can be cut, drilled and glued, welded, admissible stresses. The degree of utilisation in
too, in some cases, with simple tools. However, turn indicates the behaviour of the material if it is
cutting through fibre-reinforced polymers means not able to expand, and, in theory, at a value of
interrupting the protective outer layers. The en- 100 % it breaks. For example, unreinforced poly-
suing cut edges can absorb water and so must mers can be utilised to maximum of 17 % with a
be sealed afterwards. temperature difference of 50 K, glass fibre-rein-
The detailing of joints and junctions can frequently forced polymers to a maximum of 21 %. Float
be carried out directly on the building site. Some glass, on the other hand, exhibits a stress util-
semi-finished products already include integral isation of 70 % in this case, i.e. more than four
push-fit or clip-in connections that enable easy times that of acrylic sheet.
assembly without the need for further materials or However, this simplified derivation cannot be
components. Standardised means of connection directly transferred to real structures; material
such as screws, bolts, rivets or adhesives are safety factors and the effect of long-term loads
often used. For fibre-reinforced polymers in must be considered as well. In addition, com-
particular, pin-type fasteners frequently lead to ponents can buckle or warp at even quite low
unsatisfactory results because, compared with loads, or the means of connection might fail. With
other materials such as steel, only relatively low a temperature of 20 °C at the time of installation,
loads can be transferred across such joints. a temperature difference of 50 K corresponds to
Glued joints generally result in connections with a a maximum component temperature of 70 °C,
high load-carrying capacity and should therefore but this value can also be exceeded under real
always be preferred. However, they are not boundary conditions.
approved for all types of application.
160
Building with semi-finished polymer products
1 GFRP section ing. Another variation is fasteners embedded in New types of bolted connection
2 Steel plate the components in combination with one splice The low bearing strength of a bolted connection
3 Hexagon-head bolt plate (Fig. E 1.9f). usually leads to an unsatisfactory result. In many
cases cross-sections have to be enlarged for
Rivets this reason alone in order to accommodate the
The load-carrying capacities of rivets are basically necessary number of fasteners, which has serious
3 1 2 1 2 comparable with those of bolts. The diameters consequences for the details and the construc-
of rivets are mostly smaller than those of bolts tion as a whole. But as the simple handling of
and therefore rivets are seldom used singly for bolted connections and the easy assembly and
3
connections, but rather in larger numbers. Stain- dismantling of the structure are very attractive
less steel rivets with diameters between 2.4 and benefits, adhesive joints are frequently not a
6.4 mm are common. The traditional solid rivet viable alternative. There have therefore been
consists of a shaft plus the set and snap heads. numerous attempts to optimise the load-carrying
Whereas the former is preformed, the latter has capacity of bolted connections. By way of an
to be formed out of the shaft once the rivet has example, Fig. E 1.8 shows the capacity of a
been driven through the components to be bolted connection between pultruded GFRP flat
3 1 2 1 2
joined (Fig. E 1.4c, p. 161). Blind rivets are used bars measuring 5 x 1 cm employing various
where only one side of the component is access- strengthening methods such as collars, glued
3 ible. These rivets are inserted through a pre- splice plates or newly developed friction fittings.
drilled hole with the head on the other end being [1]
subsequently formed by withdrawing the man-
drel (through the centre of the rivet) with a spe- Reinforcing splice plates
cial tool. The sleeve, which forms the body of Steel spice plates attached with adhesive can
E 1.7
the rivet itself, thus deforms, pressing itself up strengthen the drilled holes for bolts (Fig. E 1.12).
against the component (Fig. E 1.4b, p. 161). These plates carry the concentrated stresses
The mandrel snaps off. from the bolt and transfer them evenly via the
A rivet nut has a thread on the shaft and a collar adhesive to the other component. Significant
that is screwed on after the rivet has been in- increases in load can be achieved with this
serted (Fig. E 1.4a, p. 161). In contrast to bolts, method. In addition, the splice plates protect the
Tension Tension
rivets cannot usually be detached once they GFRP against mechanical damage during as-
have been fitted. sembly and dismantling. This type of connection
The pressure exerted by a rivet on the compo- was developed for pultruded GFRP sections
nents results in a further increase in the load- but can be used for other polymers as well. [2]
carrying capacity in fibre-reinforced polymers
because the interlaminar shear strength is in- Friction fittings
creased by the fact that the individual plies of the In the newly developed friction connection, the
composite are pressed together. Rivets at close load transfer takes place via the serrations,
spacings can achieve a reasonably homogenous which are attached to the components to be
force transfer. But the small heads of rivets result joined beforehand (Fig. E 1.8f). The bolts merely
in a low tear-through resistance, i.e. rivets are hold the components in position, they could
easily pulled out when subjected to tension. even be replaced by loops. This type of con-
This is another reason why many rows of rivets nection permits quick assembly and dismantling
have to be used at each connection. while ensuring an even transfer of the forces
across the joint. Under load, the angled mating
Splice plates surfaces give rise to a compressive force per-
Force [kN]
Generously sized splice plates made from steel pendicular to the component. This is beneficial
90 or stainless steel simplify the jointing of semi- for fibre-reinforced polymers because it increases
finished products, especially sections. The parts the bond strength between the individual plies
80 to be connected can be butted together without of the laminate. Friction connections have a
the need for any kind of offset (Fig. E 1.7). Steel higher load-carrying capacity than adhesive
70 plates or angles can be used to join together joints. [3]
f
several components at one point (Fig. E 1.18,
b
60 p. 165). In contrast to the majority of polymers, Adapting the fibre reinforcement
steel plates can be bent or welded without any An optimum bolted connection between fibre-
50 b problems. As with the fasteners themselves, reinforced polymer components can be achieved
stainless steel is a good choice for the plates by adjusting the fibre reinforcement itself. How-
d
40 e a because it matches the good corrosion resistance ever, the prerequisite for this is that the exact
of the polymers at the connections. The steel position of the connection and the flow of forces
30
components can accommodate the stress con- must be defined prior to production of the semi-
c centrations from the bolts better than the polymer finished products (see “Adapting the fibre rein-
20
components and therefore relatively thin plates forcement”, p. 181). Additional threaded sockets
are usually adequate for such connection details. or force-transfer elements can help to distribute
10 Nevertheless, relatively large numbers of fas- the stresses involved evenly to the fibres and
teners are still necessary. hence increase the load-carrying capacity.
0
0 1 2 3 3.5 5.5 7.5
Relative displacement at joint [mm]
E 1.8
162
Building with semi-finished polymer products
163
Building with semi-finished polymer products
164
Building with semi-finished polymer products
Sections
Compound sections
The GFRP sections available as standard are
frequently only available in sizes up to about
30 x 30 cm. And the spans possible when using
such sections as beams (in bending) are really 1 2
1 1 2 1 2 1
quite short. The load-carrying capacity can be
increased, however, by forming compound 2
sections, i.e. two or more standard sections fitted 4
2 1 1
together (Fig. E 1.17). The individual sections
or sheets are glued, occasionally riveted or
bolted, together to form larger sections. This
approach enables tension members, beams
or symmetrical columns to be created. And if
additional CFRP lamellae are attached to the
E 1.17
outer faces of such compound sections, then a
further improvement in the load-carrying capacity
and reduced deformations are the result. How- 2 1 2 1 1 3 1 3
ever, the material consumption and work involved
are both high with such compound sections, 3
which frequently renders such forms of construc-
tion uneconomic. 3
1 1
3
2
2
1 GFRP section
2 Steel plate/angle
3 Hexagon-head bolt
E 1.18
165
Building with semi-finished polymer products
1 Balustrade
2 Bridge deck Deep beams
3 Main beam made up of In beams it is primarily the outer zones of the
five elements cross-section that are effective in carrying the
loads in bending, whereas the inner zones are
loaded to a lesser extent. Therefore, when using
1 compound sections it would seem sensible to
use GFRP sections with a high fibre content for
the flanges, and sheets with a lower fibre con-
tent, or indeed unreinforced polymers, for the
2 web. The use of translucent or transparent
sheets for the web improves the appearance
by making the beam seem less “stocky”. In the
design of footbridges, such beams can also
3 serve as balustrades and handrails in addition to
performing a loadbearing function (Fig. E 1.21).
Adhesive applied over a large area transfers
a b E 1.19 the stresses. The combination of sections and
1 Channel section
1 2 Diagonal ties twin- or multi-wall sheets has proved to be a
3 Diagonal strut viable solution, but the buckling stability of the
4 Battens sheets is not unproblematic, which is why add-
2 5 Wind bracing itional stiffeners, i.e. ribs glued to the sheet to
6 Packing piece
add stability, are sometimes necessary. [5]
Lattice beams
Lattice beams can be relatively easily assembled
from GFRP sections (Fig. E 1.20). The holes
3 required can be drilled during assembly. The
4
members are all subjected to axial forces, which
is ideal for pultruded sections with their longitu-
dinal fibres. One problem, however, is that there
is not usually enough material at the joints for
the number of bolts or area of adhesive required.
6 1 5 It is therefore often necessary to use very large
a b E 1.20 sections simply to overcome this problem, which
1 2 2 1
consequently results in a high consumption of
material. Connections should be designed as
1 GFRP section
symmetrical and steel plates can be helpful at
2 Translucent sandwich
panel with minimal complicated nodes (Fig. E 1.18, p. 165).
fibre reinforcement On trussed bridges the deck can be fabricated
from GFRP planks or open-grid flooring panels,
which distribute the loads between the beams.
Push-fit systems
1 2 2 1 Modular push-fit systems have integral joints
with loose tongue and groove details. Such
systems require fewer bolts or less adhesive.
Several sections can be combined to form one
beam. In the ideal case, repeated assembly
and dismantling of a structure is possible. To
do this, each of the hollow sections to be con-
a b E 1.21 nected has a slot. A smaller bar with a dovetail-
shaped cross-section is fitted into both slots to
link the two hollow sections together. As a rule,
such push-fit systems are used for cladding,
linings and other components not forming part
of the primary loadbearing system. The small
dimensions of the connecting bars limit the
forces that can be transferred across the joint.
These systems have occasionally also been
used for footbridges (Fig. E 1.19). In contrast to
non-compound sections, it is fairly easy to con-
struct bridge decks or balustrades with such
push-fit systems. This form of construction is
especially suitable for temporary and experi-
mental forms of construction.
a b E 1.22
166
Building with semi-finished polymer products
3
1 Trapezoidal profile sheet metal 4 3 2
covering
2 Loose fill material
3 Reinforced concrete abutment
with CFRP tubes cast in
4 Prefabricated CFRP tube filled
with in situ concrete a
b E 1.23
167
Building with semi-finished polymer products
1 2
5
1 GFRP sheet in aluminium frame
2 Mineral wool
3 Housing for louvre blind
4 Rigid insulation
7 5 Louvre blind
6 6 Low E glazing
7 Single glazing
a b E 1.24
Sheets Solid and corrugated sheets alternative is to provide sheets with metal rails
Sheets made from solid or fibre-reinforced poly- on all sides that are then fixed to the supporting
Facades and pitched roofs are the principal mers are generally between 3 and 7 mm thick. structure (Fig. E 1.24). This solution protects
applications for transparent, translucent or They are usually produced in large formats and the edges of the sheets against mechanical
opaque polymer sheets. They are also suitable only cut to size in the course of the final erection damage and in the case of fibre-reinforced poly-
as internal partitions, for shielding electrical on site. The cut edges of fibre-reinforced poly- mers prevents the exposed edges from absorb-
equipment alongside railway facilities or for mers should be sealed afterwards. ing water.
balustrade infill panels. The facade panels in Point fixings are very suitable in principle and
everyday use can be made from brittle thermo- Fixing their details are simpler than with glass because
plastics or fibre-reinforced polymers or other Outer envelopes that serve merely as protection the holes are much easier to drill (Fig. E 1.28).
composites such as mineral boards. All these against the weather and for appearance pur- It is also possible to embed threaded sockets
sheets are available in solid or hollow variations, poses can be relatively straightforward forms of in the sheets to ease the fixing to the support-
which has an effect on the details. In principle, construction. The sheets can be bolted, screwed ing framework (Fig. E 1.29).
sheets can be used to build both watertight or riveted to the supporting framework (Figs.
envelopes and also facing leaves with a venti- E 1.26 and E 1.27). Owing to the lower elastic Waterproofing
lation cavity. modulus of the material, it is in many cases un- Solid polymer sheets are generally not designed
Forms of construction based on polymer sheets necessary to include expansion joints and elong- to be watertight, but instead make use of open
sometimes borrow details such as point fixings ated holes, especially with corrugated sheets, (drained) joints. Sheets that must be supported
or elastomeric strips from glass construction because the restraint stresses due to thermal without restraint require relatively wide joints in
because there is a lack of details designed movements are comparatively small (Fig. E 1.6, order to accommodate the large movements of
specifically for polymers. But in contrast to brittle p. 161). the polymer as a result of temperature fluctuations.
glass, such elaborate measures are actually Joints between flat panels can often be simply Silicone sealants are therefore mostly unsuitable
unnecessary. Compared with glass, polymer overlapped and, like with panes of glass, the for polymer sheets.
sheets are relatively easy to drill and cut to sheets laid on elastomeric strips (Fig. E 1.25), One simple option for a horizontal joint design
size. Especially interesting here is the option of which achieves an even load transfer. Apart from is to overlap the sheets or to use preformed
being able to incorporate the connection details that, the forms of construction can be built water- sealing strips (Figs. E 1.30a and b). Vertical
into the sheets themselves during production. tight. The supporting construction required is, joints can also be designed with preformed
One essential difference when compared with however, more involved than with other methods sealing or cover elements (Figs. E 1.30c and
glass or metal is that polymer sheets are not of fixing. d). Screws and bolts with elastomeric sealing
diffusion-resistant. The associated risk of con- Special fixing systems are worth considering for washers are required to achieve a watertight
densation should be dealt with by construction facades with a ventilation cavity; such systems envelope.
measures such as a ventilation cavity. are not visible from outside (Fig. E 1.31). Another
1 2
1 1
2 4
2 3
4
3 3
4
1 Ridge
1 Aluminium clamping bar 2 Screw with sealing washer 1 Polycarbonate corner trim
2 Lipped sealing gasket 5 3 Polymer sheet 2 Polycarbonate corrugated sheet
3 Polymer sheet 4 Timber batten 3 Steel column
4 Lipped sealing strip 5 Rafter 4 Steel cladding rail
E 1.25 E 1.26 E 1.27
168
Building with semi-finished polymer products
5
3 2
1 PMMA sheet, class (fire) B1, 10 mm
2 Elastomeric waterproofing element,
clamped, 140 mm
3 Elastomeric point fixing, flexible, 78 mm dia.
4 Cable net structure, steel, 2 No. 10 mm dia.
5 Uplift retainer, steel cable, 3 mm dia.
4
a b E 1.28
Planks
Facade planks, in contrast to flat sheets, are 1
prefabricated especially for uses in facade
construction (see “Planks”, p. 90). They are
2
suspended from the supporting construction
via their webs, the vertical joints are sealed by
way of a built-in overlap.
3
Twin- and multi-wall sheets
The fixing and jointing methods for twin- and
multi-wall sheets are more complicated than
those for solid sheets because of the more
4 1 Mineral board
complex geometries and the thin walls involved.
2 Supporting framework
This is especially true when the thermal insula- 3 Threaded socket, glued
tion properties of the sheets must be retained in place
by avoiding open joints or penetrations. 4 Aluminium rail
There are limits to the widths of twin- and multi- a b E 1.29
wall sheets that can be produced, but they can
be produced in any length (subject only to
transport restrictions). They are simply lined up
side by side to form facades. Butt-jointed twin-
and multi-wall sheets do not result in satisfactory E 1.24 Fraunhofer Institute, Ilmenau (D), 2008, E 1.29 Facade panel made from mineral board;
results because either the thermal insulation Staab Architekten Seeko’o Hotel, Bordeaux (F), 2007,
a Facade of GFRP sheets in metal frames Atelier Architecture King Kong
effect is interrupted or it is impossible to create
b Section through window head a Vertical section
a watertight joint (Fig. E 1.39a, p. 171). Integral E 1.25 Clamp fixing for solid sheets b Erecting a facade panel
joints or special connecting sections have proved E 1.26 Screw fixing for solid sheets E 1.30 Joint details for solid sheets
advantageous. Individual details have to be E 1.27 Corner and edge details for corrugated sheets a Rebate, horizontal joint
developed for corners as well as the top and E 1.28 Point fixing and waterproofing; roof to Olympic b Sealing profile, horizontal joint
Stadium, Munich (D), 1972, Behnisch + Partner, c Top-hat profile, vertical joint
bottom edges of sheets, although preformed Frei Otto et al. d Groove and loose tongue, vertical joint
corner and edge trims are available for certain a Detail e Open (drained), vertical joint
products (Fig. E 1.36, p. 170). b View from outside E 1.31 Special fixing system for solid sheets
c
1
1 Loadbearing
structure 2
2 Fixing system
d 3 Fibre-reinforced
polymer sheet
4 Rivet fixing
3
a b
4
e E 1.30 E 1.31
169
Building with semi-finished polymer products
Fixing
Simple bolted connections are unsuitable for twin-
and multi-wall sheets. The thin webs buckle when
subjected to compression and the penetration
leads to a thermal bridge. The sheets can be
clamped along the edges, like panes of glass,
but integral joints similar to tongue and groove
joints are better (Figs. E 1.39c and e). It is also
possible to use specially shaped aluminium or
PVC sections in conjunction with twin- and multi-
wall sheets (Fig. E 1.38). As the means of con-
nection does not penetrate the sheet, thermal
bridges are ruled out, the appearance from out-
side is more uniform and the facade is watertight.
Integral joints
E 1.32 E 1.33 Twin- and multi-wall sheets are generally several
centimetres thick, which means that it is possible
to integrate clip-in or clamp-type joints into the
structure of the sheets (Fig. E 1.32). The ductility
of the polycarbonate used for the majority of
twin- and multi-wall sheets is sufficient to allow
the sheets to be assembled and dismantled
more than once. These integral joints consider-
ably simplify erection and detailing because
the individual sheets only need to be pushed
together on site to form an interlocking joint.
The thermal insulation and sealing characteris-
tics of such a connection are better than those
of a butt joint. Additional profiling at the joint im-
prove the thermal insulation effect even further
and in the form of ribs increase the bending
stiffness of the elements. These ribs can be re-
E 1.34 E 1.35 inforced with PVC or aluminium sections (Fig.
E 1.38). And when using such sheets for the
1 Transparent PMMA corner trim bent from 5 mm sheet, roof covering, additional profiling helps to en-
glued to 3 mm PMMA sheet sure a watertight envelope. Further measures
2 Transparent PMMA corner support bent from 3 mm sheet
3 Steel cladding rail
such as silicone joints or other sealants are
4 X-bracing superfluous because the raised position rules
5 Polycarbonate multi-wall sheet, 40 x 500 mm, transparent, out the risk of water collecting in the joint.
co-extruded coloured rear face However, the long, narrow form of these sheets
3 4
with their clearly defined widths does restrict
architectural design freedom. The vertical joints
and the numerous webs within the sheets are
clearly visible from the outside and they can
also substantially reduce the quality of the view
through the material. The prismatic cross-sections
of these sheets mean that integral joints are
possible in one direction only; special details
1 2 5 are required for the ends of the panels, likewise
a
170
Building with semi-finished polymer products
Temporary structures
Twin- and multi-wall sheets with integral joints
are ideal for non-permanent structures such as
mobile pavilions or temporary accommodation.
The fixings and joints are easily detached and
a b E 1.37
sealing compounds or drilling are generally
unnecessary. The integral clip-in connections
can be put together and taken apart again and
again without suffering any damage. Facades
and roof constructions can be rebuilt in their
entirety at other locations or certain parts of the
designs can be reused in other structures, within
certain limits.
Moulded items
a a
Building with moulded parts can be compared
with building with flat sheets. Three-dimensional
trays or components in double curvature are
usually made from a solid polymer material and
therefore the fixings can be very simple: screws,
bolts, rivets, adhesives or clamping elements.
One special aspect of using thermoplastics
is that moulded parts can be produced from
standard flat sheets by a forming process, b b
usually deep-drawing, during the final process-
ing or even during erection.
Rooflights
Moulded polymer items are frequently used for
forming rooflights, either individual units or con-
tinuous strips. Transparent or translucent thermo-
plastics such as acrylic sheet (PMMA), polycar-
bonate (PC) or glycol-modified polyethylene
terephthalate (PET-G) are the most popular
c c
materials for such applications, but glass fibre-
reinforced polymers are occasionally employed
(Fig. E 1.42, p. 172). The desired geometry is
generally achieved via a hot-forming process; a
curving form is preferred so that rainwater and
melting snow run off easily. The bottom edge of
a rooflight must be positioned above the level
171
Building with semi-finished polymer products
of the surrounding roof surface in order to pre- Forming tectural models. First of all, a mould made from
vent the infiltration of any water that might build Only thermoplastic materials can be used for cardboard, wood, unsaturated polyester resin
up on the roof. producing moulded elements in virtually any (UP) or aluminium is made, usually just a female
In principle, simple overlap and individual fixings form from flat sheets. Twin- and multi-wall sheets tool without a matching male part. The polymer
are adequate at the junction between roof struc- are usually unsuitable because the thin webs sheet is laid on the mould and heated from above
ture and rooflight. Rooflights consisting of up to are destroyed when subjected to large strains by hot air. The air is then evacuated from the
four leaves, one over the other and connected or the cross-section may be deformed. Hot- mould which causes the sheet to take up the
via a special hermetic edges seal, are specified forming takes place at high temperatures but in shape of the mould. This method of production
to comply with higher thermal performance the ideal case the process is free from stresses. is primarily used for moulded parts with simple
specifications. Solid sheets are normally used The thermoplastics can even be forced into a geometries and no ribs (Fig. E 1.40).
for forming rooflights because they respond better new form at room temperature, a process that Although the cost of a vacuum-formed item is
to the hot-forming process. But twin- and multi- is also known as “cold-forming”. higher than an injection-moulded one, for in-
wall sheets can be used for continuous roof- stance, the high cost of the tools for injection
lights to improve the thermal insulation. Hot-forming moulding is saved.
Prior to forming, the thermoplastic material is
Side-by-side assembly and series production first heated to a few degrees above the thermo- “Cold-forming”
Three-dimensional semi-finished products are elastic temperature, i.e. the temperature at which The low elastic modulus and the ductility of some
in most cases modular items added together to the material becomes plastic. However, this thermoplastics means that, up to a point, it is
form a larger entity, e.g. a facade. At the plan- temperature lies well below the melting point. possible to force flat sheets into three-dimensional
ning stage the total area is divided orthogonally The sheet, with a thickness of 0.3 – 10 mm, can shapes. This process can be carried out directly
into geometrically identical modules as far as subsequently be formed by hand or by machine, on the building site without the need to apply
possible. This enables series production of the and after cooling it retains its new shape. heat. The tendency of polymers to creep has
elements, which in turn results in an economical PET-G and PMMA are ideal for hot-forming – the effect that the restraint stresses decrease
design. Critical here is the number of moulds the forming temperatures of both these materials over time (relaxation), and the component re-
required. Fig. E 1.41 shows a prefabricated lining are comparatively low. A somewhat higher tem- tains the shape that has been forced upon it.
of PMMA trays. To reduce the cost of the moulds, perature is necessary for polycarbonate (PC).
only a few different modules were combined for Other thermoplastics such as polystyrene (PS) Jointing
this project. The trays are glued to flat PMMA and its copolymers (ASA, ABS) plus polyethylene Three-dimensional moulded items do not gen-
bars that have first been screwed to the steel (PE), polypropylene (PP) and polyvinyl chloride erally include any integral joints, but rather, like
supporting construction. The joints are finished (PVC) can also be hot-formed. panes of glass, have to be held in place by
with transparent silicone gaskets so that the One method frequently used is vacuum forming, point fixings or clamping elements along the
screws are not visible from the outside. a method also commonly used for building archi- edges. The sheets used are mostly solid and
2 1
a b E 1.40
8 8
11
9 9 12
10
13
14
a b E 1.41 E 1.42
172
Building with semi-finished polymer products
therefore do not provide enough depth to include required for the just 4 mm thick, more robust E 1.40 Curved PMMA sheets for a facade; art gallery,
clip-in connections. In addition, moulded parts CFRP treads. Graz (A), 2003, spacelab Peter Cook/Colin
Fournier
are subjected to greater tolerances than flat a View from outside
sheets, which makes integral joints more diffi- b Schematic section, simplified
References:
cult. Simple bolted or riveted connections are E 1.41 Shoebaloo, Amsterdam (NL), 2003, Meyer en
[1] Park, Don-U., Knippers, Jan: Application of a new Van Schooten
more common. It is hardly possible to make GFRP jointing method for an exhibition membrane a Translucent PMMA trays mounted on steel
universal statements about building with moulded spatial structure. 9th Asian Pacific Conference of framework
parts because very diverse solutions are used Shell and Spatial Structures (APCS 2009), Nagoya, b Schematic section, simplified
all the time. May 2009 E 1.42 Rooflights made from polymer sheet material
[2] Oppe, Matthias: Zur Bemessung geschraubter Verbin- E 1.43 Staircase with CFRP treads, London (UK),
dungen von pultrudierten faserverstärkten Polymer- Geoffrey Packer/EeStairs
Modular GFRP bridge profilen. In: Stahlbau, No. 66/2008 a View of finished stair
The modular footbridge shown in Fig. E 1.44a [3] ibid. 1 b Fixing detail for CFRP treads
unites detachable and fixed connections for [4] Peters, Stefan: Kleben von GFRP und Glas für bau- c Detail of stainless steel point fixing
konstruktive Anwendungen. Stuttgart, 2006, pp. 147ff.
moulded parts. Each oval main beam section E 1.44 Bridge system “Variocell 02”; “In the Clouds”
[5] Keller, Thomas et al.: Adhesively Bonded and Trans- footbridge, expo.02, Yverdon (CH), 2002
has end plates with multiple integral interlock- lucent Glass Fiber Reinforced Polymer Sandwich a View of finished bridge
ing joints which are simply butted together and Girders. In: Journal of Composites for Construction b Isometric view of GFRP oval hollow section
tightened against each other with integral steel 5/2004, pp. 461ff. c Section through bridge
cables (Fig. E 1.44b). The curved planks made [6] Dagher, Habib J.: Bridge in a Backpack. Project Pre-
sentation, Advanced Structures & Composite Center,
from translucent GFRP, on the other hand, are University of Maine (USA), 19 Aug 2010
attached to the vertical GFRP ribs with rivets.
The ribs in turn lie in the plane of the joints
between the main beam sections and are like-
wise connected via an interlocking joint only.
CFRP stairs
The example of a delicate staircase construction
with treads of CFRP and stringers of glass illus-
trates the different jointing techniques of poly-
mers and glass particularly clearly (Fig. E 1.43).
Whereas the point fixing for the brittle glass re-
quires a generously sized disc with appropriate
bearing pads, simple screws are all that are
15 16 17
19
18
21
20
20
15 Fixing through two CFRP 17 Sheet metal support bracket 21 Stainless steel disc with
sheets 18 Fixing for bracket elastic inlay
16 Fixing through one CFRP 19 Stainless steel point fixing
sheet 20 Screw
a b c E 1.43
28
25
23
22 23
a b c E 1.44
173
Building with free-form
polymers
E 2.1
Polymer materials offer the planner design • Planar, thin-wall structures (exception: foams)
freedoms that are second to none: various • Rounded forms, instead of arrises and corners,
colours, surface finishes, dimensions and due to the method of production (Fig. E 2.2)
mechanical properties can be specified. Further- • Stiffening by way of webs, ribs or sandwich
more, the free-form options enable several structures instead of massive, heavyweight
functions to be combined in one component components
and the geometry to be optimised to suit the • Flanged edges and load-transfer points
requirements. Multi-functional polymer compo- instead of a thickening of the material
nents are intrinsic to our everyday lives; even • Flexible, thin, living hinges instead of true
just a simple bottle closure performs several hinges with high stress concentrations
functions (Fig. E 2.1). Living hinge, clip-fit closure, • Alignment of the fibre reinforcement (in fibre-
thread and seal are formed in one operation in reinforced polymers) to match the flow of
this typical, industrially fabricated product. It is forces
an injection-moulded component that requires
no additional work. The hinge in this case is not When building with polymers, the method of
a traditional linkage consisting of several parts, production must be selected early on in the
but rather a thin polymer strip that is formed to- planning process and the geometries of the
gether with the parts it joins in one and the same components adapted to suit if the designer
moulding operation. Ductile thermoplastics are does not wish to make use of prefabricated
ideal for such a so-called living hinge. Compar- semi-finished products (see “Building with semi-
able multi-function designs are impossible with finished polymer products”, pp. 160 – 173).
conventional materials. Moreover, the requirements of mouldmaking
have an effect on the component geometry for
Compared with metals, polymers are lightweight the vacuum-forming of thermoplastics and also
building materials with high strengths and are planar fibre-reinforced polymers. In a similar
therefore predestined for lightweight designs. way to the production of formwork for rein-
However, the elastic moduli of these materials – forced concrete, mouldmaking can represent a
apart from carbon fibre-reinforced polymers decisive factor in the production process and
(CFRP) – are relatively low and so polymers hence the cost of building with polymers. For
require specific constructional measures to be this reason, it is usually imperative to design
taken to ensure that components attain the components in such a way that a mould or
necessary stiffness. This is achieved, for example, mould segments can be used more than once.
by creating a sandwich structure, by forming Modular building or series production is always
ribs, or through choosing a design that is stiff- an optimisation goal in building with polymers.
ened by way of its geometry. Most polymers can
be formed into any random or irregular shape
at temperatures far lower than those required Unreinforced polymers
for metals or glass, which means that forming
and any subsequent work required can be Choosing a suitable material is just as important
carried out with relatively simple tools. Polymer as the geometry and the method of production
processing operations can also be carried out when building with unreinforced polymers. All
E 2.1 Closure for a plastic bottle in small plants. three factors are directly interrelated and influ-
E 2.2 Design principles for polymers: rounded corners
The particular features arising from the nature ence each other. Acrylic sheet (PMMA), for
and arrises and curved surfaces
E 2.3 Stiffening principles for polymer sheets of polymers themselves result in a series of example, requires thick walls, can be moulded
a Solid, flat sheet (severe deformations) aspects that must be considered if we are to or extruded, and is highly transparent. But it is
b Corrugated or trapezoidal profile sheet achieve a design that does justice to the mater- comparatively brittle and therefore less suitable
c Twin-wall panel or sandwich element ials: for resisting impact loads. Polypropylene (PP),
d Curved surface with various support conditions
E 2.4 Weight reduction through component design
• Flowing and generously dimensioned struc- on the other hand, can be designed with very
a Solid sheet tures instead of the isolated jointing of small- thin walls. Injection-moulding is the main tech-
b Ribbed element format elements nique used for processing PP, which can be
174
Building with free-form polymers
produced in milky to transparent variations. Its Sandwich and ribbed forms edge at 90° to the plane of the material is a rela-
high ductility makes it perfect for absorbing In contrast to simple profiling, a sandwich form tively simple way of achieving the necessary
shocks and impacts. is strong in two directions (Fig. E 2.3c). Where- stiffness. In the end, it is the resulting structural
as in designs employing fibre-reinforced poly- lever arm of the bent edge that governs the
Stiffening surfaces mers the sandwich elements generally have a loadbearing effect (Fig. E 2.7, p. 176). A whole
First of all, it is necessary to clarify how the com- foam core, in designs based on unreinforced range of different cross-sections is possible,
paratively flexible polymer design can be stiff- polymers it is more common to have sandwich but the semicircular form is frequently the best.
ened because flat polymer surfaces tend to elements with honeycomb cores, ribs or webs. The production methods used for polymers
buckle and warp. Solid, flat sheets are only In principle, transparent designs are also pos- mean that rounded arrises and corners are to
advisable in exceptional circumstances (Fig. sible with this latter type of sandwich. In contrast be preferred because this enables the thick-
E 2.3a). In order to reduce deformations and to corrugated sheets, however, flat surfaces are ness of the material to be kept constant and
use the load-carrying capacity to the full, polymer also possible. guarantees easier demoulding. Other forms
components should be designed as resolved Ribbed designs result in a considerable reduc- may prove more suitable depending on the
structures. Thick walls can lead to air inclusions tion in weight compared with a solid sheet (Fig. other functions required, e.g. for joining the
and hence poor mechanical properties. Restraint E 2.4). It is worthwhile strengthening the con- components. However, the requirements of
stresses can ensue at transitions between zones struction with ribs in zones with a high degree mouldmaking make undercuts undesirable.
of different thickness because the polymer does of utilisation, e.g. edges, connections, frame
not cool evenly after production (see “Sources corners (Fig. E 2.5, p. 176). Connections
of errors in injection-moulding”, p. 92). Subsequent bolted, screwed, riveted or glued
Curved surfaces joints can, in principle, be employed in a similar
Profiling Curved surfaces can be achieved with relatively way to those for semi-finished products (see
Unreinforced polymers are frequently processed simple means (Fig. E 2.3d). With suitable sup- “Building with semi-finished polymer products”,
to form sheets with corrugated or trapezoidal ports, the geometry of the component is stabil- pp. 160 – 173). However, means of connection
profiles (Fig. E 2.3b). Their prismatic cross- ised by the double curvature. Basically, the that are integrated during the production of the
sections make these sheets ideal for series design principles for lightweight plate and shell component are to be preferred. These not only
production. The profiles can be sine-wave, tri- structures apply (see “Curvature of the surface”, reduce the amount of work required during
angular or trapezoidal, forms that are primarily p. 146). erection, but generally also enable much higher
suitable for components spanning in one direc- forces to be transferred across the joints because
tion. The weak axis remains flexible because of Edge and corner details any strengthening elements required are pro-
the lack of stiffening but this allows the sheets Most polymer components have thin walls, which duced at the same time.
to be bent to a curved form around a support- is why unsupported edges and penetrations
ing structure. need additional strengthening. Bending up the
E 2.2
a b a
c d E 2.3 b E 2.4
175
Building with free-form polymers
1
3
1
h 2
1
h/2
2 3
E 2.8 E 2.9 E 2.10
Clip-in connections should taper to half this thickness at the barbed mer component by varying the thickness at the
Clip-in or clip-fit connections are very important hook. Plastic pipes can be joined together via a position of the linkage, but the component and
in building with polymers when trying to achieve concentric arrangement of clips (Fig. E 2.9). the hinge are made from exactly the same mater-
a design that does justice to the material. The ial. A smooth transition between the different
polycarbonate twin- and multi-wall sheets so Bolted connections thicknesses is crucial if local stress concentra-
popular in the building industry also make use Appropriate strengthening should be designed tions are to be avoided (Fig. E 2.10). Only suffi-
of this type of connection (Fig. E 1.34, p. 170). into the component when intending to use bolts ciently ductile polymers can be considered for
Clip-in connections can be designed to be put (or rivets) so that the concentrated load can be living hinges, materials that do not suffer brittle
together and taken apart many times. But non- transferred evenly to the component. Integral failure as a result of repeated usage. But the
detachable connections are suitable for perman- collars or ribs can be formed at the position of thin walls of living hinges limit the forces that
ent structures and such connections are fre- the later joint (Fig. E 2.6). Thicker sections with can be transferred across the articulated joint.
quently used when a component, for production great accumulations of mass should be avoided, Torsion is the most critical type of load, which
reasons, must be assembled from two or more however. Plastic threads do not usually exhibit can easily lead to failure of such a hinge.
parts but in the final condition is regarded as sufficient strength for loadbearing connections,
one component. and the manufacturing tolerances are relatively
A clip-in connection consists of a barbed hook generous as well. Metal threaded sockets, Fibre-reinforced polymers
and a corresponding female element. One of screwed, welded or glued into the polymer
the two elements is linked to an elastic spring, material, are the better choice and enable the use Fibre-reinforced polymers are used like unrein-
usually formed from a thin strip of polymer mater- of metric threads with their superior durability. forced polymers, i.e. in planar form with rela-
ial. The connection should be designed in such However, the socket itself should not be relied tively thin walls. To achieve a form of construc-
a way that both components only deform elasti- upon to strengthen the component; additional tion that does justice to the material, particular
cally, i.e. are not permanently deformed or flanged edges or ribs are still required. attention should be paid to the fibre reinforce-
damaged, when they are fitted together. A poly- ment itself, which is in most cases in the form of
mer with sufficient ductility, e.g. polypropylene Living hinges several plies. A composite material made up of
(PP), should always be preferred where multiple In metal structures, stiff members are joined to- fibres and a polymer matrix is generally referred
assembling and dismantling operations are in- gether with discrete linkages or hinges where to as a laminate.
tended. In most instances the elastic spring is some movement is necessary. Such connection In practice, laminates consist almost exclusively
combined with the barbed hook (Fig. E 2.8). The details are in most cases very massive because of thermosets, also known as (synthetic) resins.
spring works as a cantilever arm here, which this is where all the forces are concentrated and Free-form fibre composites are produced using
must be sufficiently thin and long to enable the the hinges themselves have to be connected to the hand lay-up technique plus methods based
connection to be made without the elastic limit the members. But with polymers, it is possible on this manual method, e.g. resin infusion (see
stress being exceeded. The rule of thumb is: to design elastic living or integral hinges. The “Resin infusion and vacuum methods”, p. 79).
the thickness of the spring at its point of fixity hinge is integrated into the structure of the poly- With a few exceptions, the design guidelines
176
Building with free-form polymers
Laminate lay-up
Fibre-reinforced polymers, like wood, cannot
be considered to be homogeneous materials. a d
The fibre plies are drawn as lines in the sectional
drawings in this chapter. In a planar laminate one
line corresponds to a layer of textile, in linear
members with long fibres (rovings or continuous
fibres) the lines symbolise the direction of the
fibres within the component.
With more complex cross-sections, as in a sand-
wich panel (Fig. E 2.12), the orientation of the
fibres must be “designed”. For instance, the b e
fibre plies in the vertical webs of such sand-
wich panels continue into the horizontal flanges.
This results in a high load-carrying capacity at
the web-flange junction. At the same time, it
can be seen that webs are generally designed
to be thinner than flanges because otherwise it
is not possible to incorporate enough fibre plies f
at the junction. Nevertheless, the web-flange
junction still represents a potential weak point
in the structure because there is an accumula-
tion of unreinforced resin in the centre of the
junction.
Stiffening surfaces c g
As with unreinforced polymers, thin-wall lamin-
ates must always be stiffened because flat sheets E 2.11
are too flexible for longer spans. Stiffening can
E 2.5 Ribs for strengthening a frame corner 1 Fibre reinforcement in webs continues into flanges
be achieved by profiling the cross-section, by E 2.6 Strengthening for connections 2 Accumulation of resin
including reinforcing ribs or by employing a E 2.7 Unsupported edges strengthened by bending 3 Rigid foam core
sandwich form of construction (Fig. E 2.11). It is E 2.8 Design of clip-in connections
also possible, with appropriate support condi- E 2.9 Concentric clip-in connection
E 2.10 Living or integral hinge
tions, to stiffen the construction by way of its E 2.11 Stiffening of planar, fibre-reinforced polymer
geometry, i.e. by forming a shell. components
a Flat solid sheet, vulnerable to deformation
1
Sandwich elements b, c Profiled sheets
Structures employing fibre-reinforced polymers d Separate ribs
e Sandwich form
are frequently in the form of sandwich elements. f Ribs laminated into sheet
The provision of a lightweight core increases g Trapezoidal ribs laminated into sheet
the structural lever arm of the laminate, which E 2.12 Alignment of the fibre reinforcement in a resolved
in turn increases the load-carrying capacity cross-section with flanges and webs
E 2.13 Employing the sandwich principle to increase
and stiffness considerably for only a small in- stiffness and load-carrying capacity, schematic
crease in the weight per unit area (Fig. E 2.13). diagrams 2 3
The central zone of a component carrying the
loads in bending plays only a minor structural E 2.12
role anyway and so the core can be made from
a material with a lower strength which is more
flexible and usually less expensive than the fibre-
reinforced polymer.
4t
177
Building with free-form polymers
d E 2.17
178
Building with free-form polymers
Arrises
To take into account the change in direction of
the reinforcing fibres and the requirements of E 2.14 Reinforcing rings in GFRP “stalks”; “Market E 2.18 Reinforcing ribs
mouldmaking, designers are advised to round Houses”, Mainz (D), 2008, Massimiliano Fuksas a – h Various options
a Stalk prior to erection 1 Fibre-reinforced polymer
off all arrises with a sufficient radius (Fig. E 2.20). b View of GFRP stalks in position 2 Rib laminated to sheet
This radius should be at least 5 mm and not E 2.15 Methods for stiffening pipes and tubes 3 Wooden batten
less than the thickness of the laminate for pul- a Circumferential ring 4 Fibre-reinforced polymer laminated to sheet
truded sections. A radius of min. 20 mm is rec- b Reinforcing ring with sandwich core 5 Rigid foam core
c Reinforcing bulkheads 6 Steel section
ommended for manually laminated components.
E 2.16 Sandwich elements made from fibre-reinforced 7 Adhesive
Choosing a radius that is too tight can result in polymers 8 Flat plate made from fibre-reinforced polymer,
the textile reinforcement becoming folded or a Fibre-reinforced polymer e.g. CFRP
creased during production (Fig. E 2.19), which b with spacer fabric 9 Hollow section formed from fibre-reinforced
disrupts the loadbearing behaviour significantly. c with honeycomb core polymer
d with rigid foam core E 2.19 GFRP production error due to inadequate radius
As with unsupported edges, additional strengthen- E 2.17 Elastic spacer fabric at an arris
ing of the planar laminate is often required along E 2.20 Rounded corner principle for fibre-reinforced
arrises. Thickening the material should be polymers
avoided, however, because continuous fibre
reinforcement is then impossible. Instead, the
thickness of the laminate should be kept constant
and stiffening achieved by way of profiling.
7 6 1
2 1
Edge details
Unsupported edges are difficult from the con-
structional viewpoint because they are sensitive
to deformations (Fig. E 2.21a, p. 180). Further-
more, the fibres are inevitably exposed along a e
the edge and without extra protective measures 3
are vulnerable to moisture. A flanged or rein- 7 8 1
forced edge is recommended for visual and 4 1
mechanical reasons. But as with the rib stiffeners,
simply doubling the thickness should be avoided.
A flanged edge can be omitted in exceptional
cases only, i.e. where the sheet is precisely
manufactured, the edge is sealed and also rests b f
9
on a continuous support. This is the case with
cladding materials, for example.
5
E 2.19 E 2.20
179
Building with free-form polymers
Shadowline joints
a Butt joints between large-format components
made from fibre-reinforced polymers are difficult
1 3 to achieve in practice because of the inevitable
manufacturing tolerances. The advantage of
designing shadowline joints is that the flanged
edges of the components serve as strengthening
b ribs both during erection and in the final structure.
At the same time, the means of connection can
1 GFRP be concealed within the construction (Figs.
b 2 In situ laminate E 2.25a and E 2.26).
3 Laminated joint This form of construction was common to the
1
E 2.22 first buildings made from fibre-reinforced poly-
mers in the 1960s, but is unsatisfactory from the
building physics viewpoint because it creates
an open joint and at the same time a thermal
2 bridge. This problem is even more significant
2 1 when joining together sandwich elements be-
cause the layer of thermal insulation is interrupted.
A shadowline joint also eases the detailing when
c
setting up a fibre composite component on the
a ground; installing an elastomeric strip in the
joint helps to ensure an even load transfer (Fig.
E 2.25b). If the means of connection at a joint
between elements is to remain accessible from
outside, then the shadowline joint should be
Peel off
designed as shown in Fig. E 2.25c.
3 2 3 1 4
Connections
Joints required for erection purposes can be
d b closed off afterwards by laminating over them.
Ideally, the joint will then have mechanical and
building physics properties identical with those
of the components on either side. However, in-
dividual components can also be connected by
5 way of pin-type fasteners or adhesives (see
“Means of connection”, pp. 161 – 164). It is pos-
sible to integrate lugs, splice plates, fittings or
sockets into the material during production,
c and also to adapt the orientation of the fibres
4
to suit the means of connection. Such detailing
improves the load-carrying capacity of the joint
e and in some cases the building physics prop-
erties as well.
Laminated joints
1 Fibre-reinforced polymer At a laminated joint, the components to be
1 Fibre-reinforced polymer 2 Peel-ply fabric
2 Metal tube 3 Rough surface
joined are initially butted together and then
3 Rigid foam fillet 4 Smooth surface connected by laminating plies across the joint
4 Wooden dowel 5 Layer of fibres + resin applied at a later date (Fig. E 2.22a). The additional layers of fibres
E 2.21 E 2.23
180
Building with free-form polymers
Star Looped
should be attached on both sides wherever
possible in order to ensure an even load transfer.
The surfaces of the components must be suffi-
ciently rough to ensure good adhesion for the
additional plies at the joint. A peel-ply fabric can
be used to achieve this (see “Peel-ply fabrics”,
p. 71). The peel-ply fabric is first attached in
the factory as the final layer but removed be-
fore the resin has fully cured. This creates a
rough surface with small polymer serrations to
which further plies can be attached during
erection (Fig. E 2.23).
Alternatively, it is also possible to leave dry fibres
protruding from the edges. During erection,
these are overlapped alternately and impreg-
nated with resin layer by layer (Fig. E 2.22b). E 2.24
Both methods result in a thickening of the lami-
nate at the joint. 1 2
1 Fibre-reinforced polymer
2 Spacer made from elastomer, steel, etc.
3 Bolt or rivet
E 2.25 E 2.26
181
Building with free-form polymers
E 2.27 Metal connecting parts attached with adhesive E 2.30 Threaded built-in part
a Plate E 2.31 “fg 2000”, Altenstadt (D), 1968, Wolfgang Feierbach
b Angle a View of facade
E 2.28 Building in plates or perforated sheet metal b Corner detail
to optimise a connection, with rovings looped E 2.32 Stepped joint for sandwich elements
through perforations E 2.33 Laminated joint between sandwich elements
a Axonometric view E 2.34 Hemispherical radomes (for housing antennas)
b Section made from GFRP sandwich elements
E 2.29 Proprietary fittings for building into fibre- a Assembling the individual components
reinforced polymers b Completed dome
182
Building with free-form polymers
3
1 GFRP facing ply
2 1
2 Rigid foam core
3 Bolt
4 Sealing compound
4
a b E 2.31
183
Building with free-form polymers
segments of the shell are simply lifted into pos- requires a two-part mould. The surface of the removing material from the mould step by step.
ition and attached to the structure (Fig. E 2.36c). laminate in contact with the mould is smooth, It is made from materials such as rigid foam,
whereas the other surface usually has a rough balsa wood, clay or gypsum, which although
Integrating functions or irregular finish. A foil can be laid over the easy to work are unsuitable for multiple uses.
Fibre-reinforced polymers are built up in layers surface not in contact with the mould when A negative mould is produced from this original
and processed either cold or at comparatively using the resin infusion and vacuum methods mould in the second step. To do this, the surface
low temperatures. Integrating further compo- in order to achieve a smooth finish on this sur- of the original mould is coated with a release
nents and functions during the initial production face as well, but it is very important – and diffi- agent such as silicone oil or wax and the nega-
process would seem to be an obvious move. cult – to lay the foil without folds or creases. tive mould laminated or cast on this. Various
Built-in light fittings, decorative features, ther- robust materials – fibre-reinforced polymers or
mal mass, sensors for measuring strains and Mould design metals – can be used for the negative mould
temperatures plus a sunshade control system The mould can be developed from the compo- depending on the size of the production run.
are just some examples of the possibilities (see nent geometry, although it may be necessary The third step is the production of the actual
“Potential, trends and challenges”, pp. 24 – 27). to divide up the mould or the component into component (with a surface geometry identical
And with sandwich elements it is also possible several segments to suit production require- to that of the prototype) in the negative mould.
to incorporate electric cables or water pipes ments. For example, at least two segments are Here again, a release agent is necessary in
during production (Fig. E 2.35). For this purpose, required when laminating a circular cross-sec- order to ensure easier demoulding (Fig. E 2.41,
service ducts can be formed in the sandwich tion (Fig. E 2.37). Considering the demoulding p. 186).
element through which the pipes and cables aspects for a component are vital when design- Instead of the three-stage moulding process,
are routed. Completely enclosed or accessible ing a mould, e.g. for undercut geometries. In- it is also possible to build the negative mould
ducts are possible depending on the need to stead of dividing the component into pieces, it directly. Rigid foam shaped with a CNC milling
gain access to the services at a later date. is also possible to divide the mould into several machine can be used, for example, but nega-
sections. The individual parts are fixed firmly tive moulds made from wooden boards are also
together during laminating. To do this, the edges worth considering for large-format laminates.
Mouldmaking of the mould segments are provided with flanges One special type of mould is permanent form-
that are bolted together. work, which is coated with the plies of laminate
The polymer becomes viscous during the pro- material and remains as the core material in a
duction of fibre composites components and so Moulding process sandwich element.
a sealed mould is essential. A one-part mould The moulding process normally takes place in
is sufficient for the hand lay-up of planar com- three steps. Firstly, the original or master mould, Materials
ponents, also for fibre spraying and the resin in- i.e. the prototype, is produced. The original Moulds are expensive in terms of their materials
fusion and vacuum methods. On the other hand, mould can be produced by additive or sub- and production, and can in some cases exceed
the automated compression-moulding method tractive means, i.e. by respectively adding or the cost of the actual component quite consid-
1 Facing ply made from fibre-reinforced polymer 4 Pipes or cables E 2.35 Integrating services into sandwich elements
2 Rigid foam core 5 Integral services duct made from fibre-reinforced a Accessible
3 Access panel polymer b Concealed
E 2.36 Itzhak Rabin Center, Tel Aviv (IL), 2005, Moshe
Safdie, Mick Eekhout
a Steel built-in component
1 2 1 2 b Production using the vacuum bag method
c Lifting a prefabricated segment into position
on site
E 2.37 Dividing a component into more than one segment
E 2.38 Rounded corners in the mould enable better lam-
inating
E 2.39 Avoiding high friction forces during demoulding:
no surfaces parallel with demoulding direction
E 2.40 Multiple uses of an oversize form for components
1 3 4 1 4 5 with the same cross-section but different lengths
a b E 2.35
a b c E 2.36
184
Building with free-form polymers
Rigid foams
The advantage of fine-pore foams (PVC, PUR,
XPS) is that these can be shaped with a com-
puter-controlled CNC milling machine. The cost 1 GFRP component
2 Negative mould
of the material is comparatively high and so the
quantity of rigid foam required must be reduced
to a minimum. The rigid foam is frequently left E 2.38
in the finished component as the core material.
But where it is required for moulding only, then Difficult demoulding Easy demoulding
it must be sealed with a filling compound and 1 1
wax. Moulds made from rigid foam are likewise
only suitable for a few reuses. Although foams
with larger pores (EPS, Styropor) are among
the cheapest, they are difficult to work. EPS
2 2
combined with gypsum or clay is suitable for
simple moulds.
Fibre-reinforced polymers
Fibre-reinforced polymers, mainly GFRP mater-
ials, are suitable for making negative moulds.
Different resin systems are used depending on
the number of reuses required, i.e. the durability
demands placed on the mould. GFRP has
established itself as a material for negative
moulds where 100+ reuses are required. One E 2.39
1 Negative mould made from GFRP
advantage of GFRP is that it is possible to inte- 2 a, b Components with different lengths but
grate additional handles, flanges and fixings in otherwise identical
the mould to simplify handling and assembly.
1 1 2a 2b
E 2.40
185
Building with free-form polymers
186
Building with free-form polymers
a b E 2.43
The high cost of such foam materials makes
this form of construction relatively expensive. It
therefore makes economic sense to integrate
the mould into the component only in the case
of irregular, one-off geometries. Another dis-
advantage is that the part is laminated on the
outside, i.e. the comparatively rough and inaccur-
ate final ply of the laminate forms the final sur-
face. However, this disadvantage can be com-
pensated for to some extent by using the resin
infusion or vacuum methods (see “Resin infu-
sion and vacuum methods”, p. 79).
1 1
2 2
a b
3 1
2
2
1
c 2
3 1
d
187
Building with foil
E 3.1
When they form part of the loadbearing structure, • Increasing the rise of the cushion reduces the
foil materials are mainly employed in the form of loads acting on the top and bottom layers some-
pneumatically prestressed cushions. The clam- what. However, manufacturing and construc-
ping details along the edges are therefore par- tional conditions place limits on this increase
ticularly important because they must satisfy not because of the ensuing greater curvature.
only structural requirements, but also comply • The span of the foil can be increased by pro-
with various constructional and building physics viding additional cable nets. For example, in
conditions. Other important facets of the design, order to carry the snow loads acting on hori-
apart from these edge details, are the technical zontal cushions it is possible to strengthen the
components and various principles for the air lower layer, which is more heavily loaded, by
supply to the cushions. These aspects apply to spanning a cable net underneath (see “Pneu-
cushions made from textile membranes as well matically prestressed surfaces”, p. 143). A fur-
as hybrid designs made from fabric and foil. ther cable net can improve the load-carrying
Designs using foil materials stabilised pneumatic- capacity of the top layer (Fig. E 3.20, p. 195).
ally with a pressure below atmospheric pressure • In some cases doubling the upper and/or
are also conceivable in principle. However, this lower layers is worth considering in order to
type of application must be considered very improve the load-carrying capacity of the
carefully when using foil because unfiltered air, cushions. The very large cushions (approx.
and hence dust and dirt, too, could be sucked 10 ≈ 10 m) over a shopping mall near Lisbon
in, which would ruin the optical quality and the represent one example of this approach (see
appearance. Owing to the low strength, high “Shopping centre”, pp. 256 – 257).
elongation and creep behaviour of foil materials, • The foil of the upper and/or lower layers can be
mechanically prestressed foil designs have replaced by a material with a higher strength,
been used on only a few occasions in the past. e.g. a reinforced fabric such as polyester-
Ethylene tetrafluoroethylene (ETFE) is the material PVC or PTFE/glass. The significantly higher
mainly used for foil designs, and therefore the strengths of woven fabrics enable much
following descriptions of the constructional details longer spans when using pneumatically pre-
relate to this material in the main, although most stressed designs. This means, however, that
of them could be used for other foil materials. the cushions can no longer be transparent.
188
Building with foil
made from welded layers of transparent ETFE inside of the cushion is already sealed against This requires separate pressure controls for the
foil could be a factor that limits the format, and the infiltration of moisture, dust and dirt, thus two chambers of the cushion. We must distin-
this must be taken into account early on in the avoiding the need to carry out expensive and guish between repositioning (Fig. E 3.4a, p. 190)
planning. time-consuming cleaning. and the elastic elongation (Fig. E 3.4b, p. 190)
The alternative – and unavoidable when using of the central layer as a result of the pressure
Multi-layer cushions different materials for the various layers – is to increase in the lower chamber. The principle of
Multi-layer cushions offer a chance of improving clamp the individual layers separately. The ad- the operation of the movable central layer is
the insulating effect because of the separate vantages of this approach are that the layers described in more detail in the chapter entitled
layers of air. The inner layers of foil can be much can be replaced separately if necessary and, “Foil cushions with integral sunshade” on p. 221.
thinner than the outer ones because they are first and foremost, significant thermal bridges
subjected to a lower prestress and make only a are avoided at the welded joints between the Supporting structure
minimum contribution to carrying the loads. layers. It is also possible to combine the two Foil cushions have a very low weight per unit
They are mostly fabricated with a cutting pattern variations in a multi-layer cushion design. area and – compared with mechanically pre-
that gives them the necessary form because stressed membranes – transfer only very low
otherwise installing them without any creases Movable central layer prestressing forces to their supporting con-
or wrinkles is extremely difficult. However, flat, Printing white or silver dots – the usual choice struction. As a result, loadbearing structures for
prestressed central plies (no cutting pattern) but, indeed, any other patterns or colours (see foil cushions can be designed to be very deli-
are also possible depending on the appearance “Colouring, printing and coating”, p. 97) are cate and lightweight. The cushions are generally
requirements. possible – on the foil can reduce the radiation attached to aluminium sections that are in turn
Individual cushion layers made from the same transmittance through the cushion. With a multi- mounted on a timber, steel or aluminium primary
material can be factory-welded along their edges layer cushion design it is worth considering structure for generously dimensioned roof and
to form a complete cushion following their fabri- printing a pattern on the upper layer that is off- facade surfaces. The clamping sections can
cation (i.e. cutting according to the pattern and set with respect to that on the central layer. themselves span certain distances (depending
welding the individual segments together) and Pressurising the lower chamber causes the cen- on the particular design), meaning that they
therefore do not have to be clamped separately. tral layer to rise to the underside of the upper only have to be fixed to the primary structure at
It is even possible to join more than two layers ply so that the printed areas of each layer close discrete points, which achieves a certain visual
together. This type of production represents the off the gaps in the printing in the other layer separation between cushions and structure
least costly variation for ETFE foil because it (so-called intelligent printing). This can be (e.g. cushions clamped to timber primary struc-
substantially reduces the work required on the achieved, for example, with an offset chess- ture). Occasionally, the cushions are supported
building site. In addition, the erection work is board pattern, but other, even far more com- directly on a cable net structure (see “Bank”,
less dependent on the weather because the plex, patterns are possible (Fig. E 3.5, p. 190). pp. 253 – 255).
2-layer cushion
a
3-layer cushion
3-layer cushion
movable central layer
4-layer cushion
b
+ 2 foil layers
c
Top: foil;
bottom: woven fabric
Foil
Woven fabric Prestressed woven
Foil supported by cable net fabric on top,
Movable central layer 3-layer cushion
e
underneath
E 3.2 E 3.3
189
Building with foil
As the final shape of the cushion depends not • Accommodating tensile stresses
open only on its cutting pattern, but also on the elong- • Transferring loads to the supporting structure
ation of the material itself, it is essential to make • Self-supporting requirements
sure that there is sufficient clearance between • Clamping several separate layers, also when
the underside of each cushion and the primary made from different materials
loadbearing structure or other components. • Accommodating thermal expansion
This is because the sag of the cushion can be • Providing thermal insulation/break along the
expected to increase over time due to the creep edge
of the material caused by constant, sometimes • Functioning as a gutter for rainwater
closed high, loading. • Functioning as a gutter for condensation
• Fixing air supply components and lighting
units
Details • Accessibility for maintenance work
• Bird control (Fig. E 3.11)
This section deals mainly with the construction • Support during erection
details for air-filled cushion assemblies. As the
a perimeter and corner details of mechanically Many different edge clamping sections are
open
prestressed foils are hardly any different to available for ETFE cushions, which undergo
those of textile membranes, the reader should constant development by their manufacturers
refer to the chapter entitled “Building with textile so that all the functions listed above can be
membranes” (pp. 196 – 211). properly covered and integrated.
We can distinguish between a number of differ-
Seams ent types of edge clamp. A keder welded into
In contrast to coated woven fabrics, welding foil the edge of the foil (see “Keders”, p. 99) is
materials results in a homogeneous joint. The clamped either directly (Fig. E 3.6) or in an
closed tensile strength and waterproofing quality at the elastic edge bead (Figs. E 3.8 and E 3.9).
seam could therefore be achieved, in theory, A thermal break is achieved by incorporating
with a welded seam no wider than the thick- thermal insulation in the clamping section and/
ness of the material. The prerequisite for this, or by clamping the inner and outer foil layers
however, is that the areas adjacent to the seam separately on the top and bottom of a rectan-
are perfectly formed. So, as the welded seam gular section (e.g. timber) (Fig. E 3.6c). When
b E 3.4 is absolutely crucial to the safety and reliability using a thermally insulated clamping section, it
of the structure, welded seams 10 – 15 mm is important to remember that the insulating
wide are the norm (see “Fabrication of ETFE value of the cushion decreases severely to-
E 3.4 Movable central layer
a Moved by repositioning foil”, p. 98). wards its edges and more condensation will
b Moved by elastic elongation collect on the underside of the cushion here.
E 3.5 Movable central layer with intelligent printing Edges Such edge details should therefore include a
a open Foil materials are clamped along their edges or drainage channel below the clamping section
b closed
E 3.6 Simple edge clamp detail
held in place by edge cables or webbing belts (Fig. E 3.8). Condensation is less of a problem
a with flat bar in pockets – all similar details to those of textile where the upper and lower layer are clamped
b with extruded aluminium section membranes. But as foil is employed mainly for separately.
c with extruded aluminium section above and pneumatic cushion designs, rigid edges with
below timber member for better thermal
clamping sections represent the commonest Simple edge clamp details
insulation along the edge
E 3.7 Welded seam and covered edge clamp detail solutions. These sections are generally extruded, In principle, we distinguish between clamping
E 3.8 Edge clamp detail with condensation channel anodised aluminium products. Sections with rough with simple flat bars (Fig. E 3.6a) and clamping
and factory-fitted polymer edge bead surface finishes or sharp edges or affected by with extruded aluminium sections (Figs. E 3.6b
E 3.9 a, b Edge clamp details with factory-fitted polymer galvanic corrosion must be avoided at all costs and c). With the former detail, the keder is fitted
edge bead and clamping bar as erection aid
E 3.10 Cushion corner detail with keder interrupted
because such defects can cause mechanical behind the bar itself and therefore the fixing
E 3.11 Stainless steel wires above a clamped edge damage to the foil and changes in its micro- screws or bolts have to pass through holes in
detail for protecting against birds structure. The stiffness and load-carrying capac- the edge of the foil. With extruded aluminium
ity of ETFE decrease significantly at high tem- sections, the keder can be held in place in front
peratures (see “Mechanical properties of ETFE of the fasteners, which avoids having to pene-
foil”, p. 97) and so heat losses via conduction at trate the foil, and therefore damaging it. This
connections between foil and metal components latter type of detail is also used in conjunction
represent a further risk. Clamping details can with mechanically prestressed membranes (see
include strips made from elastomeric materials “Clamped edge”, p. 205).
such as ethylene propylene diene monomer rub-
ber (EPDM) laid between the foil and the metal Edge clamp detail with factory-fitted polymer
a clamping sections in order to protect the foil edge bead
against all mechanical, chemical and thermal In this type of detail, the fabricated foil with its
actions. Such elastomers can be integrated welded keder is already threaded into a poly-
directly into clamping elements in the form of mer edge bead (usually made from EPDM) at
factory-fitted polymer edge beads (Fig. E 3.8). the factory, and the polymer edge bead itself
later clamped in a two-part aluminium section
The clamping along the edges of foil cushions (Fig. E 3.8). This type of edge clamp detail has
can satisfy several constructional, technical and a number of advantages over the simple edge
building physics requirements at the same time: clamp described above:
b E 3.5
190
Building with foil
b c E 3.6 E 3.7
E 3.8 a b E 3.9
• Quicker erection of a cushion and the neighbouring cushion are with hot air to approx. 70 – 80 °C in order to min-
• Protection for the foil pocket at the clamp clipped in place, a capping strip is screwed or imise wrinkles. Heating causes plastic deform-
• Lower stress peaks at the clamped edge bolted to the section so that the cushions are ation of the foil, which results in a state of stress
• The ability to accommodate thermal expansion properly fixed in place and waterproofed (Fig. equilibrium.
because the EPDM edge bead is clamped in E 3.9b and Fig. E 5.12, p. 217). At open corners the keder is stopped short of
the two-part aluminium section. the corner; the welded seam continues, how-
Corners ever, as far as the corner itself and therefore
Edge clamp detail with erection aid As the angle at the corner of a foil cushion be- ensures that the foil remains watertight (Fig.
Separate clamping bars can be integrated into comes more acute, so it becomes more and E 3.10).
the clamping section in order to simplify the in- more difficult to achieve a homogeneous trans-
stallation of the cushions. These separate bars fer of the stresses in the surface to the corner
are clipped into the sections attached to the and thus avoid wrinkles and creases. In the
loadbearing structure without the need for any case of very acute angles, the keder in the edge
screws or bolts and are either fitted directly to should be turned around the corner with a poly-
the keder or clamped to a polymer edge bead gonal or rounded form. Sharp corners are in
(Fig. E 3.9a). Once all the sections on one side practice sometimes pretensioned and heated
E 3.10 E 3.11
191
Building with foil
Bird control In practical situations these leaks are consider- ations help to achieve a maximum service life
Birds with their sharp beaks can indeed repre- ably affected by the quality of fabrication and for the cushion structure. Occasionally, add-
sent a risk for foil cushions. The surface of an workmanship on site plus the geometry of the itional outlet safety valves are fitted and normally
ETFE cushion is generally too slippery for birds cushion itself, e.g. acute angles generally lead equipped with silencers to suppress any dis-
and so they always land on the clamping sections. to high air losses at the corners. The internal turbing whistling noises (Fig. E 3.12c). It may
Perched here, they could damage cushions, pressure must be regulated continually to cope be necessary to fit such valves when a certain
especially when they peck at insects that are with the constant losses and the pressure fluc- pressure level must be maintained very accur-
actually on the other side of the foil. Keeping tuations of the outside air. ately or the inevitable leaks in the structure are
birds away from the roof surface is therefore Depending on the size of the structure, one not adequate for the necessary flushing of the
normally achieved with thin stainless steel wires, inflation unit could be responsible for all the cushion with the fresh air. Cushions consisting
which are attached directly to the clamping cushions, or several units may be required, of two or more layers can be kept inflated by a
sections and are practically invisible beyond a each of which is connected to a particular common pressure level in the individual cham-
certain distance (Fig. E 3.11, p. 191). group of cushions. The installation can be de- bers (Fig. E 3.12b). Separate connections for
signed in such a way that it is able to increase the chambers enables the pressure levels to be
its output considerably to cope with high snow graduated (Fig. E 3.12d). This latter solution is
Air supplies for pneumatic structures loads by raising the internal pressure in all or used when the central layer is to be moved by
certain cushions. changing the pressure (see “Movable central
The principle of pneumatic forms of construc- layer”, p. 189) or various materials are being
tion is based on creating a pressure difference Air supplies for maintaining the pressure used (e.g. woven fabric for outer layer, foil for
between two areas. We divide such structures The air inlet to each cushion is generally close inner layers) or where this approach has ad-
into two categories, which can also be combined: to the edge clamp because this is where the vantages for carrying the loads.
• Air-supported structures, in which the entire supply hoses can be easily routed and fixed (Fig.
usable interior space is at a pressure higher E 3.12). The connection itself must be flexible If several chambers are maintained at the same
than that of the outside air in order to cope with the inflation procedure pressure level, then it is normal to provide holes,
• Air-inflated structures, in which certain parts and the unavoidable movements of the cushions i.e. leakage air openings, in the intervening
are stabilised by an overpressure (designs in use; ETFE hoses or other elastic polymer layers which for hydrodynamics reasons should
with air-filled cushions and tubes) hoses are the best choice. Hoses made from a not be positioned too near the air inlets. Includ-
material that withstands ultraviolet radiation are ing such openings ensures that the pressure in
An air supply must be provided for both types of certainly compulsory for ETFE cushions; a trans- the cushion is distributed faster and more
pneumatic structure so that they remain usable parent PUR hose with steel convolutions is gen- evenly, also in the event of a change in the
and stable (see “Pneumatically prestressed erally used in practice. The main lines and the external pressure (e.g. wind pressure and suc-
surfaces”, p. 143). All the information and con- secondary duct system are typically made from tion). The air inlet to each cushion should include
cepts given here apply equally to cushions spiral-wound pipes. If these remain exposed a check valve to maintain the pressure for up to
made from polymer foils and woven fabrics. and the aesthetics are important, pipes made 8 hours even if the fans are not functioning.
from polymers or other materials (e.g. stainless
Pressure level steel) can be used. Very small hose diameters
The pressure in a pneumatic structure must be of 10 – 20 mm would be adequate for normal
maintained at a constant level. However, pneu- operations, for maintaining the air pressure at
matic structures built from conventional foil and the necessary level. However, it is very difficult
membrane materials can never be constructed for systems with small hoses to cope with the
completely airtight. Leaks are unavoidable in drop in pressure if a cushion is damaged.
the following areas: Therefore, air hose diameters of 40 mm and
• via the material itself (low) more have become established in practice.
• via faults in the material
• via the joints in the material (welded or glued A pressure-controlled air supply, with compen-
seams) sation for losses, is usually necessary in order
• via the air supply connections to reach the level of pressure required and
• possibly via the clamping and edge details maintain it at that level. Minor pressure fluctu-
a b E 3.12 Options for connecting the air supply to cushions E 3.13 Air supply systems with parallel (a), series (b),
a Single air inlet; air escapes via leaks in the return air + parallel (c), return air + series (d)
surface and at edges connections
b Cushion with two chambers and single air 1 Backup supply
inlet; leakage air opening in central layer 2 Primary air supply
c Air supply with control valve; the air escapes Filter
via leaks in the surface and at edges and also Inflation unit
via a silenced outlet valve (air pressure in Dehumidifier
cushion regulated) 3 Return air system with sensors
d Cushion with two chambers each with its own P = sensor for air pressure
air supply (various pressure levels possible) F = sensor for humidity
c d E 3.12
192
Building with foil
1 +
2
+
a
1
+
2
+
b
1
+
P
3
+
F
c
1
+
P P
3
+
F
d E 3.13
Air supply systems A parallel system (Fig. E 3.13a) achieves a very of structures built so far means that only a few
The air supply is not provided purely for main- constant pressure level in the individual cush- measurements regarding actual consumption
taining the pressure in the cushions, but also ions with just one connection. Furthermore, in- are available.
for ensuring that the air within the cushions is dividual cushions are easily replaced because
sufficiently dry. This prevents condensation they can be readily disconnected from the sys- Return air systems
and algae growth inside the cushions. Pneu- tem without interrupting the supply to the other Return air systems, the characteristic feature of
matic structures should therefore be supplied cushions. An additional common supply pipe is which is the return flow line, are being used
with pretreated air and so the plant normally required, the size of which normally has a much more and more in order to save energy in air
consists of filter, fan/compressor and a con- greater diameter (approx. 100 – 150 mm) than supply installations (Figs. E 3.13c and d). Most
denser drier or a dehumidification unit with a the branches (approx. 40 – 50 mm). of all, this reduces the energy required for de-
heating battery (absorption dehumidifier; Fig. In a series installation, all the cushions (apart humidifying the air because this unit only func-
E 3.15, p. 194). Dehumidifying the air accounts from the last one in each series) requires two tions when activated by signals from sensors.
for a considerable proportion of the energy connections (Fig. E 3.13b). The pressure level Measuring the relative humidity in the cushion,
consumed by the air-supply system; there is generally drops gradually from the first to the which is usually carried out at the centre of the
room for developing alternative concepts here last cushion. Both systems are regulated by the circuit, enables the system to respond to the
that require only a minimum amount of primary pressure, sometimes combined with humidity changing weather conditions. Series (Fig. E 3.13c)
energy. control, and both suffer from losses. This type of and parallel (Fig. E 3.13d) systems are possible
Filtering the air is important because otherwise system generally includes absorption dehumid- with return air installations as well, with the same
dust and dirt could enter the cushions, from ifier. advantages and disadvantages as for those
where it is impossible to remove. All the com- Quick detection of major breakdowns and leaks systems with inherent losses. Two pressure
ponents of the plant should therefore be access- is achieved with a timer control, i.e. an unusually sensors are generally recommended for a series
ible for regular maintenance and repairs. The long operating time (e.g. > 1 min continuously) installation, which measure the values at the
system should be flushed through with dry air triggers an alarm. Such detection systems are start and end of the chain and, for example,
to remove any dust, dirt, foreign matter or pol- becoming increasingly important for safety calculate a mean value for the control.
lutants prior to connecting the hoses to the reasons. Although return air systems are essentially de-
cushions for the first time. In air-supported struc- For calculation purposes, a power supply between signed for continuous operation in order to
tures the requirements for the quality of the air approx. 0.4 and 3 W/m2 can be assumed for guarantee a constant pressure level, they often
tend to be dictated by the comfort criteria for fan and dehumidifier, and the actual annual result in considerable energy-savings of up to
the occupants (primarily with respect to hygiene, energy requirement should be taken as approx. 60 %, which justifies the higher initial cost of
humidity and temperature). 3 – 20 kWh/m2a for rough calculations. The wide such systems.
It is usual to connect several cushions together ranges of these figures are due to the fact that,
to form a group which is then supplied by com- on the one hand, various technical concepts
mon systems in a series or parallel arrangement. are possible and, on the other, the low number
193
Building with foil
2
6
1 5
3 4
1 Fan
2 Moist supply air
3 Moisture absorption
4 Silica gel rotor
5 Dehumidified air
6 Heating battery
7 Moist exhaust air
a b E 3.14 E 3.15
E 3.14 a, b Connecting the air supply to a multi-layer Safety of cushion structures mechanical damage is to be avoided or at least
cushion with a separate air supply to each detected in good time. Holes can be repaired
chamber Cushion structures are stabilised by internal by welding on pieces of ETFE material locally,
E 3.15 Inflation unit with absorption dehumidifier
E 3.16 a, b Emergency overflow for a foil cushion overpressure. If this pressure cannot be main- which are no more conspicuous than the other
E 3.17 Cable clamps for cable nets tained, the load-carrying capacity of the cushion seams.
E 3.18 Close-up of a node in a prefabricated cable net can no longer be guaranteed. This can lead to A multi-layer cushion design can increase the
E 3.19 Tensairity beam, EMPA Materials-Testing & the material fluttering and, in strong winds, to level of safety. If the outer layer is pierced, the
Research Institute, Zurich
irreparable damage. With rain or snow at the next, inner layer is automatically forced up-
E 3.20 Foil cushion supported by cable net; hydrogen
filling station, Munich (D), 2007, frank & probst same time this could lead to ponding or snow- wards towards the underside of the damaged
architekten drifts and possibly to the overloading of the layer by the pressure and can therefore close
E 3.21 Funnel-type canopy with printed ETFE foil material. The primary structure must be designed off the opening temporarily.
strengthened by cable net, Chamber of Trade & for this loading case so that failure is ruled out.
Industry, Würzburg (D), 2003, Franz Gröger/
Corresponding studies have shown that rela- Overflows
Georg Redelbach
E 3.22 Retensioning system for the mechanically pre- tively large asymmetrical loads result in practice An overflow concept for extreme situations was
stressed ETFE facade to the Gerontology Technol- which in turn can govern the development of included for the first time in the design for the
ogy Centre, Bad Tölz (D), 2003, D. J. Siegert the structural concept. Allianz Arena in Munich. This is designed for
the unlikely situation that a large pool of water
Two scenarios are relevant in practice: failure of collects in an unpressurised cushion. Sudden
the air supply and local damage (holes) in the failure of the foil could result in a large quantity
outer layer of a cushion. Neither leads to sud- of water being discharged onto persons below.
den failure of the construction. Instead, it tends But in Munich a pipe permanently welded to
to be the case that, even if the air supply has the top of the cushion enables the water to
failed or the material has been damaged, an drain away continuously in such an emergency
overpressure is maintained in the cushions for situation without causing any serious problems
quite some time and they lose their prestress (Fig. E 3.16). The extra cost of a detail that pene-
only slowly. Most systems include pressure sen- trates the foil is only justified in those instances
sors that detect such problems and output an where a quick repair cannot be guaranteed
alarm so that the necessary remedial measures and large quantities of water falling from great
can be taken. Cushion assemblies are also heights represent an obvious safety risk.
comparatively safe in the event of a major acci-
dent: even a badly damaged cushion overhead
does not represent a serious danger because Mechanically prestressed foil
of its low self-weight. In a worst-case scenario,
a a cushion sagging under the weight of snow or Up until now, ETFE foil has been used primarily
water rips and empties its contents onto the for building envelopes with air-filled cushions.
floor below. The material has a better elasticity than textile
Air supply systems to cushion structures must membranes, but a lower strength, and so
be designed with inherent redundancy in order mechanically prestressed foil is currently only
to be able to maintain the overpressure in event feasible for short spans. But in some cases a
of a fan breakdown or the failure of an individual clearly anisotropic prestress renders possible
cushion. This means that every inflation unit must longer, strip-like foil membranes. Special atten-
be fitted with two fans that guarantee constant tion must be given to the creep behaviour of the
operation, controlled by a timer switch that alter- foil material. Whereas in cushion structures the
nates the fans every few days (Fig. E 3.13, p. 193). internal pressure can compensate for any loss
In addition, the inflation units are often backed of prestress as a result of creep, a mechan-
up by emergency generators so that full func- ically prestressed design must include reten-
tionality is guaranteed even in the event of a sioning elements such as threaded parts with
power failure. adequate travel. At the Gerontology Technology
Regular inspections and maintenance of the foil Centre in Bad Tölz, for example, this is achieved
and the bird control measures are necessary if with leaf springs and adjusting screws on the
b E 3.16
194
Building with foil
195
Building with textile
membranes
E 4.1
Membranes are prefabricated in large formats Fig. E 4.2 provides an overview of the typical
and folded or rolled for transport. This means details that need to be considered for mechan-
that the number of joints, seams and connec- ically prestressed membranes, and Fig. E 4.3
tions is comparatively low when compared with shows how the respective details depend on
other forms of construction. But this also means which membrane material is used. It is important
that the details are even more significant for the to categorise the details according to whether
overall loadbearing structure because this is the loads are transferred as linear loads or
where high tensile forces must be transferred point loads. The former occur at edges, seams
from membranes with complex geometrical and linear supports, the latter at corners. The
forms, and just a few millimetres thick, to the basic principles for anchoring the stresses in
rest of the structure. the plane of the membrane at these details are
The form of a mechanically prestressed mem- often similar and so the basic constructional
brane is essentially determined by the laws of elements such as wire ropes, webbing belts
physics once the boundary conditions have been and clamping bars can therefore be employed
defined (see “Form-finding”, pp. 138 – 140). But in similar ways at the various details.
the details worked out by the designer can in-
fluence the appearance of a membrane load- Generally speaking, the fundamental principle
bearing structure significantly. Design offices and of membrane structures, i.e. using a minimum
fabricators experienced in the design and con- amount of material, should be reflected in the
struction of membrane structures often develop details as well: their geometry and positioning
their own unmistakable styles for the details. should match the flow of forces and render the
The details described on the following pages structural system “legible”. The consistency of
show all the basic constructional features of the proportions between the individual compo-
building with membranes in relation to the mater- nents is very important here. For example, the
ials used, although the details shown here are dimensions of a corner plate should be defined
restricted to a number of standard situations by the components that meet at this point and
and standard geometries. More complex details also by the diameters of the cables connected
can be seen in the photographs and in the case to the plate.
studies presented in Part F (pp. 225 – 285). Owing to the comparatively large deformations
Special solutions for convertible structures are that membrane structures undergo upon the
not dealt with in detail because such designs application of external loads (see “Mechanically
are always very specific to the particular project prestressed surfaces”, pp. 140 – 143), all details
(see, for example, “Open-air Theatre, Josefs- should allow for the necessary movement –
burg Arena”, pp. 282 – 285, and “Convertible also during erection. And allowance for move-
membrane structures”, p. 149). ment at the details is of course especially im-
portant in convertible structures.
The forms of construction and features of mem-
brane details depend on many factors, which The prestressing of the membrane surface is
the engineer and architect must fine-tune and generally introduced at the details, which should
agree upon in close collaboration in an iterative therefore also include appropriate fittings for
planning process: connecting the temporary tensioning equipment
• Geometry of planar structure required. It is often possible to attach portable
• External loads winches or ratchet straps to eyes or edges that
• Membrane material are available anyway. But where this is not pos-
• Magnitudes and directions of forces sible, temporary or permanent (welded) attach-
E 4.1 Resolved traditional Spanish awning (toldo) with • Erection and maintenance concepts ment points must be provided. Furthermore, it
“flying masts”; Medina (KSA), 2003, • Form is often necessary to allow for adjusting the
Rasch + Bradatsch
E 4.2 Overview of typical details for mechanically
• Costs prestressed or retensioning the incoming cables,
prestressed membranes which means cables must include turnbuckles
E 4.3 Relationships between details and material or must be attached to threaded fittings.
196
Building with textile membranes
All edges and corners and arrises of metal parts Wire ropes (generally referred to as cables) for with a bolt or pin, a closed fitting is anchored
used in conjunction with membranes must be the edges of membranes should be as flexible between two plates. Both may require turn-
rounded off. This applies not only to parts that as possible so that they can match the curve of buckles at the end of the rope where adjust-
are designed to be in contact with the membrane, the edge. Special round strand ropes and open ability is necessary. Cylindrical fittings or sockets
but also to any metal parts that could come into spiral ropes made up of large numbers of thin are installed as clamps (no thread) and with
contact with the membrane during erection. wires are available for this. Where very high internal or external threads.
forces are expected in the cables, e.g. guy
ropes, fully locked spiral ropes are used, which Cylindrical swaged terminations with an exter-
Elements of the construction are characterised by their z-shaped wires on nal thread, the so-called threaded fitting adjust-
the outside (Fig. E 4.4, p. 198). These shaped ed directly via the screw thread, are typical for
Membrane structures inevitably make use of wires interlock with each other and create a membrane details. These fittings are inserted
semi-finished metal products as well as textiles dense surface that protects the wires in the through sleeves and secured with a nut on the
and semi-finished polymer products such as core of the rope and hence improves the corro- other side. With a sufficiently large sleeve in-
membrane materials, webbing belts (see sion protection. In addition, fully locked spiral side diameter and spherical washers between
“Webbing belts”, p. 107) and keders (see ropes are given a filling of zinc dust paint. The nut and end of sleeve, they can also accommo-
“Keders”, p. 99). wires of such ropes are packed more tightly date rotation.
together and so achieve a high load-carrying
Cables and cable fittings capacity for a relatively small diameter. Clamping and keder details
Edge cables are mostly in the form of steel or Detachable linear details are generally in the
stainless steel wire ropes, only rarely ropes made End terminations for cables take the form of form of clamping bars or keder rails. These are
from synthetic materials such as polyester or spelter sockets or swaged fittings (Fig. E 4.5, interlocking connections in which the keder,
aramid. To protect against corrosion, every in- p. 198). The latter are used for round strand welded into the edge of the membrane, presses
dividual steel wire is hot-dip galvanised. Special ropes and open spiral ropes in diameters up to against the sides of the clamping bar or keder
aluminium-zinc coatings offer the best protection approx. 36 mm, whereas the former are required rail. Fig. E 4.6 (p. 198) shows the different edge
against corrosion. for anchoring larger rope diameters and fully detail arrangements and how the loads are car-
Stranding is the process of forming a strand locked ropes. Spelter sockets are shorter and ried; the red arrows represent the actions and
from several individual wires laid (wound) in a bulkier than swaged fittings and are filled with a reactions, the blue ones the clamping forces of
helical arrangement around an axis or another molten metal (e.g. usually a zinc alloy) or a syn- the clamping element. The advantage of polymer
wire to produce a symmetrical section. When thetic material (epoxy or polyester resin). keders, e.g. PVC, is that they exhibit similar
this strand is used directly as a wire rope, we Spelter sockets and swaged fittings can be elongation characteristics to those of the mem-
speak of a spiral rope, but if several strands anchored in various ways; we distinguish between brane and therefore do not lead to any stress- or
are laid around each other, this is known as a three types: open, closed and cylindrical. temperature-related restraint stresses. A keder
stranded rope. An open fitting is attached to a corner plate made from a steel rope should be encased in a
glued (+) – ++ – –
rigid (c) + + + + +
c
Edge flexible (d) webbing belt + – – + ++
d
rope in pocket ++ (+) + + +
clamping bar ++ + + + +
e keder rail + ++ ++ + +
plate + ++ + + +
hump + + + + +
g
E 4.2 ++ typical + possible (+) rare – not possible
E 4.3
197
Building with textile membranes
d
a b
c d
b e
E 4.4 E 4.5
shrink-wrap plastic sleeve to prevent damage We must distinguish between open and closed Permanent seams
to the membrane. clamping details. In the former, a small gap re- Large membrane surfaces are joined together
Clamping bars are typically made from steel and mains between the fixed and detachable parts in the factory from individual segments prepared
are 30 – 40 mm wide and 5 – 8 mm thick (Fig. of the clamping detail, which allows the mem- according to the cutting pattern to form a curved
E 4.7a); their length depends on the degree of brane to expand and contract (Figs. E 4.6b and membrane section (see “Cutting pattern”, pp.
movement required at the connection. E 4.7f); in the latter, there is no gap and the 147 – 148). All seams must satisfy stringent
Holes pre-punched in the membrane for the result is again a connection held together by a demands because their mechanical and visual
fasteners should be much larger than the diam- combination of the applied force and the inter- characteristics must be as close as possible to
eter of the fastener in order to avoid fraying locking form (Figs. E 4.6c and E 4.7g) which those of the membrane material itself. The main
around the edges of the hole. Tightening the allows the edge of the membrane to be pulled requirements are:
fastener and thus exerting a clamping force on taut. As the area in contact is much smaller than • High mechanical strength (similar to the
the membrane results in a connection held to- in the case of a clamping bar, thin strips of membrane) when subjected to short- and
gether by a combination of the applied force membrane or synthetic rubber are sometimes long-term actions
and the interlocking form; the edge can there- inserted to cushion the clamping action and • Similar elongation behaviour and flexibility as
fore be pulled taut and clamped in position. therefore prevent damage to the fabric. those of the membrane
• Watertightness, and also airtightness in the
Keder rails and clamps are aluminium extrusions. case of pneumatic structures
Small notches are provided in these components Seams • As narrow as possible
as an aid for drilling the holes for the fasteners • Consistent visual and mechanical qualities
(Figs. E 4.7b–d). In contrast to a joint with The various sections of membrane material are • Economic fabrication
clamping bars, the fasteners do not penetrate joined together via seams. A permanent seam
the membrane with this type of detail. The ex- is a factory-made junction between two pieces The techniques used for permanent seams are
trusion includes a recess into which the keder of material, designed to produce a coherent welding, stitching and, occasionally, gluing as
is threaded. The membrane is therefore held in surface from the pieces of material cut accord- well (see “Fabrication”, pp. 106 – 107).
place but at the same time can still expand in ing to the cutting pattern. A detachable seam is
the direction of the joint, i.e. a longitudinally; this a connection that is made during erection so Welded seams
is purely an interlocking joint (Figs. E 4.7b–f). that the prefabricated sections of membrane Welded seams are generally carried out in the
With a one-piece keder rail, the membrane with material can be assembled on the building site. factory using large welding plant that can pro-
its welded keder is threaded in from the side; duce high-quality seams very quickly (see “Weld-
applying wax helps to overcome the frictional ing”, p. 106). When welding is carried out on site,
resistance. Two-piece keder clamps are fitted it is only for attaching cover strips over detach-
either side of the keder and then fixed to the able joints between membrane sections, or over
rigid supporting structure. rigid edges, corner details or other openings.
198
Building with textile membranes
a 50 - 100 mm
e
E 4.8 E 4.9 E 4.10
Welded seams are the most common type of Stitched seams Intersections
seam in use because of their high quality and Stitched seams are primarily used for uncoated Joining together the separate pieces of mater-
cost-effective production; these days, only mater- woven fabrics that cannot be welded. We dis- ial to form a coherent membrane can lead to
ials unsuitable for welding are still stitched or tinguish between plain, flat-fell and double- intersections between two or more welded
glued. Welded seams can achieve a strength stitched flat-fell seams. Only the latter of these seams (Fig. E 4.11). These nodes are thicker,
that is equal to about 90 % of that of the mem- three can achieve the strength and water- which can lead to problems during fabrication
brane itself. However, the prerequisite for this tightness necessary for membrane structures and also with respect to transferring the forces
is loads in the plane of the membrane, i.e. the (Figs. E 4.8d and e). Such a seam can be pro- at these points. On the other hand, it is often
material is being used properly from the struc- duced either with interlocking or overlapped desirable, from the aesthetics viewpoint, that
tural viewpoint. Shear forces due to local load hems. The width of the stitched seam is limited intersecting seams meet at one point in order
concentrations and peeling forces perpendicu- by a homogeneous utilisation of all adjacent to create a neater appearance. The solutions
lar to the plane of the membrane lead to seams seams. With too many rows of stitches, the chosen to overcome such problems depend
with much lower load-carrying capacities and inner rows are only loaded once the outer rows very much on the material. Whereas it is possible
should be avoided. fail. Two, three or four rows of stitches is nor- to overlay and join together even four, five or
As a rule, a welded seam is produced simply by mal. six layers of a lightweight material at one point,
overlapping the pieces of material by 50 – 100 mm The holes for the stitches widen as the membrane alternative solutions must be found for heavier
in order to avoid excessive differences in stiff- is prestressed, which reduces the watertight- materials. One option is to create a common
ness between the seam and the main area of ness at these points considerably (Fig. E 4.10). seam where each intersecting seam is offset by
the material (Figs. E 4.8a and E 4.9). Subsequently welding or gluing separate cover the width of one seam.
strips over stitched seams helps to improve
It is also possible to produce splices with one their watertightness. Special adhesives are also Overlapping membrane sections
or two separate pieces of material covering a available that are spread directly over the Overlaps at seams should always be arranged
butt joint between the two pieces of membrane stitched seam to improve the watertightness. such that run-off water drains from the upper-
(Figs. E 4.8b and c). With such a splice joint, most piece of material to the lower one in order
there is no need to take the seam into account Glued seams to minimise the amount of water impinging on
in the cutting pattern, so the full width of the roll Glued seams are only used when no other the actual joint between the layers and hence
of material available can be used. Welded method is suitable. They are still used for glass- the risk of water infiltrating (Fig. E 4.12). The
splices with separate pieces of material above silicone membranes, either combined with reverse arrangement also allows dust and dirt
and below the joint can in some cases achieve stitching or in the form of special adhesive tape. to collect at such points and in some circum-
even higher strengths. The disadvantage, how- The material is overlapped in a similar way to stances even infiltrate the woven fabric at open
ever, is their more time-consuming and costly welded seams. edges.
fabrication.
E 4.11 E 4.12
199
Building with textile membranes
2 3 Detachable seams
1
Detachable seams are used where fabrication,
transport or erection requirements dictate that
a membrane surface must be subdivided; other-
wise, detachable seams should be avoided.
The maximum area of membrane therefore de-
pends not only on the geometry of the structure
1 Eyelet 9 Membrane
2 Keder strengthening and the erection sequence, but also on the
3 Polyester rope 10 Wire rope weight and the rollability or foldability of the
4 Clamping bar 11 Membrane loop material being used. This can vary considerably
5 Keder clamp, two-part 12 Metal strip and it is not possible to specify a maximum
6 Splice plate 13 Keder clamp/rail
7 Double-stitched 14 Protective sheet
size that applies to all situations. However,
flat-fell seam metal cover coherent membrane surfaces measuring up to
8 Webbing belt 15 Cover strip 1500 m2 in area are certainly normal.
200
Building with textile membranes
7 8
E 4.18
10 11
E 4.13 Standard laced seam
a
a Isometric view E 4.17 Clamped details either side of valley rope
b Section through seam E 4.18 Webbing belt stitched into membrane to form 11
E 4.14 Laced seam with “crocheted” rope loops ridge or valley
a Isometric view E 4.19 Ridge details (sections and plan) 10
b Sections through seam a with membrane strengthening
E 4.15 Clamped seam and seam with two-part b with membrane loops
keder clamp E 4.20 Ridge detail with two-part keder clamps
a Isometric view of clamped seam a Isometric view
b Sections through seams b Section
E 4.16 Standard laced seam with cover strip E 4.21 Arch detail with double keder rail
b E 4.19
Another option is to tie the edges together with of this is that no higher stresses can occur be- Linear supports
short, “crocheted” loops of rope that are fed tween the bars and the lengths of the edges as
through the eyelets (Fig. E 4.14). The advantage built can be checked. Owing to the need to Membrane surfaces are often supported by
of this type of connection is that the membrane punch holes in the membrane, this type of de- additional linear elements such as ridge or valley
sections are overlapped like a clamped seam. tachable seam is mainly used for polyester- cables or arches (see “Surfaces with elements
PVC membranes because of the low tear prop- forming ridges and valleys”, p. 142). A membrane
Clamped seams agation resistance of PTFE/glass-membranes. connected directly to an arch or cable makes
A seam that requires a high load-carrying capac- use of a detail that is essentially the same as the
ity but at the same time must still remain flexible Seams with keder clamps detail at an edge, but with a second, mirrored
can be clamped, i.e. the edges of the sections A seam with a keder clamp (Fig. E 4.15b, bottom) version of the detail as well (Figs. E 4.20 and
of membrane and clamped in place between is somewhat stiffer than a seam with clamping E 4.21). If a webbing belt is being used, then
metal bars, possibly with the membrane sections bars because the elements are longer in this this can be stitched directly to the membrane,
overlapping (Fig. E 4.15). At a seam within a case. This type of seam is therefore often cho- fitted within the overlapping hems of the mem-
membrane panel the clamping bars are kept sen for those places where the membrane has brane sections according to the principle of the
relatively short in order to guarantee sufficient a linear support in the form of an arch or ridge double-stitched flat-fell seam in order to protect
flexibility; 100 – 150 mm is a typical length. or valley cable (Figs. E 4.17 and E 4.20). Where it against UV radiation (Fig. E 4.18). Cables and
Leaving gaps of 5 – 10 mm between adjacent such a seam is not at a support, the clamping arches can also be left exposed beneath the
bars along the length of the joint ensures ad- element should not exceed a length of approx. membrane, secured by lacing or welded loops
equate flexibility. 200 mm if sufficient flexibility of a membrane is or pockets in order to prevent movement of the
Short clamping bars and large joints allow the to be guaranteed and the element is not to be membrane relative to the supporting element
membrane to expand along the joint. Normally, subjected to bending. (Fig. E 4.19). However, the risk of such relative
however, the clamping bars at seams and edges With two-part clamps and no gap it is possible movement decreases as the curvature of the
are attached in such a way that the edge of the to pull the membrane taut and clamp it directly, membrane increases. In such instances it may
membrane is stretched to the prestressing as with a clamped seam. be adequate to reinforce the membrane locally
amount. The gaps between the clamping bars Where the seam is visible internally, it may be with a second strip of material.
are then bridged over with pieces of sheet worthwhile fixing the keder clamping bars from
metal and thus kept constant. The advantage below in order to minimise the visual intrusion.
15 13
10 12 2 13 14 15
a b E 4.20 E 4.21
201
Building with textile membranes
5
7
6 5
7
a b c E 4.23
202
Building with textile membranes
Rigid edges
A rigid edge is created when a membrane is
connected to a rigid linear component, usually 14
a steel section. Rigid edges make use of simi-
lar components to those of detachable seams. 12
They should not be joined at acute angles be-
cause stress peaks and creases can then occur a
at these positions. The erection and prestress-
ing of stiff membrane corners with acute angles 13
has proved to be problematic as well because
the geometry results in a clash between the
means of tensioning which can then only be 15
carried out from the opposite side. Circular and
oval plan forms, or those with obtuse angles,
represent the best solutions. If acute angles
cannot be avoided, then a rounded segment
can be cut out of the corner and closed off with
a separate piece of material. E 4.25 b E 4.26
Watertightness at a rigid edge is often only
achieved by welding on a separate piece of
material, regardless of the particular type of
rigid edge detail. This piece of material is con-
nected directly to a gutter beyond the load-
bearing detail (Fig. E 4.30, p. 205). However,
this covering prevents access to the detail for
maintenance. As an alternative, the membrane
can also be fitted over a saddle and fixed directly
to a rainwater gutter (see Fig. E 3.8, p. 191).
E 4.27 E 4.28
203
Building with textile membranes
1 3
2 5
4 6
3
7 5
6
8 3
7 3 6
d e
204
Building with textile membranes
8
12
E 4.32
14
16
17
13 15
a b E 4.33
205
Building with textile membranes
Corner details
206
Building with textile membranes
E 4.40 E 4.41
207
Building with textile membranes
a
plate with turnbuckles or adjustable perforated
1 plates. This method is used with polyester-PVC
b membranes, for example. As PTFE/glass mem-
branes cannot be stitched, the tangential forces
2 cannot be transferred through webbing belts,
so in this case the membrane is either clamped
b with clamping bars similar to the edge details
(in the case of larger corner cutouts), or clamped
directly to the corner plate (smaller structures).
7
6
E 4.43 E 4.44
208
Building with textile membranes
209
Building with textile membranes
a b E 4.50 E 4.51
(Figs. E 4.44, p. 208, and E 4.47, p. 209).
The optimum position of a guyed mast is on the
bisector of the angle between the edge ropes
and the guy ropes and/or in line with the resultant
of the forces at this node.
The base of the mast should always be designed
as a pinned connection in order to compensate
for deformations during prestressing and as a
result of external loads (see “Erection”, p. 148).
210
Building with textile membranes
7
6
11 10
211
Complex building envelopes
E 5.1
The building envelope is often likened to a “third ucts (e.g. sheets and panels) and also as foils
skin”, after our actual skin and our clothing. This and membranes. However, thermal insulation
comparison of course refers to the protective, made from synthetic materials is also very im-
regulatory and controlling functions of the indi- portant, and so the first part of this chapter is
vidual “skins” and at the same time implies a devoted to the subject of thermal performance.
hierarchy and a differentiated allocation of tasks
resulting solely from the different distances from Thermal performance for buildings
the building’s occupants. Precise knowledge of The information given in the chapter entitled
the characteristics and mechanisms of the human “Building physics and energy aspects” (pp. 108 –
skin and its individual layers has for some years 123) in the first place relates to homogeneous
been a key requirement for the development of material structures and thermal processes. But
functional clothing in particular and an essential when considering these aspects in relation to
ingredient in its design. However, this knowledge an actual construction, it is multi-layer, multi-leaf
has not really found its way into the design of constructions, combinations and penetrations,
building envelopes. which are intrinsic to virtually every building or
structure, plus their interactions with other
building subsystems (e.g. building services or
The envelope design brief loadbearing structure) that should be our focus
of attention. Furthermore, in terms of building
Exhaustive studies into the subject of comfort in physics, the distribution of water vapour partial
building interiors were carried out as long ago pressures and saturation vapour pressures must
as the 1960s and 1970s. However, these inves- also be investigated, for example, because
tigations, so vital to an integrative understand- such considerations must always be based on
ing of the requirements placed on the building the actual humidity of the air.
envelope, concentrated mainly on symptoms Thermal conductivity, thermal transmittance and
and were intended to assist in the design of thermal resistance have already been referred
air-conditioning systems. And the notion of a to elsewhere in this book. Further principles
standardised “perfect” environment for the human and terminology must now be briefly explained
organism, be it of a static or dynamic nature, in order to understand the study of the practical,
has been dealt with by science fiction on many constructional level.
occasions. For the individual demands placed on
all three levels of investigation – skin, clothing Surface resistance and heat transfer coefficient
and building envelope – are affected by dy- The heat transfer coefficient per unit area α
namic processes from both sides, i.e. are never [W/m2K] specifies the amount of heat energy
static processes. Normally, both the conditions that flows to the adjacent layer of air or next
in the human body and also those of the exterior layer of material through 1 m2 of a material
climate are subjected to constant fluctuations. structure in 1 h for a temperature gradient of
This chapter will not attempt to carry out a study 1 K. We distinguish here between αa (external)
E 5.1 ETFE cushions measuring 10 ≈ 10 m, shopping
of the complex demands placed on building and αi (internal). The surface resistance per
centre roof, Amadora (P), 2009, Promontorio envelopes and arrive at a conclusion; readers unit area (Ra or Ri) specifies the extent to which
Architects interested in such investigations are referred the surface of the respective material structure
E 5.2 The relationship between thickness of layer of to the appropriate section of the bibliography resists the heat transfer. Although this effect
insulation and U-value (Europe, left) or R-value
(p. 289). It will instead deal with particular issues occurs at all boundary layers, in practice it is
(North America, right) for insulating materials with
different thermal conductivities (simplified: no and potential solutions relevant to the use of primarily the transitions between interior air and
covering layers, no edge effects, no surface polymers and membranes, which will be illus- first layer and between last layer and external
resistances) trated here by way of examples. Some of the air that are important. The following applies:
E 5.3 Thermal bridge principles solutions have already been employed and are
a Geometrical thermal bridge (2D)
b Geometrical thermal bridge (3D)
supplemented here by vital fundamental infor- Ri = 1/αi and Ra = 1/αa [m2K/W]
c Linear-type thermal bridge mation. Polymer materials are used in the build-
d Point-type thermal bridge ing envelope in the form of semi-finished prod-
212
Complex building envelopes
The values to be used are given in DIN 4108-2, The relationship is clearly illustrated in Fig. E 5.2: the combination and jointing of various mater-
section 6.2, and in DIN 4108-3, Annex A, section the R-values for the relationship between ther- ials. We therefore also refer to structural or con-
A.2.3. mal conductivity and thickness of insulation are structional thermal bridges, which are either
on the right-hand y-axis. linear-type (Fig. E 5.3c), point-type (Fig. E 5.3d)
Total thermal resistance and thermal transmittance or a combination of these.
The total thermal resistance per unit area R is Temperature and partial vapour pressure gradients
calculated from the thermal resistance of the The water vapour partial pressure p is the prod- Calculation of thermal bridges, U-value
material structure and the surface resistances uct of the temperature-related saturation vapour Under certain circumstances, thermal bridges
of its two sides Ri and Ra. When considering a pressure ps and the relative humidity of the air φ. are the result of the geometry of insulating elem-
multi-layer construction, the corresponding layer- ents, the edges of which, by way of their very
related thermal resistances (e.g. s1 to s3) should p = ps · φ [Pa] nature, exhibit a higher thermal conductivity than
be added together in the ratio of their individual that of the (undisturbed) middle of the system.
layer thicknesses: Air can continue to absorb water vapour until The effect depends on the exact configuration
the saturation vapour pressure is reached. of the edge of the system, the geometry and
1 s1 s2 s3 1 However, the saturation vapour pressure also the dimensions, plus the respective installation
R= + + + + depends on the temperature (relative humidity). situation as well.
αa λ1 λ2 λ3 αi Once the saturation pressure is exceeded, the The heat flow via such “non-standard places” is
water vapour condenses out (condensation). either estimated using a simplified method or
This standard procedure is simplified because Knowledge of the temperature and partial vapour calculated accurately by means of FEM, and
we assume that the thermal resistances of indi- pressure gradients across a multi-layer con- then included in the overall design by way of
vidual layers are constant and homogeneous, struction is primarily important for estimating the linear (length-related) U-values or an effective
and that the surface resistances between the potential occurrence of condensation (especially (modified) thermal conductivity (λeff). The result
individual layers can be ignored. where it might occur). This can be determined is an effective (modified) U-value which depends
The inverse of the thermal resistance is the ther- relatively easily for a purely two-dimensional on the parameters length of periphery, surface
mal transmittance U, normally simply referred structure by using the Glaser method (see DIN area and thickness, and consequently is differ-
to as the U-value (previously known as k-value 4108-3). But in the case of linear and, first and ent for every system; the effective thermal con-
in Germany): foremost, complex three-dimensional geometries, ductivity (λeff) is a mean value valid for one par-
and also when very accurate results are needed, ticular system only.
U = 1/R [W/m2K] computer-assisted hygrothermic calculations According to the current state of the art, it is
based on finite element models (FEM) will be therefore advisable to specify U-values for
It is important to realise that this value is related necessary. standard cross-sections and to calculate the
to a surface area only and any loss effects, for length-related linear U-value ΨK for the respec-
example, can only be taken into account by way Thermal bridges tive installation situation, i.e. the specific
of global or proportional surcharges or detailed A thermal bridge is a local position at which – thermal bridge configuration, separately
individual calculations. The relationship between viewed on a relative scale – the heat flow is sig- (e.g. also with the help of FEM), and to take
the thicknesses of layers of insulation and the nificantly higher than that of the construction these into account within the scope of the total
U-values that can be achieved is not linear be- considered as a whole. Consequently, a homo- energy balance according to DIN EN 832.
cause of the inverse relationship U = 1/R. This geneous two-dimensional structure cannot Considering the area-based thermal conduc-
fact is not wholly irrelevant for architectural de- have any thermal bridges, even if the thermal tivity and the linear thermal bridge effect
sign freedoms when considering the energy conductivity is very high in absolute terms. separately means that the area-related propor-
efficiency aspects, as is illustrated graphically “Geometric thermal bridges” can ensue in three- tions can be compared with other insulating
for various insulating materials in Fig. E 5.2 (U- dimensional, non-planar structures (Figs. E 5.3a materials. The thermal bridge problem is ag-
value on left-hand y-axis). and b). The higher heat flow at such positions gravated when using high-performance ther-
Designers in North America use the total thermal is due entirely to the ratio of the internal surface mal insulation, e.g. vacuum insulation systems.
resistance (R) instead of the European U-value. area to the larger external surface area. On a Such systems are much thinner and minimise
The North American R-value therefore increases molecular level (see “Conduction”, p. 108) we the conduction through the surface area,
with the quality of the thermal insulation, exhibits could say, for example, that each web in the which results in every thermal bridge becom-
an approximately linear relationship with the microstructure of an insulating material is a ing more significant – in relative terms – than
thickness of the thermal insulation and, moreover, thermal bridge. Generally, however, the term is is the case with conventional insulating
is specified in US customary units [F · ft2 · h/Btu]. used only in constructional relationships, i.e. in materials.
0.035
0.025
0.800 160.000
0.020
0.008
0.005
0.600 120.000
[W/mK]
a b
0.400 80.000
0.200 40.000
0.000 0.000
0.01 2 6 10 14 18 22 26 30 34 38 42 46 50
Thickness of insulation [cm]
E 5.2 c d E 5.3
213
Complex building envelopes
Reducing the velocity Minimising the As the governing external conditions acting on
Avoiding restraint Reducing dust and investment and ope- a building are of a dynamic nature, a purely
of interior air
stresses turbulence rating costs of HVAC
circulation systems static approach to thermal insulation measures is
inappropriate, even though this type of approach
has been used hitherto in all the relevant stand-
Equalising and ards and regulations. Dynamic interactions
unifying interior wall between exterior, building envelope and interior
surface temperatures
to match interior air
– and hence consequences for the heat flow –
temperature result from, in particular, solar energy gains via
translucent and transparent areas of the build-
E 5.4 ing envelope and the heat storage properties of
building components (thermal mass). Thermal
insulation measures make a valuable contribu-
tion to evening out day/night fluctuations in the
Moisture control interior temperature – especially in the presence
of little thermal mass.
Hygiene Air change
requirements requirements
Special aspects of foil and membrane designs
Temperature relationships
User behaviour
in interior The development of efficient building envelopes
using foil and membrane materials to provide
protection from the climate requires the consid-
Moisture environment Fire protection
Thermal insulation measures
214
Complex building envelopes
roundings. The condensation that may occur • solar thermal • ultraviolet radiation
must be taken into account when designing Sound propagation Growth (microorganisms)/
the envelope. (emissions from inside) possible soiling
Reflection • appearance
Heat transfer via the cushion
Heat transfer at
• increase in absorption
Heat transfer in membrane cushions the clamping details
Air-filled cushion designs are frequently chosen Reflection
Convection
not for their structural and constructional bene-
fits, but rather because their intrinsic multi-layer
construction leads to a vast improvement in the Convection Reflection
thermal insulation properties. When transparency,
i.e. an unobstructed view through the material,
and not just translucency, i.e. diffuse light perme- Sound reflections Radiation (long- Possible soiling
wave) through Possible
ability only, is desired, then membrane cushions • appearance
absorption conden-
• cleaning option
and the glass-ETFE foil designs described on sation
p. 223 are the only options for achieving com- Sound propagation Radiated heat Solar energy gains
paratively low U-values. Important here are the (emissions from outside) due to temperature Daylight
Noise of rainfall of cushion depending (risk of glare) Radiation (long-
surface resistances at the air/material interfaces on surface emissivity, wave) through
and, first and foremost, the convection within possibly reflection absorption
the cushion, which is inevitable at certain tem- of radiation (low E)
perature differences because of the large volume
of air between the layers of material.
As Fig. E 5.8a (p. 216) shows, the convection
effects caused by the rising warmer air differ
depending on the orientation of the cushion
Radiation (long-
and the direction of the heat flow (horizontal or wave) through
vertical). Every additional layer of material, and absorption
hence every additional air chamber, in the cushion
reduces the volume and introduces two further E 5.7
surface resistances (air/membrane/air). Conse-
quently, this represents an improvement (Fig. other thermal bridge calculation and similar to provement in the Uf-value depends on the dis-
E 5.8b, p. 216). the pane/frame situation at a window – in order tance between the layers and the intervening
Nonetheless, the cushion edge details are still to arrive at a total U-value. Critical here is the materials (usually the loadbearing structure).
important for the heat transfer through a build- Uf-value, i.e. the U-value of the frame construc- However, this solution involves considerably
ing envelope composed of membrane cushions. tion, or rather the length-related thermal trans- more design and construction input (two clamp-
Besides the thermal insulation quality of the mittance Ψ [W/mK]. ing elements, airtightness, protection from
(clamping) frame detail (e.g. achieved with a One fundamental frame optimisation option that weather during erection), which inevitably re-
thermal break), it is also important to consider can be used for membrane cushions is to separ- sults in higher costs. The standard variation of
the proportion that the framing represents in ate the individual layers and clamp them separ- a factory-welded cushion with a common
terms of the total surface area – just like any ately (Fig. E 5.8d, p. 216). The potential im- clamping arrangement, fixed directly to the
215
Complex building envelopes
a b d E 5.8 E 5.9
framing, always results in a considerable ther- Calculating U-values differ only marginally within each direction.
mal weak spot; a high local U-value can Up until now, most research projects concerning However, the differences between the various
be expected here (Uf-values in some instances membrane cushions concentrated on their winter- directions are much more obvious. We can
> 4 W/m2K). A gutter beneath the clamping de- time thermal performance. The studies have therefore conclude that it is not so much the
tail will normally be necessary in order to deal established that both the standards applicable method used that is critical for accessing the
with the unavoidable condensation (Fig. E 3.8, to heavyweight wall constructions (DIN EN ISO U-value of a membrane cushion, but rather the
p. 191). The supposed disadvantage must, how- 6946) and windows (DIN EN 673) contain con- installation situation. If our calculations exclude
ever, be looked at in the following context. ditions that restrict their applicability to membrane the heat flow from outside to inside, which only
Firstly, the cushion clamping detail usually cushion designs. Work carried out by the Fraun- applies in hot regions or in summer, and con-
accounts for a very small proportion of the total hofer Institute for Building Physics (IBP) has re- sider the Central European wintertime case, we
surface area when compared with the alterna- vealed a distinctly non-steady-state heat transfer only need to distinguish between horizontal and
tives, e.g. glass; the framing may well be < 2 % mechanism. The reasons for this are the very upward heat flows.
of the area when using cushions with a favour- low mass and the large volume of air between Membrane cushions can be constructed from
able geometry (Fig. E 5.14). Secondly, this type the membrane layers (much greater than that of polymer foil, woven fabrics or combinations of
of design guarantees that the thermal weakness multi-pane glazing), with the ensuing convection. these materials. Fig. E 5.13 contains compara-
is certainly along the edges, at the clamping This means that the U-value in the centre of the tive optical values for such combinations.
details, and not within the surface of the cushion. cushion is independent of the thickness of the Where cushions use both foil and woven fabric,
Inconspicuous condensation gutters beneath layer of air and therefore the absolute size of the then these materials must be clamped separately
the clamping details may well represent a cost- cushion, at least for customary cushion dimen- because they cannot be welded together. Be-
effective answer to coping with any moisture in sions. sides the possibility of designing separate clamp-
these areas; the condensation can generally Comparing the two standards mentioned above ing details (Fig. E 5.8d), it is also possible to
evaporate and does not need any elaborate and measured U-values leads us to suspect, use special double keder rails, like those of the
drainage measures. however, that both standards could be used in visitor pavilion at Alnwick Garden in southern
a roughly similar way in order to estimate a mean England (Fig. E 5.11).
U-value. This does not allow the range of varia- The envelope of this building had to comply
tion in the non-steady-state U-value to be con- with various specifications regarding the light
sidered, however. A better alternative for calcu- transmittance and thermal insulation for different
lating the thermal transmittance has not been internal zones. The cushion design in some
available so far. areas therefore consists of a combination of
Fig. E 5.10 therefore illustrates the results of transparent ETFE foil and a glass/PTFE fabric,
calculations for various heat transfer directions with additional thermal insulation applied to this
(horizontal, upwards and downwards) based on latter material on the outside of the cushion. A
DIN EN ISO 6946 and DIN EN 673. The results newly devised double keder rail, which can span
8 8 8
U-value [W/m²K]
U-value [W/m²K]
U-value [W/m²K]
5 5 5
4 4 4
3 3 3
2 2 2
1 1 1
0 0 0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
No. of layers of membrane No. of layers of membrane No. of layers of membrane
a b c E 5.10
216
Complex building envelopes
E 5.11 E 5.12
more than 4 m without support, fixes both mater- roof to the Musical Dome in Cologne (1996).
ials in a common and hence much slimmer Here, 16 cm of mineral wool enables the roof to
section (Fig. E 5.12). achieve a U-value of approx. 0.23 W/m2K and
a mean sound reduction index of 45 dB. The
Use of additional thermal insulation materials in foil arts centre in the Munich suburb of Puchheim
and membrane designs (1999) has a complex roof construction with two
One of the chief advantages of textile materials layers of sand-filled spacer fabric each 20 mm
is the ability to combine particular construction thick and two layers of mineral fibre insulation
options (e.g. long spans and unusual forms) (8 + 10 cm). This results in a U-value of approx.
and at the same time achieve a high light trans- 0.2 W/m2K and a sound reduction index of E 5.8 Different manifestations of convection
mittance. Designers often strive to maintain this approx. 51 dB. All three roofs are completely a Horizontal and vertical cushions
latter characteristic even if additional thermal opaque. b Cushions with two and more layers
c Cushions with welded layers
performance requirements must be satisfied. d Cushions with separate layers
This in turn leads to attention being given to As with all insulation measures, the building E 5.9 Clamping section, Uf-value 4.26 W/m2K /
translucent, i.e. light-permeable, insulating ma- physics aspects must be considered in mem- Ψ-value 0.06 W/mK, “La Miroiterie”,
terials. There is a fundamental relationship be- brane designs as well, particularly the possibility Lausanne (CH), 2007, Brauen + Wälchli
E 5.10 U-values for foil structures with different
tween U-value and potential light transmittance: of condensation and especially at thermal
numbers of layers, orientations and…
increasing the thickness of the insulation de- bridges, e.g. at fixings, penetrations and junc- a heat flow (HF) upwards
creases the light transmittance achievable with tions with other components. The actual light b heat flow downwards
this form of construction. transmittance of membrane structures with c heat flow horizontal
On the other hand, there are also examples that translucent insulation is frequently very low (e.g. E 5.11 Garden pavilion, Alnwick (UK), 2006,
Hopkins Architects
use conventional, opaque insulating materials around 1 %), especially in older examples. How- E 5.12 Garden pavilion, clamping rail
because light transmittance is not always desir- ever, this can have an advantage in terms of E 5.13 U-values for the wintertime case
able; venues and places of assembly often re- the lower heat gains. E 5.14 Example of how the clamping detail at the edge
quire an opaque enclosure. For example, the One example of such a structure is the Olympic influences the total U-value of a foil cushion:
Umid-cushion = 2 W/m2K
two-ply PVC membrane roof to the health spa swimming pool in Munich dating from 1972,
(e.g. ETFE foil cushion, 3-layer)
clinic in Masserberg in central Germany, com- which forms one of the enclosed spaces beneath Uclamp = 5 W/m2K
pleted in 1994, uses two layers of 8 cm thick the famous Olympic roof. The insulated “sus- clamp width: 4 cm
mineral wool with offset joints and a covering of pended ceiling” (approx. 8250 m2) over the cushion area: 5 ≈ 30 m = 150 m2
PE foil. Individual unplasticised PVC mountings swimming pool was renewed between 2003 clamp length: 70 m
clamp area: 2.80 m2
fix the insulation at least 50 cm clear of the and 2006 (Fig. E 5.17a, p. 219). Fig. E 5.16 clamp area proportion: 1.86 %
upper ply of PVC in order to create a ventilation (p. 218) shows sections through the insulated Utot = (98.14 % ≈ 2) + (1.86 % ≈ 5) = 2.06 W/m2K
cavity. A very similar design was used for the membrane construction following the refurbish- relative change = approx. +3 %
3 PTFE/glass, 0.5 mm 16 % 77 %
1+1 84 % 81 % 85 % 3 W/m2K 4 cm
1+1+1 77 % 73 % 80 % 2 W/m2K
3+1+2 12 % 14 % 2 W/m2K 30 m
3+1+1+1 14 % 15 % 1.5 W/m2K
E 5.13 E 5.14
217
Complex building envelopes
ment measures. Below the cable net roof with indispensable. Membrane structures can in
its covering of PMMA panels there is now a some cases exhibit considerable movements
new suspended ceiling with the following along the edges, too (wind pressure and
make-up (from inside to outside): a polyester/ thermal expansion), which must be accom-
PVC membrane as the inner leaf, insulation in modated by the details at junctions, e.g. with
the form of two layers of 35 mm thick impreg- rigid facades. As explained in conjunction
nated polyester fleece with offset joints and an with the example of the Olympic swimming
active ventilation system for controlled ventila- pool in Munich, this can be solved with a
tion of the insulation, and an ETFE foil as water- cushion-like junction, which can absorb a
proofing beneath the PMMA-covered cable net. considerable amount of movement and at the
The total light transmittance of this roof con- same time provide a certain degree of ther-
struction is approx. 1.5 %. An indoor swimming mal insulation.
pool is always subjected to large temperature 1 2 3
differences between inside and outside, and
the high interior humidity and corrosive atmos-
phere place considerable demands on the
structure. The mechanical ventilation system, 5
5 6
4
which prevents the construction becoming sat-
urated, increases convection and hence lowers
the surface resistances, which in turn causes a
worsening of the U-value from 0.42 to approx. 5
0.47 W/m2K during wintertime conditions (out-
side -5 °C, inside +30 °C).
7
The refurbishment work also included replacing
the original approx. 400 m long PMMA fascia
panel at the junction between membrane roof 9 14
and post-and-rail facade. Movements of up to
1.5 m occur at this point and these are now
accommodated by an air-filled, flexible ETFE 12 13
tube, which forms both an impervious and insu- 8
lated transition between the fixed glazing of the
facade and the membrane roof which is con-
stantly in motion (Fig. E 5.17b).
11 11
The main aspects and advice with respect to 10
insulated membrane designs can therefore be 15
summarised as follows:
• Translucent thermal insulation results in a
certain light transmittance through the total
construction. The light inside is normally diffuse E 5.15 Overview of U-values and light transmittance values
and therefore glare effects must be investigated. for various membrane projects already built
• Insulation should be laid in two layers if pos- E 5.16 Vertical section through membrane roof, Olympic
swimming pool, Munich (D), refurbishment, 2006,
sible, with offset joints. This approach helps
Auer + Weber + Assoziierte, Behnisch Architekten,
to reduce thermal bridges caused by gaps with Schlaich Bergermann & Partner
and inaccurate installation. (structural engineers)
• Insulation may well have to satisfy various E 5.17 Olympic swimming pool
requirements depending on the particular a Translucent membrane roof
b ETFE tube forming movable connection
application: flexibility, heat and moisture resist- between facade and roof
ance, translucency, suitability for foot traffic c Penetrations for the cable suspending the
(erection, maintenance), UV resistance, low lighting bridge: no stresses transfered. 16 17
water absorption.
• Membrane and foil materials are not vapour-
tight. The topic of condensation and potential
saturation of the insulation must therefore be
looked at very carefully. Besides using the
principle of increasing the vapour-permeability Project Thermal insulation U-value [W/m2K]1 Light
of the layers from inside to outside, it is also transmittance
possible to provide a large cavity (> 50 cm) Health spa clinic, Masserberg 8 + 8 cm mineral wool 0.23 W/m2K 0%
for intensive ventilation. Arts centre, Puchheim 8 + 10 cm mineral wool 0.2 W/m2K 0%
• Fire protection, sound insulation and room
Refurbishment of Olympic 3.5 + 3.5 cm polyester fleece 0.42 W/m2K 1.5 %
acoustics aspects must be considered. swimming pool, Munich
• Connecting the insulation to the membrane
Dedmon Athletic Center, Radford Aerogel fleece between PTFE/ 0.47 W/m2K 3.5 %
must be achieved with minimal thermal bridges.
glass, 5 cm
This is best achieved via a mechanical detail,
e.g. with special anchors. Large bonded joints, Pavilion, Solar Decathlon 2007, Aerogel granulate between 0.25 W/m2K 15 %
Atlanta ETFE foil, approx. 8 cm
e.g. adhesives, have not been tried so far.
1
• Flexible connections around the edges are U-values do not take into account the thermal bridge defects and mechanical ventilation (if applicable)
E 5.15
218
Complex building envelopes
28
27
26
13 11
12
21 25
18 19 20
24
23
22
E 5.16
Section – Scale 1:10 10 Round steel bar, Ø 65 mm, 1500 mm long Ø 1 mm hole drilled every 2000 mm
11 Internal suspended membrane roof: warm, pretreated air, approx. 2 – 3 bar
1 Point fixing for PMMA sheet, Ø 78 mm PVC-coated polyester cloth, translucent, as loadbear- 19 PVC web at each seam
2 Uplift retainer, point fixing, Ø 3 mm steel cable ing layer 20 Clip-on bar for securing ETFE foil against uplift
3 PMMA sheet, class (fire) B1, transparent, 10 mm 12 Polyester insulating fleece, translucent, 2 No. 35 mm 21 Ventilation outlet, polypropylene, Ø 12 mm
4 Waterproofing element, chloroprene rubber, with offset joints, ventilated 22 Cloverleaf clamping element, 300 mm
140 mm wide 13 Waterproofing, ETFE foil, transparent 23 Cloverleaf hanger, spring steel, Ø 25 mm
5 Cable net structure, 2 No. Ø 10 mm steel cables 14 Bird screen, polyamide, 30 ≈ 30 mm mesh 24 Hanger for lighting walkway, Ø 10 mm steel cable
6 Cable clamp on cross-beam, movable 15 ETFE air-filled cushion, 2-layer, variable height 25 Clamping ring, 8 mm aluminium, Ø 220 mm
7 Cross-beam, steel rectangular hollow section, 16 Steel facade, IPE 200 26 Collar, PVC, welded to loadbearing membrane
100 ≈ 50 ≈ 6.3 mm 17 Insulating glass, 45 mm 27 Supporting ring at high point, Ø 4000 mm,
8 Turnbuckle, 10 mm 18 Ventilation instead of vapour barrier: Ø 273 ≈ 8 mm steel circular hollow section
9 Prop, circular hollow section, Ø 40 mm Ø 20 mm branch pipes along webs 28 Hanger from cable structure, Ø 22 mm steel cable
a b c E 5.17
219
Complex building envelopes
1 Photovoltaic module
2 Supporting framework for
photovoltaic module
3 Weather protection
ETFE foil, 250 μm
1 2 3 4 4 Galvanised steel square hollow section,
50 ≈ 50 mm
5 Aerogel panel, 4.00 ≈ 1.50 m
250 μm ETFE foil
70 mm silica aerogel
250 μm ETFE foil
timber frame, 60 ≈ 60 mm spruce
6 Loadbearing structure
60 ≈ 240 mm timber joist
6 5
a b E 5.21
220
Complex building envelopes
221
Complex building envelopes
a b c E 5.24
controllable, glazed flaps at the top and bottom Combinations of polymer and glass The surfaces of these products are then treated
of the facade. in a second operation, e.g. vacuum metallisation
The second leaf measures approx. 1550 m2 in Single leaves of glazing made from rolled or (aluminium), to create a highly reflective finish.
area and is made from prestressed ETFE foil float glass are in most cases inadequate for These properties are maintained for a very long
with a fixing and retensioning system, using modern building envelopes. It is nearly always time because the elements are installed in the
minimised clamping bars, that was specially a synthetic material that is used to improve the cavity, in a protective atmosphere of dry air,
developed for this application. A pattern of silver efficiency of glazing, e.g. in the region of the possibly even a noble gas (Figs. C 6.34 and
dots printed on the transparent foil provides hermetic edge seal around insulating glass C 6.35, p. 117).
protection from the sun and also scatters and units. If the edge of the glass is to be optimised Foils play a decisive role in the production of
reflects the incoming light. It is only through the with respect to the linear thermal conductivity laminated safety glass, which is made from
artificial lighting at night that the printing on this (a so-called warm edge solution), then the pro- panes of float glass, toughened safety glass or
immaterial facade is really perceived by the portion of synthetic material is increased yet heat-strengthened glass that are joined together
observer. further, e.g. by using a TPS (Thermo Plastic with a special adhesive foil, mostly 0.38 mm
Spacer) or silicone foams. thick polyvinyl butyral (PVB), in an autoclave
As with other glass applications, the use of under the action of heat and pressure (> 100 °C,
synthetic materials increases the efficiency. > 10 bar) to form a composite material. The ad-
Retrofitted foils, for example, can improve the hesive foil, which is available in different designs
properties of glazing in existing buildings (Fig. (transparent, translucent, opaque, coloured,
E 5.26a, 1, 2). A taut, selective low E-coated patterned, etc.), melts. A further material can
foil in the cavity produces an insulating glass be laminated into this adhesive joint, e.g. low E-
with an efficiency that corresponds to that of all- coated PET foil, as is common in the production
glass products but is lighter and slimmer (Fig. of windscreens for vehicles, in order to achieve
E 5.26b, 3, 4). a significant reduction in the solar heat gains.
Winding mechanisms incorporated in the cavity Other polymers can be used as the adhesive
convert such foils into adjustable sunshades interlayer instead of PVB; some of these have
(Fig. E 5.26b, 5). Owing to the extremely low ther- much higher initial stiffnesses and strengths.
mal mass of these very thin foils, the secondary Insulating glass made from laminated safety
heat transfer by way of radiation is extremely low. glass is suitable for overhead glazing that must
The geometries of optimized, and therefore comply with special safety requirements (Fig.
complex, light-redirecting elements fitted in the E 5.26d, 10).
cavity are only economic when produced from All other types of laminated glass make use of
synthetic materials as extruded (Fig. E 5.26c, 6, other materials for the interlayer, e.g. reactive
7) or injection-moulded (Fig. E 5.26c, 8) items. resins for acoustic glazing, gels for fire-resistant
222
Complex building envelopes
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
a b c d e f
E 5.26
glasses, or fabric inlays between PVB foils. E 5.27). The prime objective of this development, system or the vacuum causes it to attach itself
Other adhesives, mostly ethylene vinyl acetate which has had a limited number of applications to the pane of glass, which prevents it from
(EVA), can be used to embed thicker elements so far, is glasshouses (Fig. E 5.27c), where the fluttering.
such as photovoltaic modules. main benefit is the favourable soiling behaviour
Applications for such types of laminated glass of the ETFE foil on the outside but also the good,
include diverse security glazing products (e.g. permanent condensation behaviour of the glass
anti-bandit or bullet-resistant glass). Replacing on the inside.
one or more of the panes of glass with trans- However, this product also opens up new options
parent PMMA sheets (Fig. E 5.26e) can bring for architecture in general, mainly in the field of
about a saving in weight of up to 50 %. overhead glazing, for which ETFE foil is attached
For some applications it is the lower chemical to both sides of the glazing. A special polymer
resistance and, first and foremost, the lower frame section has been developed for this com-
surface hardness of polymers that represent bination of glass and foil (Figs. E 5.27a and b).
disadvantages for their long-term usage. This As the strength of toughened safety glass is
can lead to scratches causing optical impair- several times that of float glass or laminated
ments, for example. Very thin panes of glass safety glass and its permissible deflection is
laminated onto the polymer can help to improve also much higher, panes of glass with larger
the surface characteristics of sheets of polymer dimensions but lower weight can be installed
material in such cases (Fig. E 5.26f). than is the case when using conventional over-
head glazing. And in the event of breakage, the
Combinations of glass and ETFE foil ETFE foil guarantees the necessary residual
Marketed under the name of “FoilGlass”, one loadbearing capacity. With respect to the poten-
current development is the use of glass (always tial thermal insulation effect, glazing designed
toughened safety glass) as a loadbearing elem- according to the “FoilGlass” principle can be
ent in conjunction with one or two plies of ETFE produced with a very high UV-B permeability
foil. The object of this is to improve the insulat- (see “Greenhouse effect”, pp. 114 – 115), which
ing properties (through the multi-layer effect), can be advantageous for areas of planting or
although the foil can also provide a safety func- leisure facilities.
tion for overhead applications. In addition, the At the Cramer facility, for example, the thermal
system is switchable, i.e. the thermal insulation insulation can be switched on or off within a
effect can be minimised by extracting the air period of about 15 minutes (Fig. E 5.27c). The
from the cavity between glass and foil and foil remains stable in the wind in both positions:
therefore forcing the foil against the glass (Fig. it is either stabilised by the overpressure in the
1
3
2 4
1
2 4
3
1
a b c E 5.27
223
Part F Case studies
03 Foster + Partners, “The Walbrook” office and retail development, London (UK) 232
07 Squire & Partners, flagship store and company headquarters, London (UK) 240
11 Zaha Hadid Architects, Mobile Art – Chanel Contemporary Art Container 248
16 Herzog + Partner, training centre for mountain rescue service, Gaißach (D) 260
17 SBA Architekten, roof over circulation zone at EXPO 2010, Shanghai (CN) 262
19 von Gerkan, Marg & Partner, Olympic stadium, Berlin (D) 270
20 Foster + Partners, refurbishment and conversion of main railway station, Dresden (D) 273
22 Behnisch Architekten, canopy over Forum, “Old Spinning Mill”, Kolbermoor (D) 280
23 Nikolai Kugel Architekten, open-air theatre, Josefsburg Arena, Kufstein (A) 282
Fig. F Manually laminated GFRP panels, Mobile Art –
Chanel Contemporary Art Container, Zaha Hadid
Architects
225
Example 01
bb 13 14 11 13
226
Facade design and interior fitting-out
aa
227
Example 01
6 5
13
11
12
228
Reception pavilion
Reception pavilion
Architect:
Marco Serra, Basel
Assistant:
Stephan Schoeller
Structural engineers:
Ernst Basler & Partner AG, Zurich
Ecole Polytechnique Fédérale de
Lausanne, Prof. Thomas Keller
Section • Plan
The reception pavilion on the site of the Novartis Scale 1:200
company has a very simple overall form, but it
is the choice of materials and construction that
give this building its distinctive character. The 1 Main entrance
2 Reception
monolithic roof made from a glass fibre-reinforced 3 Staff entrance
polymer and polyurethane foam is supported 4 Access to under-
directly on the loadbearing glass facade without ground parking
the need for any further beams or columns. It is 5 Access to
loadbearing structure, waterproofing and thermal company site
envelope in one, and it is the wing-like outline
that lends this structure the lightness desired by
the architect. The roof surface consists of 460
CNC-milled PUR foam blocks, each one with a
unique shape. In accordance with the structural
requirements, the PUR foam modules, measuring
90 ≈ 90 cm, have different densities. The mod-
ules were wrapped in up to 12 layers of glass-
fibre cloth in a hand lay-up process. This created
webs at the joints between the individual blocks aa
which together with the plies on the top and bot-
tom faces form the loadbearing structure. The
blocks were glued together and covered with a
further layer of glass fibre in the factory to form
prefabricated roof elements 18.50 m long which
were then joined together in the same way on the
building site to form one continuous component.
The roof is 400 m2 in area and weighs 28 t. It trans-
fers the vertical loads to the facade via the integral
double-thickness webs. Sliding bearings and steel 4
strips compensate for the different thermal be-
haviour of glass and GFRP. Each steel strip is
fixed rigidly to the roof in the middle of each side
in order to transfer the wind loads to the facade. 3
The facade consists of insulating glass units 1
stiffened by vertical glass fins attached with sili-
cone sealant forming a structural joint between
2
the two. The laminated safety glass panes were
factory-glued to stainless steel frames that are
concealed in slots in the roof and the ground to a a
transfer the forces. Vertical tie bars between the
glass fins prevent deformation of the roof and
secure it against wind uplift. At the top they are
bolted to a steel plate laminated into the roof, at 5
the bottom a stainless steel spring compensates
for temperature-induced changes in length.
229
Example 02
3 A
6
Vertical section
Scale 1:20
4 7
Details
Scale 1:5
d d
5 9
bb
13 13
15
16
3 4 17 6
A 14
230
Reception pavilion
12
B 3
6
11
10
7 4
1 23 4 b c 14
23
18 14
2 b
19 8 7
24
21
13
21
22
14 20 8
4
14 5
8
cc dd c
231
Example 03
Architects:
Foster + Partners, London
Structural engineers:
Arup, London
232
“The Walbrook” office and retail development
Section
Scale 1:800
Details
Scale 1:20
A Parameterised model
B Impregnating the fibre reinforcement with the
polyester resin
C Inflating the pressure bag to compress the
wet GFRP
D Prefabricated facade element after painting
A B
a 1
12
11
9 8
10
a 7
bb D
233
Example 04
Private house
Architect:
Takeshi Hosaka, Yokohama
Assistant:
Megumi Hosaka
Structural engineer:
Hirofumi Ohno, Tokyo
This house with its abstract form of white blocks Section • Plans
Scale 1:200
apparently floating in the air represents a power-
ful contrast to the rural surroundings. From this 1 Garden
location, near Mount Fuji and an attractive lakes 2 Entrance
landscape, the client can enjoy delightful views 3 Living room
of the mountains but also ensure that the young 4 Dining area
5 Kitchen
family is not too close to the nearby scenic route 6 Bedroom
for tourists and the other houses scattered around 7 Terrace
the neighbourhood. What appears to be the 8 Children’s room
ground floor at first sight actually turns out to 9 Bunk bed
10 Storage
be nothing more than a solid fair-face concrete
wall surrounding the garden to ensure the nec-
essary privacy. On the upper floor, another solid
wall around the terrace again provides a private aa
enclosure for the family.
Whereas the plot is fully screened off from the
outside world, the building itself seems to merge
with the garden. A vital element in the architect’s
concept was to design the boundary between
interior and exterior to be as transparent and
invisible as possible. This impression is achieved
with the help of two continuous transparent facade
sections made from 20 mm thick PMMA, which 8
form a lightweight envelope adequate for the
Japanese climate. This material reflects hardly
any light and so the view of the outside world
from inside, or vice versa, is hardly disrupted. 9 10
Disturbing vertical posts were also unnecessary,
and so the boundary between interior and exte- 7
rior vanishes almost entirely. The living quarters
are grouped around a central core; each area
has a glazed sliding door providing access to a
the outside. Only the bedrooms have internal,
white sliding doors so that they can be closed
off from the other areas. The apparently solid
areas of the facade conceal a steel framework
clad in plywood coated with a glass fibre-rein-
forced polymer.
3 4
• PMMA continuous facade sections
• Coating of glass fibre-reinforced polymer 1
6 5
2
234
Private house
14 15 16
18
17 19
20
21
22
23
235
Example 05 Seeko'o Hotel
Seeko'o Hotel
Architects:
Atelier Architecture King Kong, Bordeaux
Paul Marion, Jean-Christophe Masnada,
Frederic Neau, Laurent Portejoie
Project team:
Olivier Oslislo, Fontaneda Calzada David,
Max Hildebrant
Structural engineers:
ETBA, Bordeaux
236
Private house
Private house
Architects:
Pfeifer Roser Kuhn, Freiburg
Project team:
Thomas Gillich (project manager),
Nils Schinker, Simone Wechsler
Structural engineers:
Greschik + Falk + Partner, Berlin
Energy concept:
Delzer Kybernetik, Lörrach
Building services:
Balck + Partner, Heidelberg
aa Air flows in summer bb Air flows in winter
b 2 2 b
237
Example 06
2 3 4 dd
d d
9
7 10
238
Private house
11
12
13
12
10
239
Example 07
Architects:
Squire & Partners, London
Project team:
A. Mangiavacchi (project manager),
Y. Chan, T. Gledstone, M. Larizadeh,
M. Levinson, A. Medland, F. Renton,
T. Sheridan, M. Squire, S. Steed
Structural engineers:
Fluid Structures, London
Section
The new London headquarters of the fashion Plans
label Reiss combines various functions under Scale 1:500
5
one roof: the flagship store extending over three
storeys, above that design studios, tailoring 1 Sales
2 Reception/office
and dressmaking facilities, offices and a pent- 3 Office/design studio
house. Four British architectural practices were 4 Apartment
3
invited to take part in a competition to design an 5 Penthouse
unmistakable exterior for the building, situated 4
very close to Oxford Street, to ensure that the
brand’s image would be visible to the public.
Squire & Partners, a London-based practice,
succeeded with its concept for enclosing the 1
various uses within an opaque veil of vertical 4
PMMA sheets. The use of PMMA sheets 50 mm
thick enabled vertical cut-outs of different widths
aa
and depths to be milled in the material to create
a three-dimensional effect, enhanced by the
alternating polished and matt surface finishes.
Depending on the viewing angle and the light-
ing, the cladding either takes on a technical
4
character, resembling a barcode, or the silky
sheen of a folded material extending the full
height of the building. During the day, the PMMA 4
cladding ensures pleasant, non-glare illumination
in the interior. But the facade at night offers the
most impressive effect: individually controlled
LED lighting strips behind each panel transform 3
the facade into a semi-transparent curtain of
light, helped by the high light-channelling effect
of the material. 4
Every single panel is supported on two T-shaped
brackets and also held at the sides by stainless
steel bars fitted into milled slots, which are con- 3rd floor
nected to the facade structure at three points.
This sliding connection transfers the wind loads
without causing any restraint stresses due to
temperature-induced changes in length. The
almost invisible fixing details for the elements
emphasize the “floating” effect of this facade.
a
4
• PMMA sheets with individual profiling 1
• Different material thicknesses and surface
a
finishes to create a three-dimensional effect
Ground floor
240
Flagship store and company headquarters
17 19
13
10 18
11
bb 6 8 12 9 20
16
20
15
14
241
Example 07
1 PMMA sheet, 30 – 50 mm, milled, polished and matt 6 LED cover, glass strip
finishes 7 Steel bracket for carrying the load of the PMMA sheets
2 Retainer, stainless steel bar, Ø 7 mm, fixed to facade 8 Fixing screw, stainless steel, countersunk
posts, 4 No. per storey 9 Facade post, 30 ≈ 80 mm steel flat, powder-coated
3 Steel fixing for retainer bar 10 Facade stay, 30 ≈ 80 mm steel flat, powder-coated
4 Cover to LED mounting, 42 ≈ 42 mm aluminium 11 Cable conduit, 40 ≈ 70 mm steel channel
angle, brushed 12 Cover to cable conduit, 60 ≈ 5 mm steel flat
Manufacture and profiling of PMMA sheets by means of 5 LED lighting strip, individually controllable and 13 Maintenance walkway, 40 ≈ 10 mm open-grid floo-
CNC milling programmable ring, powder-coated
c 3 c
11 12 13
6 7
5
8
4
1 10
13
1 3 9
cc
242
Example 08 Office pavilion
Office pavilion
Architects:
Selgas Cano, Madrid
Jose Selgas Rubio, Lucia Cano Pintos
Assistant:
Jose de Villar
a
This unconventional office “tube”, partly sunk
below ground level, is in the immediate vicinity a
of the architects’ home and guarantees an un-
obstructed view of the trees on this plot of land.
7
The tube consists of two parts: on the north side 6
curving 20 mm thick PMMA over the corridor
zone, and on the south side a sandwich of poly-
ester sheets with translucent polyethylene insu-
lation to prevent glare in the working area. Such
polyester sheets are used in some rolling stock
12
running on German railways, but are not available
in small quantities. The architects therefore had
to wait for the Deutsche Bahn to order some of
13
this material in order to obtain a section 12 m
long! The work on site also proved to be much
more difficult than had been originally envisaged;
many different tasks had to be coordinated: one
company was responsible for bending the sheets, aa
another for installing them, and yet another for
the gable ends. The latter are made from PMMA
with a matt finish and can be opened for cross-
ventilation with the help of pulleys and counter-
weights. The northern half of the tube, in trans-
parent PMMA, is made from 10 standardised 1
parts with slots in the edges only for inserting a
8 10 11
loose tongue sealed with silicone. The view out 9
is therefore unobstructed – only the rain leaves 2
marks and is noisy overhead. 3
4
• Shaped PMMA 5
• Translucent polyethylene insulation
Vertical section
Scale 1:10
7 PMMA sheet, 20 mm, transparent PVC
1 Glass fibre-reinforced polyester, support, transparent
2 No. 10 mm, with translucent 8 Winch for polyamide rope:
polyethylene thermal insulation in 2 No. Ø 160 mm stainless steel discs
between, 100 mm with Ø 80 mm drum in between and crank
2 Flashing, bent galvanised steel sheet, handle
2 mm 9 Steel angles, 2 No. 40 ≈ 20 ≈ 3 mm,
3 Galvanised steel angle, 60 ≈ 40 ≈ welded to 2 mm steel flat
7 mm, welded to galvanised steel 10 Cover, bent galvanised steel sheet, 2 mm
angle, 30 ≈ 30 ≈ 2.5 mm 11 Geotextile, 2 mm
4 Galvanised steel sheet, 4 mm, welded 2 mm waterproofing
to galvanised steel plate, 15 mm 250 mm fair-face concrete
5 Shelf, 15 mm PMMA, on Ø 16 mm (formwork: 70 mm rough tongue-and-
round steel brackets groove boards)
6 Galvanised steel sheet, 3 mm, 12 Silicone seal
painted white 13 Loose tongue, 16 ≈ 2 mm stainless steel
243
Example 09 Company headquarters
Company headquarters
Architects:
KHR arkitekter, Copenhagen
Jan Søndergaard
Project team:
Henrik Danielsen, Emi Hatakana, Ole Jensen,
Claus Bang Lauridsen, Morten Vedelsbøl
Detail
The headquarters of this Danish manufacturer 1 Scale 1:5
of glass fibre-reinforced polymers (GFRP) seems
to form a gentle hill in the flat landscape. Develop- 1 Facade panel:
ment, production and offices are combined glass fibre-reinforced
polymer, 500 ≈ 40 mm,
here under one roof, with an integral high-bay hangers made from strips of
racking warehouse defining the maximum height panel turned through 180°
of the building. All the functional areas of the 200 mm sandwich panel
production are grouped around this central elem- 16 mm plasterboard
ent. Offices, development and marketing are 220 mm steel I-section
2 Top-hung window: insulating
housed in the three storeys on the east side of glass glued to frame of glass
the building, separated from the production bay fibre-reinforced polymer
by glazing, which permits a visual link between 3 Window sill, glass fibre-rein-
the two areas. 2 forced polymer
4 Cable conduit
Three large transparent “incisions” break up this
elongated structure, lend it a certain dynamic.
At the same time these atria ensure that plenty
of daylight is distributed throughout the interior.
The company’s own products, some of them
developed specifically for this project, were
used for the building envelope. The outer leaf 3
consists of vapour-tight sandwich panels clad
with GFRP planks. Overlapping joints ensure that
this outer leaf, in front of a ventilation cavity, re-
mains rainproof. Specially formed GFRP sections
were used for the window sills and window
frames as well. The latter are very narrow on
elevation yet still achieve a good insulation value.
Both the pultruded sections and the facade 4
panels are produced with a transparent resin
so that the internal fibre reinforcement remains
visible and lends the components a certain depth.
The all-glass facades to the three atria also make
use of GFRP sections, which are glued directly
to the panes of glass. The prefabricated elements
are merely bolted together and to the support-
ing structure underneath. The rigid adhesive
joints enable the glass to be used for carrying
the loads, which means that the frame dimen-
sions could be much smaller than those of an
aluminium facade.
244
House and office
Architects:
Deffner Voitländer, Dachau
Project team:
Stefan Bohnengel, Julia Hertel, Kersten Waltz,
Florian Zeitzler
Structural engineers:
Tischner & Pache, Dachau
This house and office belonging to the architects Plans 1 Dustbins 9 Room
is located in the old quarter of Dachau. Almost Scale 1:250 2 Stairs 10 Open-plan living/dining/kitchen
3 Office 11 Pantry
half of the spacious open area on the eastern 4 Plotter room 12 Storage
side of a building is sheltered beneath the long 5 Kitchen 13 Dressing room
branches of a 100-year-old lime tree. This nat- 6 Void 14 Bedroom
ural monument forms the focal point of this inner- 7 Meeting room 15 Gallery
8 Bathroom 16 Rooftop terrace
city square and makes this site unique. All the
habitable rooms of the building therefore face
east. The view of the tree is the chief theme and
the facade, too, reflects this. Photographs of
13
the tree were projected onto the external leaf 14 6
12
and so the contours of the tree seem to embrace
the entire building. 8 15
The translucent envelope made from glass fibre-
reinforced polymer makes this possible. The
tree motif plotted on special paper is laminated 16
into the manually laminated panels. The im-
pregnation with synthetic resin means that the 2nd floor
motif remains visible even though it is coated
with the final layer of GFRP. Certain lighting
conditions reveal the supporting framework
behind, too. The multi-layer construction of the
facade becomes visible, thus achieving a spatial
effect and the lightness desired by the architects. 8 11
The colour and form of the set-back top storey
represent a stark contrast to the rest of the
building even though the same materials have
been used. Paint with a high pigment content 9 9 9 10
was mixed into the synthetic resin to achieve
the muted aubergine colouring. The individual
panels have rounded arrises and corners, and 1st floor
include flanges that are overlapped and bolted
together at the joints. The ensuing pattern of
the joints lends the facade a certain structure.
The negative moulds required for the individual
GFRP elements were produced from polystyrene
and polyurethane foam in unpretentious manual
work with a file! a
The building stands as a clear contrast to its
surroundings without dominating them, and
allows the old tree to take the limelight in this 5
1 2 4
urban setting.
Ground
floor a
245
Example 10
11 Vertical section
Scale 1:20
Horizontal sections
Scale 1:5
cc c
c
5
10
13
12
8
b b
aa 1
246
House and office
15
9
14
16
18
17
cc
18
c c
bb
247
Example 11
248
Mobile Art – Chanel Contemporary Art Container
bb
Sections
Scale 1:250
Fibre-reinforced polymer
Membrane made from PVC-coated polyester fabric
ETFE cushion
1 Ticket sales
2 Raised terrace
3 Entrance
4 Cloakroom
5 Exhibition
6 Central courtyard
7 Exit
6
b b
5
4
1
2
3
249
Example 11
4
Vertical section
Scale 1:20 6 7
c
5
Details
Scale 1:5 1
3
c
20 4
21
17
12
dd
250
Mobile Art – Chanel Contemporary Art Container
8 9
14
10 13
5
11
15
12
16
8
d d
17
12
19
18
251
Example 12 “Mobile Action Space”
2006
Architects:
raumlaborberlin, Berlin
Matthias Rick, Jan Liesegang with
plastique fantastique
Marco Canevacci
5 4
252
Bank
Bank
Architects:
Jabornegg & Pálffy, Vienna
Christian Jabornegg, András Pálffy
Project team:
Željko Ivoševic, Ana Martin del Hierro, Julian
Kerschbaumer, Juraj Mikulaj, Frank Müller,
Florian Pfeifer, Gerhard Pfeiler, Felix Thörner
253
Example 13
bb
3 4
254
Bank
4
Section 3
Scale 1:1000
Vertical section
Scale 1:20
Detail 5
Scale 1:5
255
Example 14
Shopping centre 1 2
Architects:
Promontorio Architects, Lisbon
Project team:
Nelson Paciencia, Sofia Araújo, Tiago Ferreira,
Sónia Costa
3
Structural engineers:
Atelier One, London
4 5
256
Shopping centre
8 10
10
9
8
9
257
Example 15
Leisure centre
Architects:
L35, Barcelona/Paris
Ganz & Muller Architectes Associés, Geneva
GM2A Architectes, Paris
Structural engineers:
Charpente Concept, Geneva
aa
Section • Plan
Scale 1:500
258
Leisure centre
3
4
6 5
7 8
bb
15
A
259
Example 16
Architects:
Herzog + Partner, Munich
Thomas Herzog, Hanns Jörg Schrade
Assistant:
Xaver Wankerl
Structural engineers:
Sailer Stepan Partner
Beratende Ingenieure für Bauwesen GmbH,
Munich
aa
260
Training centre for mountain rescue service
2
4 1
3
8
6
7
7
c c
9
b 6
5
b
cc bb
261
Example 17
Architects:
SBA Architekten, Stuttgart
Hong Li, Bianca Nitsch
Project team: Cathrin Fischer, Reinhard Braun,
Benedikt Köster, Lei Zhang, Yijun Qi
Structural engineers:
Knippers Helbig Advanced Engineering,
Stuttgart/New York
Project team: Florian Scheible, Florian Kamp,
Dirk Richter, Roman Schieber
262
Roof over circulation zone at EXPO 2010
Site plan
Scale 1:40 000
Plan • Elevation
Scale 1:2500
Section
Scale 1:1000
aa
263
Example 17
8
A
7
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
264
Roof over circulation zone at EXPO 2010
265
Example 17
5
4
7
3
1 4
266
Roof over circulation zone at EXPO 2010
10
17
11 18
19 16 bb
20 12
18
19
7 cc
7
c
16
c
14 b
15
13
12
267
Example 18
Memorial
Architects:
hg merz architekten museumsgestalter,
Stuttgart/Berlin
Project team:
Dietmar Bauer, Ulrich Lechtleitner, Mara
Lübbert, Johannes Schrey, Michel Weber
Structural engineers:
Ingenieurgruppe Bauen, Berlin
Facade engineering:
Werner Sobek Ingenieure GmbH,
Stuttgart
268
Memorial
6
7 8
269
Example 19
Olympic stadium
Architects:
von Gerkan, Marg & Partner, Berlin
A B
Project team:
Jochen Köhn, Martin Glass, Ivanka Perkovic,
Katja Bernert, Dagmar Weber, Ralf Sieber
Structural engineers:
Krebs & Kiefer, Darmstadt/Berlin
Schlaich Bergermann & Partner, Stuttgart
270
Olympic stadium
1
4
3
13
14
271
Example 19
4
5
6 4
8
9
Radial section
Scale 1:20
272
Refurbishment and conversion of main railway station
Architects:
Foster + Partners, London
Structural engineers:
Schmitt Stumpf Frühauf & Partner,
Munich
Buro Happold, London
273
Example 20
e
3
9
4
1 12
8
7
6
13
11
d
10
cc
e
14
3
7
5 13
c c
e 9
dd
274
Refurbishment and conversion of main railway station
15
2
ff ee
275
Example 20
2
g 4 A
3
5
5
6 8
6
7
7
8
g gg
1
2
11
9 12
10
14
4 13
6 7
A
276
Passenger terminal complex, Suvarnabhumi International Airport
Architects:
Murphy/Jahn, Chicago
ACT Consultants, Bangkok
TAMS Consultants / Earth Tech, New York
Structural engineers:
Werner Sobek Ingenieure, Stuttgart
Klimatechnik:
Transsolar, Stuttgart/Munich
277
Example 21
1 4
10
8
12
2
5
7 10
6
11
8
12
278
Passenger terminal complex, Suvarnabhumi International Airport
B C F
Solar irradiation on
3-ply membrane
100 %
Permanent reflection of
Solar irradiation on solar irradiation 70 %
printed glass
100 %
Absorption
28 %
Absorption
36.5 %
Solar irradiation
reflectance
60 %
Transmission
2%
G
Low E coating to reduce
long-wave radiation
Transmission
3.5 %
Floor surface 21 °C
Flow Return
13 °C Underfloor cooling 19 °C
D H
279
Example 22
280
Canopy over Forum, “Old Spinning Mill”
Plan
Scale 1:750
Isometric views
Details
Scale 1:5
1 Boiler house
2 Café
3 Chimney
4 Area for events
5 Pagoda
6 Temporary pagoda
7 Works canal
a
8 8
9 9
10 10
11 11
12
13 a 12 13
A aa
14
cc 14 15
c
8
14
c
C
281
Example 23
Architects:
Nikolai Kugel Architekten, Stuttgart
Structural engineers:
Alfred Rein Ingenieure, Stuttgart
• PTFE-coated fabric
• Convertible roof
282
Open-air theatre, Josefsburg Arena
Site plan
Scale 1:2500
Plan • Section through roof system
Scale 1:500
1 Courtyard
2 Director’s box
3 Bar
4 WCs
5 Ramp
6 Casemate
283
Example 23
4 c
4
8
8
10
6 11 11
6
cc dd
9 c 9
1 d
4 1 8
a a
2 e 7
b b
5 6
d
3
8
9
6
4
2 2
aa bb
284
Open-air theatre, Josefsburg Arena
Vertical section
Horizontal section
Scale 1:50
Details
Scale 1:10
f e 5
4 6
6
8
23
8
13
f 23 24 3 e
12 3
ee ff
15
8
g
14
16
6 19
8
g
20
18
17
13
21
12
22
4
27 19
17
23
24 12 20
2 25 26
gg
285
Statutory instruments, directives, standards
286
Statutory instruments, directives, standards • Bibliography
287
Bibliography
In: Kunststoffe – Werkstoffe, Verarbeitung, Anwendung Reichel, Alexander et al.: Putze, Farben, Beschichtungen. Foil
10/2008, pp. 130ff. Munich, 2004 LeCuyer, Anette: ETFE – Technology and Design. Basel/
Harper, Charles A.: Handbook of plastics, elastomers and Rusam, Horst: Anstriche und Beschichtungen im Bau- Boston/Berlin, 2008
composites. New York, 2002 wesen – Eigenschaften, Untergrunde, Anwendung. Moritz, Karsten: ETFE-Folie als Tragelement. Dissertation.
Hellerich, Walter et al.: Werkstoff-Führer Kunststoffe – Stuttgart, 2004 Munich, 2007
Eigenschaften, Prüfungen, Kennwerte. Munich, 2001 Nentwig, Joachim: Kunststoff-Folien: Herstellung – Eigen-
Kalweit, Andreas: Handbuch für technisches Produktdesign Natural fibre-reinforced polymer and biopolymers schaften – Anwendung. Munich/Vienna, 2006
– Material und Fertigung. Berlin/Heidelberg, 2006 Carus, Michael et al.: Naturfaserverstärkte Kunststoffe – Saxe, Klaus; Homm, Thomas: Mechanische Eigenschaften
Köster, Lothar et al.: Praxis der Kautschukextrusion. Pflanzen, Rohstoffe, Produkte. Pub. by Fachagentur von ETFE-Folien für vorgespannte Strukturen, Proceed-
Munich, 2007 Nachwachsende Rohstoffe e.V. (FNR, Agency for ings, Techtextil Symposium. Frankfurt, 2007
Lindner, Christoph: Produktion, Verarbeitung und Verwer- Renewable Resources), Gülzow, 2008 Pearman, Hugh et al.: The Architecture of Eden. London,
tung von Kunststoffen in Deutschland (study). Alzenau, Carus, Michael et al.: Studie zur Markt- und Konkurrenz- 2003
2007; http://www.plasticseurope.de/document/produk- situation bei Naturfasern und Naturfaser-Werlstoffen
tion-verarbeitung-und-verwertung-von-kunststoffen- (Deutschland und EU). Gülzower Fachgespräche, vol. 26. Textile membranes
indeutschland-2007---kurzfassung--. Pub. by Fachagentur Nachwachsende Rohstoffe e.V. Blum, Rainer et al.: Material Properties and Testing. In:
aspx?Page=DOCUMENT&FolID=2; 26 Aug 2010 (FNR, Agency for Renewable Resources), Gülzow, 2008 Forster, Brian; Mollaert, Marijke:
Ludwig, Carsten: Glasfaserverstärkte Kunststoffe unter Domininghaus, Hans et al.: Kunststoffe. Eigenschaften European Design Guide for Tensile Surface Structures.
hoher thermischer und mechanischer Belastung. und Anwendungen. Berlin, 2008 Brussels, 2004
Dissertation. Stuttgart, 2009 Endres, Hans-Josef; Siebert-Raths, Andrea: Technische Seidel, Michael: Tensile Surface Structures – A Practical
Moser, Kurt: Faser-Kunststoff-Verbund – Entwurfs- und Biopolymere: Rahmenbedingungen, Marktsituation, Guide to Cable and Membrane Construction. Berlin,
Berechnungsgrundlagen. Düsseldorf, 1992 Herstellung, Aufbau und Eigenschaften. Munich, 2009 2009
Müller, Albrecht: Coloring of plastics – fundamentals, Riedel, Ulrich: Industrielle Fertigungsstrategien am
colorants, preparations. Munich, 2003 Beispiel von automobilen Anwendungen. Pub. by Center Building physics and energy aspects
Nanetti, Paolo: Lack für Einsteiger. Hannover, 2009 of Excellence Composite Structures/Adaptronics, Cremers, Jan: Einsatzmöglichkeiten von Vakuum-
Pfaff, Gerhard: Spezielle Effektpigmente – Grundlagen German Aerospace Center. Braunschweig, 2005 Dämmsystemen im Bereich der Gebäudehülle – Tech-
und Anwendungen. Hannover, 2007 Shen, Li et al.: Product overview and market projection of nologische, bauphysikalische und architektonische
Schürmann, Helmut: Konstruieren mit Faser-Kunststoff- emerging bio-based plastics. Study pub. by European Aspekte. Munich/New York, 2007
Verbunden. Berlin/Heidelberg, 2007 Polysaccharide Network of Excellence & European Bio- Cremers, Jan: Integration von Photovoltaik in Membran-
Schwarz, Otto; Ebeling, Friedrich Wolfhard; Furth, Brigitte: plastics. Utrecht, 2009 konstruktionen. In: Detail Green 01/2009, pp. 61–63
Kunststoffverarbeitung. Würzburg, 2002 Wimmer, Robert et al.: Grundlagenforschung für die Ent- Hegger, Manfred et al.: Construction Materials Manual.
Schwarz, Otto; Ebeling, Friedrich-Wolfhard (ed.): Kunststoff- wicklung von Produktprototypen aus Naturstoffgebun- Munich/Basel, 2006
kunde – Aufbau, Eigenschaften, Verarbeitung, Anwen- denen Vliesen. Pub. by Austrian Ministry for Transport, Hegger, Manfred et al.: Energy Manual – Sustainable
dungen der Thermoplaste, Duroplaste und Elastomere. Innovation & Technology. Vienna, 2007 Architecture. Munich/Basel, 2008
Würzburg, 2005
Jeska, Simone: Transparent Plastics – Design and Tech-
nology. Basel/Boston/Berlin, 2008
Fibres Part C Semi-finished products Kaltenbach, Frank (ed.): Translucent Materials – Glass,
Beckmann, Andreas; Kleinholz, Rudolf: Anforderungen an
Primary products Plastic, Metals. Munich, 2004
Naturfasern aus der Sicht eines Kfz-Zulieferers für
Baur, Erwin et al.: Saechtling Kunststoff Taschenbuch. Richter, Ekkehard; Fischer, Heinz M.: Lehrbuch der Bau-
Innenraumteile. Veranstaltung aus der Reihe “2nd Inter-
Munich, 2007 physik. Schall – Wärme – Feuchte – Licht – Brand – Klima.
national Wood & Natural Fibre Composites Symposium”.
Braun, Dietrich: Kunststofftechnik für Einsteiger. Munich, Wiesbaden, 2008
Kassel, 1999
2003 Schild, Kai; Weyers, Michael: Handbuch Fassaden-
Bonnet, Martin: Kunststoffe in der Ingenieuranwendung:
Schwarz, Otto; Ebeling, Friedrich Wolfhard; Furth, Brigitte: dämmsysteme – Grundlagen, Produkte, Details.
verstehen und zuverlässig auswählen. Wiesbaden,
Kunststoffverarbeitung. Würzburg, 2009 Stuttgart, 2003
2009
Troitzsch, Jürgen (ed.): Plastics flammability handbook:
Bonten, Christian: Kunststofftechnik für Designer. Munich, Principles, regulations, testing, and approval. Munich,
2003 Fibre-reinforced polymers
Moser, Kurt: Faser-Kunststoff-Verbund – Entwurfs- und 2004
Carus, Michael et al.: Einsatz von Naturfasern in Ver- Willems, Wolfgang M. et al.: Vieweg Handbuch Bauphysik.
bundwerkstoffen für die Automobilproduktion in Berechnungsgrundlagen. Düsseldorf, 1992
Schurmann, Helmut: Konstruieren mit Faser-Kunststoff- Wiesbaden, 2006
Deutschland von 1999 bis 2005. pub. by Nova Institute, Zürcher, Christoph; Frank, Thomas: Bauphysik –
Hürth, 2006 Verbunden. Berlin/Heidelberg, 2007
Ehrenstein, Gottfried W.: Faserverbund-Kunststoffe: Leitfäden für Planung und Praxis. Stuttgart, 2004
Carus, Michael et al.: Naturfaserverstärkte Kunststoffe –
Pflanzen, Rohstoffe, Produkte. Pub. by Fachagentur Werkstoffe, Verarbeitung, Eigenschaften. Munich, 2006
Nachwachsende Rohstoffe e.V. (FNR, Agency for Flemming, Manfred; Roth, Siegfried: Faserverbundbau- Environmental impact of polymers
Renewable Resources), Gülzow, 2008 weisen. Eigenschaften. Berlin/Heidelberg, 2003 Hegger, Manfred et al.: Construction Materials Manual.
Ehrenstein, Gottfried W.: Faserverbund-Kunststoffe: Flemming, Manfred et al.: Faserverbundbauweisen. Munich/Basel, 2006
Werkstoffe, Verarbeitung, Eigenschaften. Munich, 2006 Berlin/Heidelberg, 1995 Hellerich, Walter et al.: Werkstoff-Führer Kunststoffe:
Flemming, Manfred et al.: Faserverbundbauweisen. Eigenschaften, Prüfungen, Kennwerte. Munich,
2004
Berlin, 1995 Semi-finished polymer products
Fourné, Franz: Synthetische Fasern – Herstellung, Domininghaus, Hans et al.: Kunststoffe. Eigenschaften Bauen und Umwelt e.V. (pub.): Leitfaden für die Formuli-
Maschinen und Apparate, Eigenschaften. Munich, 1995 und Anwendungen. Berlin, 2008 erung der Anforderungen an die Produktkategorien der
Hanselka, Holger; Hermann, Axel Siegfried: Technischer Flemming, Manfred et al.: Faserverbundbauweisen. Umweltdeklarationen (Typ III) für Bauprodukte. Königs-
Leitfaden zur Anwendung von ökologisch vorteilhaften Berlin/Heidelberg, 1995 winter, 2006
Faserverbundwerkstoffen aus nachwachsenden Roh- Kaltenbach, Frank (ed.): Translucent Materials – Glass, Köpfler, Walter; Grahl, Birgit: Ökobilanzierung. Ein Leit-
stoffen am Beispiel eines Kastenträgers als Prototyp für Plastic, Metals. Munich, 2004 faden für Ausbildung und Beruf. Weinheim, 2009
hochbelastbare Baugruppen. Aachen, 1999 Knippers, Jan et al.: Brücken mit Fahrbahnen aus glas- LeCuyer, Anette: ETFE – Technology and Design. Basel/
Michaeli, Walter; Begemann, Michael: Einführung in die faserverstärktem Kunststoff (GFK) – Neue Straßen- Boston/Berlin, 2008
Technologie der Faserverbundwerkstoffe. Munich,1990 brücke in Friedberg (Hessen). In: Stahlbau 7/2009, Müller, Michael et al.: Ökologische/Ökonomische Bewer-
Moser, Kurt: Faser-Kunststoff-Verbund: Entwurfs- und pp. 462–470 tung zweier Fassadenkonzepte – Glasfassade versus
Knippers, Jan; Hwash, Mohamed: Umgelenkte Lamellen Kunststofffassade. Research report. Remscheid, 2007
Berechnungsgrundlagen. Düsseldorf ,1992
aus kohlefaserverstärktem Kunststoff für freistehende Preisig, Hansruedi: Massiv- oder Leichtbauweise? In:
Schurmann, Helmut: Konstruieren mit Faser-Kunststoff-
Spannglieder im Konstruktiven Ingenieurbau. In: Beton- tec 21 42/2002, pp. 15ff.
Verbunden. Berlin/Heidelberg, 2007
und Stahlbetonbau 10/2008, pp. 682–688 Schittich, Christian et al.: Glass Construction Manual,
Sperber, Volker E.: Trends für Naturfaser-Verbundwerk-
Lee, Sung Woo; Kee-Jeung, Hong: Experiencing More 2nd ed. Munich, 2007
stoffe. In: Technische Textilien 2/2006, pp. 70ff.
Composite-Deck Bridges and Developing Innovative Sigg, Rene et al.: LUKRETIA – Lebenszyklus – Ressourcen
– Technisierung. Zurich, 2006
Adhesives and coatings Profile of Snap-Fit Connection. In: COBRAE Conference
Habenicht, Gerd: Kleben: Grundlagen, Technologien, – Benefits of Composites in Civil Engineering. Stuttgart,
Anwendungen. Berlin, 2009 2007
Nanetti, Paolo: Lack für Einsteiger. Hannover, 2009 Remmele, Mathias: Aus einem Guss: Die Entwicklung des Part D Planning and form-finding
Pfaff, Gerhard: Spezielle Effektpigmente – Grundlagen Panton-Stuhls. In: deutsche bauzeitung 4/2006, pp. Loadbearing structure and form
und Anwendungen. Hannover, 2007 27–32 Barnes, Michael R.: Form-finding and analysis of tension
Peters, Stefan: Kleben von GFK und Glas für baukon- Schwarz, Otto et al.: Kunststoffverarbeitung. Würzburg, structures by dynamic relaxation. In: International Journal
struktive Anwendungen. Stuttgart, 2006 2009 of Space Structures, vol. 14 No. 2/1999, pp.89–104
288
Bibliography • Authors
289
Picture credits
Picture credits A 29
A 32
Tohru Waki/Shokokusha, Tokyo
Jan Cremers, Munich
B 3.10 Ludwig, Carsten: Glasfaserverstärkte Kunststoffe
unter hoher thermischer und mechanischer
A 33 a – b see A 7 Belastung. Dissertation. Stuttgart, 2009, p. 193
The authors and publishers would like to express their A 34 a – b Renzo Piano Building Workshop, Genoa B 3.12 Rusam, Horst: Anstriche und Beschichtungen
sincere gratitude to all those who have assisted in the im Bauwesen – Eigenschaften, Untergrunde,
A 34 c Dini, Massimo: Renzo Piano. Progetti e architetture.
production of this book, be it through providing photos or Anwendung. Stuttgart, 2004, p. 111
1964 – 1983. Milan, 1983, p. 15, Fig. 5
artwork or granting permission to reproduce their documents B 3.14 c BMW AG, Munich
A 35 a – b Gianni Berengo Gardin, Milan
or providing other information.
A 36 a – b Udd, Eric; Winz, Mike; Kreger, Stephen; Heider,
The drawings in parts A to E that are not listed here were
Dirk: Failure Mechanisms of Fiber Optic Sensors Natural fibre-reinforced polymers and biopolymers
produced by the authors.
Placed in Composite Materials. SPIE vol. 5758, B 4.1 Swiss Cell/THE WALL AG, Ratingen
Photographs not specifically credited were taken by the
2005 B 4.2 according to http://www.uni-kassel.de/fb15/
architects or are works photographs or were supplied from
A 37 according to Grohmann, Boris A.; Wallmersperger, ifw/wpc/zu_downloaden/Tagung_1999_
the archives of the magazine DETAIL. Despite intensive
Thomas; Kröplin, Bernd-Helmut: Lecture, adaptive PDF/30%20Beckmann.pdf
endeavours we were unable to establish copyright owner-
structures. Institute for Statics & Dynamics (ISD), B 4.3 fabpics/Fernando Alda
ship in just a few cases; however, copyright is assured.
University of Stuttgart B 4.4 Lucas Schifres/Finpro ry
Please notify us accordingly in such instances. The num-
A 38 Grohmann, Boris A.; Wallmersperger, Thomas; B 4.5 Daimler Benz AG, Stuttgart
bers refer to the figures.
Kröplin, Bernd-Helmut: Adaptive Strukturen und B 4.7 Mazda Motor Corporation, Teijin
gekoppelte Mehrfeldprobleme. In: Stahlbau, vol. B 4.8 Fachagentur Nachwachsende Rohstoffe e. V.,
The photographs of the various materials in this Construction
69, No. 6, p. 448, Fig. 6 Gülzow
Manual are the result of a cooperation between the authors
A 39 Cremers, Jan: Performance-Steigerungen von B 4.10 Sergio Rossi, Milan
and the photographers of the University of Stuttgart.
Bestandsgebäuden durch innovative Membran- B 4.11 according to Endres, Hans-Josef; Siebert-Raths,
konstruktionen, Neumarkt i.d. Oberpfalz, 2010, Andrea: Technische Biopolymere. Rahmen-
Hans-Joachim Heyer + Boris Miklautsch/Werkstatt für
p. 3 bedingungen, Marktsituation, Herstellung,
Photographie/University of Stuttgart:
A 40 Werkstatt für Photographie, Faculty of Architecture Aufbau und Eigenschaften. Munich, 2009,
& Urban Planning, University of Stuttgart p. 206, Fig. 5.33
B B 1.1 B 1.8 B 1.13 B 1.23 – 25 B 1.27 – 33
A 41 Uwe Walter/Courtesy EIGEN+ART Gallery, B 4.12 see B 4.11, p. 215, Fig. 5.46
B 1.36 B 1.39 – 40 B 1.42 – 44 B 2.1 B 2.11 – 13
Leipzig/Berlin, and The Pace Gallery B 4.13 NEC Deutschland GmbH, Düsseldorf
B 2.16 – 21 B 2.1 B 2.11 – 13 B 2.16 – 21 B 3.7 – 9
B 4.14 mehrwerk designlabor/Enrico Wilde, Halle
(Saale)
C 1.1 C 1.4 a – c C 1.6 – 11 C 1.17 – 21 C 2.4 a – d
C 3.1 C 3.3 – 5 C 3.9 – 10 C 3.21 – 23 C 3.25 – 26 Part B Materials B 4.15 Honda Deutschland GmbH, Offenbach
C 4.1 C 4.7 – 8 C 4.16 C 5.1 C 5.7 – 11 Polymers
B 1.2 Lindner, Christoph: Produktion, Verarbeitung und
D 1.3 D 1.7 – 8 D 2.8 Verwertung von Kunststoffen in Deutschland. Part C Semi-finished products
Alzenau, 2007, p. 6 Primary products
E 1.34 – 35 E 3.17 – 18 B 1.6 Etzrodt, Günter: Die Farbenwelt der Kunststoffe: C Christian Schittich, Munich
Farbmittel und Präparationen: Eigenschaften, C 1.2 Schwarz, Otto; Ebeling, Friedrich Wolfhard;
Verarbeitung, Qualitätssicherung. Landsberg am Furth, Brigitte: Kunststoffverarbeitung. Würz-
Part A Polymers and membranes in Lech, 2003, p. 18, Fig. 11 burg, 2002, p. 19
B 1.7 Baur, Erwin et al.: Saechtling Kunststoff Taschen- C 1.14 a – b BASF SE, Ludwigshafen
architecture
buch. Munich, 2007, p. 695, Fig. 7.13 C 1.15 see B 1.17, p. 753, plate 8.19
B 1.10 Pfaff, Gerhard: Spezielle Effektpigmente-Grundlagen
A Julian Lienhard, Stuttgart
und Anwendungen, Hannover, 2007, p. 141 Fibre-reinforced polymers
A1 Deutsches Museum archives, Munich
B 1.11 http://www.ipt.arc.nasa.gov/finnfigures.html C 2.1 Fiberline Composites AS, Middelfart
A2 Kunststoffe, Carl Hanser Verlag, Munich
B 1.16 Ludwig, Carsten: Glasfaserverstärkte Kunststoffe C 2.2 a Svenja Beye, RWTH Aachen University
A3 Tschimmel, Udo: Die Zehntausend-Dollar-Idee.
unter hoher thermischer und mechanischer C 2.3 according to DIN EN 13706, DIN 18820 and
Berlin, 1991, p. 69
Belastung. Dissertation. Stuttgart, 2009, p. 157 Sika Deutschland GmbH
A4 http://www.liveauctioneers.com/item/5987732
B 1.17 see B 1.16, p. 156 C 2.6 see B 2.7, p. 164
A5 Vitra, Birsfelden/Weil am Rhein
B 1.18 see B 1.7, pp. 235ff. C 2.9 see B 2.7, p. 176
A6 Hansen, Hans/Vitra, Hamburg
B 1.19 Braun, Dietrich: Erkennen von Kunststoffen: quali- C 2.10 see B 2.7, p. 177
A 7 – 8 The Estate of R. Buckminster Fuller, Santa Barbara
tative Kunststoffanalyse mit einfachen Mitteln. C 2.12 BWH-Bücker Kunststoffe GmbH & Co.,
A9 The MIT Museum. In: Hess, Alan: Googie. fifties
Munich, 1998, p. 42f. Emsdetten
coffee shop architecture. San Francisco, 1986,
B 1.21 a – b see B 1.19, p. 35, Fig.3
p. 50
B 1.22 Kalweit, Andreas et al.: Handbuch für technisches
A 10 Wolfgang Feierbach, Altenstadt Semi-finished polymer products
Produktdesign: Material und Fertigung, Entschei- C 3.2 see C 1.2, p. 41
A 11 Jean-Pierre Dalbéra, Paris
dungsgrundlagen für Designer und Ingenieure. C 3.16 clear-PEP UV PC, Design Composite GmbH,
A 12 a – b Paul Kramer, Berlin
Berlin/Heidelberg, 2006, p. 92 Mittersill
A 13 Blundell-Jones, Peter; Hübner, Peter: Peter Hübner
B 1.37 see B 1.19, p. 36, Fig. 4 B C 3.27 see C 3.2, p. 81
– Building as a Social Process. Stuttgart, 2007,
B 1.38 see B 1.18, p. 654, Fig. 6.68 C 3.29 SIEGERBAU, Vetschau
p. 107
B 1.41 see B 1.19, p. 36, Fig. 4 A C 3.30 a – b see C 2.1
A 15 a – b Institute for Lightweight Structures & Conceptual
Design, Stuttgart
A 17 a – c see A 15 Fibres
Foil
A 18 Birdair Inc., New York B 2.2 Schürmann, Helmut: Konstruieren mit Faser-Kunst-
C 4.2 Nowofol Kunststoffprodukte GmbH & Co. KG,
A 19 Walter Bird, University Archives, State University stoff-Verbunden. Berlin/Heidelberg 2007, p. 22
Siegsdorf; Vector Foiltec GmbH, Bremen;
of New York at Buffalo B 2.3 Moser, Kurt: Faser-Kunststoff-Verbund. Entwurfs- Baur, Erwin, et al.: Saechtling Kunststoff
A 20 Koch, Klaus-Michael: Bauen mit Membranen. und Berechnungsgrundlagen. Düsseldorf, 1992 Taschenbuch. Munich, 2007
Munich, 2004, p. 44, Fig. 68 B 2.7 Ehrenstein, Gottfried W.: Faserverbund-Kunststoffe: C 4.3 a according to Bongaerts, H. In: Handbuch der
A 21 a Horst Berger, New York Werkstoffe, Verarbeitung, Eigenschaften. Munich, Kunststoff-Extrusionstechnik. vol. 2: Extrusions-
A 21 b Taiyo Kogyo Co. Ltd., Tokyo 2006, pp. 19, 31, 39 anlagen. Munich, 1986
A 22 a Yukio Futagawa, Tokyo B 2.8 Flemming, Manfred et al.: Faserverbundbauweisen. C 4.3 b according to Nentwig, Joachim: Kunststoff-
A 22 b Verena Herzog-Loibl, Munich Berlin, 1995, p. 10, Fig. 2.1.5 Folien: Herstellung, Eigenschaften, Anwend-
A 23 Manfred Storck, Stuttgart B 2.10 see B 2.3 ung. 3rd ed., Munich, 2006
A 24 b see A 15 B 2.14 Faserinstitut Bremen C 4.4 – 5 Brückner Maschinenbau GmbH & Co. KG,
A 25 see A 7 B 2.15 see B 2.7, p. 32 Siegsdorf
A 26 Winfried Nerdinger (ed.), Konstruktion und Raum C 4.9 Hodann, Robert: Fluorpolymer-Folien für
in der Architektur des 20. Jahrhunderts. Munich, Adhesives and coatings Architekturkonstruktionen, Nowofol: presenta-
2002, p. 76, Fig. 1 B 3.1 Jan Bitter Fotografie, Berlin tion, DAGA 2007, Stuttgart.
A 27 a Herzog, Thomas: Pneumatic Structures: A Hand- B 3.3 see B 1.22, p. 484, Fig. 31 C 4.10 – 12 Saxe, Klaus; Homm, Thomas (University of
book of Inflatable Architecture. Stuttgart, 1976, B 3.4 Peters, Stefan: Kleben von GFK und Glas für bau- Duisburg/Essen): Mechanische Eigenschaften
p. 45, Fig. 33 konstruktive Anwendungen. Dissertation. Stuttgart, von ETFE-Folien für vorgespannte Strukturen.
A 27 b George Cserna 2006, p. 123 Presentation, Techtextil Symposium, 12 Jun
A 28 Hightex GmbH, Rimsting B 3.5 see B 3.4, p. 87 2007.
290
Picture credits
C 4.13 – 14 Novum Membranes GmbH, Edersleben C 7.13 dRMM Architects & Designers, London Membrane für die Energetische Sanierung
C 4.15 Karsten Moritz, Obing von Gebäuden (MESG), Rimsting, 2009
(unpublished)
Textile membranes Part D Planning and form-finding E 3.5 a – b LeCuyer, Anette: ETFE – Technology and
C 5.5 a according to Seidel, Michael: Tensile Surface Loadbearing structure and form Design. Basel/Boston/Berlin, 2008, p. 108
Structures. Berlin, 2009, p. 39 D Mike Stoy, Bothell E 3.12 – 13 see E 3.3
C 5.5 b according to Forster, Brian; Mollaert, Marijke: D 1.2 École des Ponts ParisTech E 3.15 according to Baier, Bernd; Koenen, Reinhold;
European Design Guide for Tensile Surface D 1.15 see A 20, p. 89 Müller, Joachim (ed.): Grenzbereiche: leichte
Structures, Brussels, 2004, p. 227 D 1.17 Samuel Fournier, Lavaux Konstruktionen – Symposium interdisziplinar.
C 5.12 Test results, ITKE, University of Stuttgart D 1.18 Hubertus Hamm, Munich University of Duisburg-Essen, 2005
C 5.13 a – b according to test results of Bauer Membranbau, D 1.20 Fritz Busam, Berlin E 3.16 b Marcus Bredt, Berlin
for Rasch + Bradatsch, Freising D 1.21 Gerhard Hagen, Bamberg E 3.19 Rolf Luchsinger, Dübendorf
C 5.14 Hareikon UG, Bellenberg D 1.32 – 33 Helen & Hard, Stavanger E 3.20 Florian Holzherr, Munich
C 5.15 Koch Membranen GmbH, Rimsting D 1.36 according to Otto, Frei: IL 5, Wandelbare E 3.21 seele holding GmbH & Co. KG, Gersthofen
Dächer. Publications of the Institute for Light-
Building physics and energy aspects
weight Structures & Conceptual Design. Building with textile membranes
C 6.2 – 3 Cremers, Jan.: Einsatzmöglichkeiten von Stuttgart, 1972, p. 45 E 4.4 – 5 http://www.pfeifer.de/seilbau/download/
Vakuum-Dammsystemen, Munich/New York, E 4.16 – 17, E 4.28 Rasch + Bradatsch, Leinfelden-
2007, p. 16 Detailed design aspects Echterdingen
C 6.7 Neopor BASF SE, Ludwigshafen D 2.2 according to VDI 1989 (2006): Richtlinie 2014: E 4.27 see A 20, p. 133
C 6.8 Cammerer, Walter: Wärme- und Kälteschutz Entwicklung von Bauteilen aus Faser-Kunst- E 4.32, 4.41 Alexander Michalski, Stuttgart
im Bauwesen und in der Industrie. Berlin, stoff-Verbund E 4.43 see A 20, p. 200
1995, pp. 415f., and Pupp, Wolfgang; Hart- D 2.3 according to Blum, Rainer: Zeltbaumaterialien. E 4.51 Jakob Frick, Stuttgart
mann, Heinz: Vakuumtechnik. Leipzig, 1991 In: Günter Brinkmann: Leicht und Weit. Wein- E 4.54 Patrick Bingham-Hall, Balmain
C 6.9 Porextherm Dämmstoffe GmbH, Kempten heim, 1990, p. 204
C 6.11 see C 6.2, p. 20 D 2.11 – 13 see C 6.33 Complex building envelopes
C 6.12 see C 6.2, p. 45 D 2.22 Pedelta, consulting engineers, Barcelona E 5.1 see E
C 6.13 according to Porextherm GmbH, Kempten E 5.6 see E 3.3
C 6.14 http://www.empa-ren.ch/ren/Projekte_ E 5.7 see A 39, p. 2
Gebaeudehuelle/Pdf%20Gebaeudehuelle/ Part E Building with polymers and E 5.9 MFPA Leipzig GmbH, Leipzig
sb%20hlwd.pdf; 30 Aug 2010, p. 11 membranes E 5.10 a Fraunhofer-Institut für Bauphysik, Holzkirchen
C 6.15 ThyssenKrupp Steel Europe, Duisburg Building with polymers and membranes E 5.11 see A 28
C 6.17 Cabot Corporation, Boston E Fernando Guerra /FG+SG, Lisbon E 5.13 see 6.31
C 6.18 Wacotech GmbH & Co.KG, Bielefeld E 1.1 Stefan Müller-Naumann, Munich E 5.18 – 19 Cabot Corporation, Boston
C 6.20 Isoflex, Gustafs E 1.3 Swissfiber AG, Zurich E 5.20 Vector Foiltec GmbH, Bremen
C 6.21 OKALUX GmbH, Marktheidenfeld E 1.4 Schürmann, Helmut: Konstruieren mit Faser- E 5.21 a see A 28
C 6.22 Wacotech GmbH & Co.KG, Bielefeld Kunststoff-Verbunden. Berlin/Heidelberg, E 5.23 Birdair, Inc. A Taiyo Kogyo Company,
C 6.23 Manufacturer’s information via Fachverband 2007, p. 538 Williamsville
Transparente Wärmedämmung e.V. E 1.5 Beat Widmer, Swissfiber AG, Zurich E 5.24 a – b Thomas Jantscher, Colombier
C 6.27 Jan Cremers; according to data from ZAE- E 1.8 Park, Don-U., Knippers, Jan: Application of a E 5.24 c see A
Bayern e.V. new GFRP jointing method for an exhibition E 5.25 see A 32
C 6.30 Evonik Röhm GmbH, Essen membrane spatial structure. 9th Asian Pacific E 5.27 a – c Thomas Hofmann, Fürth / Gerhard Reisinger,
C 6.31 according to measurements from ZAE-Bayern Conference of Shell and Spatial Structures Jülich
e. V. (APCS 2009), Nagoya, May 2009
C 6.32 Jan Cremers; according to measurements E 1.13 b see C 2.1
from ZAE-Bayern e.V. E 1.15 – 16 see E 1.13b Part F Case studies
C 6.33 Labor Blum, Stuttgart E 1.19 a Toni, Michela: FRP architecture: Building by
C 6.34 Peter Bartenbach, Munich fiber-reinforced plastics. Florence, 2007, p. 82 F Virgile Simon Bertrand, Hong Kong
C 6.35 Peter Bonfig, Munich E 1.20 a Foto Flury, Pontresina pp. 226 – 228 Michael Alschner, Vienna
C 6.36 Nigel Young, London E 1.21 a Keller, Thomas et al.: Adhesively Bonded and pp. 229, 231 Lukas Roth, Cologne
C 6.37 TEXAA raum AKUSTIKS Gbr., Eglsbach Translucent Glass Fiber Reinforced Polymer pp. 232, 233 top left Timothy Soar, Norfolk
C 6.38 a Nimbus-Group/Andreas Körner, Stuttgart Sandwich Girders. In: Journal of Composites p. 233 btm. left Josef Gartner GmbH, Gundelfingen
C 6.38 b – c according to KAEFER Isoliertechnik GmbH & for Construction 5/2004, pp. 461ff. pp. 234 – 235 Sergio Pirrone, Tokyo
Co. KG, Bremen E 1.22 a Sung Woo Lee, Kookmin University, Seoul p. 236 Arthur Péquin, Bordeaux
C 6.40 according to DIN EN 13501-1, Jun 2002 E 1.23 b Habib J. Dagher, University of Maine pp. 237 – 239 Ruedi Walti, Basel
C 6.41 see C 6.33 E 1.24 a Julia Liese, Munich pp. 240 – 241 Will Pryce, London
C 6.44 Roth Werke GmbH, Dautphetal-Buchenau E 1.29 b Arthur Péquin, Bordeaux p. 242 centre Markus Gabler, Stuttgart
C 6.45 Fraunhofer ISE, Freiburg E 1.31 Wagner System, Safnern p. 243 artur/Roland Halbe, Stuttgart
C 6.46 Kopf Solarschiff GmbH, Sulz-Kastell E 1.36 b Christian Schittich, Munich p. 244 top Torben Eskerod, Copenhagen
C 6.47 – 48 see A 32 E 1.36 c Rodeca GmbH, Mülheim a.d. Ruhr p. 244 btm. see C 2.1
C 6.49 Samuel Cabot Cochran, Pratt Institute E 1.41 a Jeroen Musch, Amsterdam p. 245 Deffner Voigtländer, Dachau
C 6.50 see A 32 E 1.42 LAMILUX Heinrich Strunz GmbH, Rehau pp. 246 – 247 Dieter Leistner, Würzburg
C 6.51 Kennedy & Violich Arch, Boston E 1.43 a – b Ee Stairs Nederland bv, Barnfeld pp. 248, 250 John Linden, Woodland Hills
E 1.44 a see E 1.5 p. 251 Marc Gerritsen, Taipei
Environmental impact of polymers E 1.44 c Swissfiber AG, Zurich pp. 256, 257 top see E
C 7.1 Rainer Schlautmann, Oberhausen p. 257 btm. Eva Schönbrunner, Munich
C 7.2 according to DIN EN ISO 14040 Building with free-form polymers pp. 258, 259 top Nicolas Pinzon
C 7.3 according to Institut für Bauen und Umwelt, E 2.14 a – b Krake Technology Group, Dessau p. 259 btm. seele holding GmbH & Co KG, Gersthofen
Königswinter E 2.17 Lange+Ritter GmbH, Gerlingen p. 260 Verena Herzog-Loibl, Munich
C 7.5 – 7 according to Okobau.dat, http://www.nach- E 2.26 Paul Pattijn, Doetinchem p. 261 btm. see A 32
haltigesbauen.de/baustoff-und-gebaeudedaten/ E 2.29 Lange+Ritter GmbH, Gerlingen p. 262 Thomas Ott, Mühltal
oekobaudat.html E 2.31a Wiebke Elzel, Academy of Visual Arts, Leipzig p. 263 Christian Schittich, Munich
C 7.8 Preisig, Hansruedi: Massiv- oder Leichtbau- E 2.31b Genzel, Elke; Voigt, Pamela: Kunststoffbauten: p. 264 Frank Kaltenbach, Munich
weise? Zurich, 2002, In: TEC21, No. 42/2002, Teil 1: Die Pioniere. Weimar, 2005, p. 203 pp. 265 – 267 see p. 262
p. 17 E 2.32 see E 2.31b, p. 177 p. 268 Udo Meinel, Berlin
C 7.9 Andreas Braun/Vector Foiltec GmbH, Bremen E 2.34 a – b Hahlbrock GmbH, Wunstorf p. 269 Zooey Braun, Stuttgart
C 7.10 Adam Mørk, Copenhagen E 2.36 a – c Octatube International, Delft p. 270 Heiner Leiska, Hamburg
C 7.11 a Müller, Michael; et al.: Ökologische/Ökono- E 2.42, 2.43 a Maurice Nio, Rotterdam p. 272 Friedrich Busam, Berlin
mische Bewertung zweier Fassadenkonzepte pp. 273 – 276 Nigel Young, London
– Glasfassade versus Kunststofffassade. Building with foil pp. 277 – 278 Rainer Viertlböck, Gauting
Remscheid, 2007, p. 84 E 3.1 Max Prugger, Munich pp. 280 – 281 top & btm. left see p. 264
C 7.11 b artur/Tomas Riehle E 3.3 Cremers, Jan: interim research report: pp. 282 – 283, 285 btm. pro.media/smart design
291
Abbreviations for polymers • Index
292
Index
cover strip ∫ 198ff., 203 peel-ply – ∫ 71, 180 glued connection ∫ 153 light-redirecting elements ∫ 222
cracking ∫ 31 polyamide – ∫ 20 glued joint ∫ 163, 164 lignin ∫ 61, 64
creases ∫ 96, 157, 184 polyester – ∫ 20 glued seam ∫ 199 living hinge ∫ 176
creep ∫ 36, 151, 155, 188 PTFE – ∫ 105 gluing ∫ 107, 153, 198 loadbearing structure ∫ 134ff., 150ff.
cross-linked polyethylene (PE-X) ∫ 41 spacer – ∫ 75 glycol-modified copolyester PET-G ∫ 87 long-term durability ∫ 39
curvature ∫ 136, 140, 146 fabrication ∫ 98, 106, 200, 206 glycol-modified PET (PET-G) ∫ 43 loop of rope ∫ 201
curvature of the surface ∫ 140, 146 facade ∫ 168 granulate ∫ 68f. low E coating ∫ 103, 115f., 222
cushion ∫ 143, 188f. – cladding ∫ 90 granulation ∫ 69 low point ∫ 142, 210f.
foil – ∫ 188f., 221 facing ply ∫ 72 greenhouse ∫ 121 luminous ceiling ∫ 220
multi-layer – ∫ 189 failure ∫ 152f. – effect ∫ 114f. lunar collector ∫ 122
cutting pattern ∫ 106, 147, 198f. – behaviour ∫ 35, 37 grey energy ∫ 128 M
cyanoacrylate adhesive ∫ 55 fatigue strength test ∫ 98 grids ∫ 90 maintaining the pressure ∫ 192
cylindrical cable fitting ∫ 197 fibre reinforcement ∫ 84 group of parallel cables ∫ 195 maintenance ∫ 194
D fibre– composite ∫ 48ff., 77ff. gutter ∫ 203 mast ∫ 209f.
damping capacity ∫ 43 inorganic – ∫ 15, 76 H mast head detail ∫ 208
decompensation ∫ 148 long – ∫ 50 hand lay-up ∫ 78f. mastication ∫ 44
deep-drawing ∫ 43, 86 – orientation ∫ 77, 177 haptic perception ∫ 35 material life cycle ∫ 40
delamination ∫ 77 short – ∫ 77 hardener ∫ 46 material stiffness ∫ 140
density ∫ 37 – spraying ∫ 81 hardening time ∫ 47 matrix ∫ 76
desiccant ∫ 33, 193 fibre-reinforced concrete ∫ 53 hardness ∫ 35 mechanical prestress ∫ 140, 145
detailed design ∫ 150ff. fibre-reinforced polymer ∫ 76ff., 84, health aspects ∫ 130 mechanical properties ∫ 35f.
dip coating method ∫ 103 88f., 176f. heat radiation ∫ 109, 111 mechanical ventilation system ∫ 218
directrix ∫ 137 filament ∫ 48 heat transfer ∫ 108, 215 melamine formaldehyde (MF) ∫ 46
dispersion paint ∫ 58 filler ∫ 32f., 68, 130 heat transfer coefficient ∫ 212 melt spinning method ∫ 51
disposal ∫ 62, 124 fine fleece ∫ 78 heating battery ∫ 193 membrane corner ∫ 203, 207ff.
distortion (mesh) ∫ 147 finite element method (FEM) ∫ 139 heat-strengthened glass ∫ 222 membrane edge ∫ 202
doctor blade ∫ 101 fire protection ∫ 32, 119 hemp fibres ∫ 27, 53, 61 membrane state of stress ∫ 138
double-leaf facade ∫ 195, 222 – coating ∫ 58 high point ∫ 142, 210f. metal fibres ∫ 48, 53
double-stitched flat-fell seam ∫ 199 – requirements ∫ 47 high-frequency welding ∫ 106 metal oxide ∫ 32
downcycling ∫ 40 fire-resistant glass ∫ 222 honeycomb core ∫ 72, 75 metal strip ∫ 205
drainage ∫ 203, 211 fixed point ∫ 145 honeycomb structure ∫ 178 methacrylate adhesive ∫ 56
drainage at low points ∫ 211 fixing ∫ 168, 170 hoop stress formula ∫ 145 methods of processing polymers ∫ 68f.
drainage channel ∫ 190 flame ∫ 38 hot-forming ∫ 172 micaceous pigment ∫ 33
dtex ∫ 48 – -retardant ∫ 32, 46, 120 hot-melt adhesives ∫ 57 microbes ∫ 53
ductile ∫ 35, 37 flat foil ∫ 95 hot-plate welding ∫ 106 micro-organisms ∫ 39
duplex coating ∫ 57 flat-fell seam ∫ 199 hump ∫ 210 microstructure ∫ 26
durability ∫ 39, 121 flax fibres ∫ 27, 53, 61 hybrid design ∫ 188 mineral board ∫ 91
dynamic relaxation ∫ 139 fleece ∫ 70, 75, 77f., 221 hydrolysis ∫ 39 mineral wool ∫ 217
E flex cracking resistance ∫ 121 hyperboloid ∫ 137 minimal surface ∫ 138
eccentricities ∫ 206 flexible connection at edge ∫ 218 I models for presentation purposes ∫ 139
edge cable ∫ 202, 206ff. floating (weaving) ∫ 70 impulse welding ∫ 106 modular system ∫ 85, 166
curvature of – ∫ 145 fluorescent ∫ 33 in situ foam ∫ 14 moisture ∫ 39
edge clamping ∫ 188, 190f. fluoropolymers ∫ 43f. Individual Approval ∫ 155 moisture characteristics ∫ 117
edge details ∫ 175, 179, 190f., 202ff. foams ∫ 72ff. industrial safety ∫ 157 molecular chain ∫ 36
edges (cushions) ∫ 191 form-active ∫ 136 influence of environmental media ∫ 152 molecular structure ∫ 34
efficiency in the use of materials ∫ 124 form-finding ∫ 138, 139 infrared (IR) ∫ 113 monoaxial ∫ 97
E-glass ∫ 50 experimental – ∫ 138 injection-moulding ∫ 91f. Monohex structure ∫ 13
elastic modulus ∫ 35, 37, 150 numerical – ∫ 139 ink ∫ 97 monomer ∫ 31
elastomers ∫ 37, 44f., 69 foil ∫ 94ff., 188ff. inorganic fibres ∫ 50 mother-of-pearl shine ∫ 33
silicone – ∫ 45 – insulation ∫ 112 insulating layer ∫ 73 moulded item ∫ 81f., 91f., 172
thermoplastic – ∫ 40 barrier – ∫ 110f. integral joint ∫ 170 moulding ∫ 25, 88, 94
electroluminescence (foil) ∫ 121 electroluminescent – ∫ 121 integral skin foam ∫ 72, 92 moulding compound ∫ 46
elongation at rupture ∫ 105 flat – ∫ 95 integrated section ∫ 83 mouldmaking ∫ 184f.
embrittlement ∫ 39 ionomer – ∫ 41 integration of functions ∫ 129, 184 movable central layer ∫ 189, 192
end fitting ∫ 202 cushion – ∫ 188, 221 interlayer ∫ 41 movable sunshading system ∫ 221
environment ∫ 124ff. tubular – ∫ 95 interlocking joint ∫ 170 multi-layer construction ∫ 215
environmental effects ∫ 154 FoilGlass ∫ 223 inversion of catenary ∫ 138 multi-wall sheets ∫ 87ff., 127f., 169ff.
environmental labelling ∫ 125 foldability ∫ 100, 107, 200 ionomer foil ∫ 41 N
epoxy resin (EP) ∫ 13, 37, 47, 76 folding ∫ 106f., 156, 188 isotropic ∫ 106 National Technical Approval ∫ 154
– adhesive ∫ 56 force density method (FDM) ∫ 139 J natural fibre-reinforced biopolymers ∫ 64f.
– lacquer ∫ 59 form in equilibrium ∫ 138 jointing material ∫ 44 natural fibre-reinforced polymers
– mortar ∫ 56 four-point sail ∫ 141, 145 K (NFRP) ∫ 60ff.
erection ∫ 92, 146ff., 156f., 167 fraying ∫ 198 keder ∫ 99, 190f., 197ff. natural fibres ∫ 48, 53, 61
ETFE foil ∫ 21, 96f. free corner ∫ 143 – rail ∫ 197f., 202ff. natural rubber (NR) ∫ 37, 44f.
– laminate ∫ 97 free-form surface ∫ 137 L negative mould ∫ 185
ethylene ∫ 31 friction connection ∫ 162 laced seam ∫ 200 nitrocellulose ∫ 10
ethylene propylene diene monomer rubber functional clothing ∫ 212 lacing ∫ 205 No Drop ∫ 121
(EPDM) ∫ 45, 190 G lacquer ∫ 59 non-crimp fabric ∫ 70f.
ethylene tetrafluoroethylene (ETFE) ∫ gathering mechanism ∫ 149 – finish ∫ 57 Non-Uniform Rational B-Splines
37, 44, 94 Gaussian curvature ∫ 136 lagging for cold pipework ∫ 120 (NURBS) ∫ 137
ethylene vinyl acetate (EVA) ∫ 41, 122, gelcoat ∫ 78f. laminated glass ∫ 41, 222f. notched impact strength ∫ 35
223 geodesic dome ∫ 21 laminated safety glass ∫ 222f. O
European Platform on Life Cycle Assess- geodesic line ∫ 147 latex ∫ 37, 44 opaque ∫ 34, 37
ment (ELCD) ∫ 126 getter material ∫ 33f., 117 lattice beam ∫ 166 open fitting ∫ 197, 209
exposure to UV light ∫ 32 glass fibre-reinforced polymer lattice mast ∫ 210 optical brightener ∫ 33
extruded aluminium section ∫ 190 (GFRP) ∫ 13, 25, 76f., 92f., 164f. layer of pure resin ∫ 78 oval ∫ 142
extrusion ∫ 83, 95 glass fibres ∫ 22, 48ff. layers clamped separately ∫ 189 overflow ∫ 194
eye loop ∫ 142 glass transition temperature ∫ 36 leaf spring ∫ 211 overhead glazing ∫ 222f.
eyelet ∫ 200 glass-fibre fabric ∫ 21 life cycle assessment (LCA) ∫ 124ff. P
F – PTFE-coated ∫ 21, 102, 104 – data ∫ 125, 128 Paint ∫ 58
fabric ∫ 70f. – silicone-coated ∫ 102, 104 light transmittance ∫ 86 Panton chair ∫ 92
aramid – ∫ 105 glass-silicone membrane ∫ 199 light-curing adhesives ∫ 56 PAR spectrum ∫ 115
293
Index
Parkesine ∫ 10 polyvinyl butyral (PVB) ∫ 41, 222 round strand rope ∫ 197 stitched seam ∫ 199
partial vapour pressure gradient ∫ 213 polyvinyl chloride (PVC) ∫ 11, 20, 25, roving ∫ 48, 77 stitching ∫ 107, 199
passive solar energy gains ∫ 115 37, 40, 82, 87 rubber ∫ 11, 37, 44f., 190 strain stiffness ∫ 105
PC sheets ∫ 86 pool of water ∫ 140, 194 ruled surface ∫ 137 strain whitening ∫ 35, 37
peeling force ∫ 199, 202 porous insulating material ∫ 111 R-value ∫ 213 strand ∫ 197
peeling method ∫ 99 pot life ∫ 54 S stranding ∫ 197
peel-ply fabric ∫ 71, 180 power supply (fan) ∫ 193 sack weave ∫ 70 streaks ∫ 95
perforated sheet metal ∫ 182 preformed sealing element ∫ 168 saddle surface ∫ 137, 140f. strength ∫ 34ff., 105, 134, 150ff.
period of use ∫ 151 preparing the polymer ∫ 68 safety of cushion structures ∫ 194 strength/elongation relationship ∫ 97
PET fibres ∫ 42, 49, 52 prepregs ∫ 80 sag ∫ 145f., 190 stress peaks ∫ 203
PET foil ∫ 222 pressure level ∫ 192 sail batten ∫ 143 stretching ∫ 96
petroleum ∫ 31 pressure sensor ∫ 193f. sail surface ∫ 140f. strip of membrane material ∫ 205
phase change materials (PCM) ∫ prestress ∫ 138ff., 143ff. sandwich core as mould ∫ 187 structural optimisation ∫ 137
25, 33, 110 primary energy intensity (PEI) ∫ 125 sandwich element ∫ 72, 112, 177f., 182f. styrene ∫ 46
phenol formaldehyde (PF) ∫ 46 primary products ∫ 68ff. sandwich panel ∫ 14, 72, 87, 90, 93, 177 styrene acrylonitrile (SAN) ∫ 37, 42, 87
phenolic resin (PF) ∫ 37, 46, 76 primary structure ∫ 189 satin weave ∫ 70 styrene butadiene (SB) ∫ 37, 42
phenolic resin foam (PF) ∫ 25 primer ∫ 54, 59 saturation vapour pressure ∫ 213 styrene butadiene rubber (SBR) ∫ 45
phosphorescent ∫ 33 principal curvature ∫ 136 scalloped edge ∫ 146 styrene copolymers ∫ 42
photochromic additive ∫ 33 printing ∫ 97, 189 scratches ∫ 223 styrene thermoplastic ∫ 12
photovoltaics (PV) ∫ 26, 122f. product LCA data ∫ 126 seam ∫ 107, 190, 196ff., 200f. substrate ∫ 54
piezoceramics (PZT) ∫ 26 production of polymers ∫ 31 sections82ff., 93, 165 sunshade ∫ 221f.
piezoelectric actuators ∫ 26 production quality ∫ 96 section-active ∫ ∫ 134 – surface-active ∫ 135
pigment ∫ 32f., 96 propylene ∫ 31 selectivity ∫ 116 surface adhesion ∫ 54
pipe ∫ 81, 176 protective function ∫ 212 semi-crystalline ∫ 34 surface emissivity ∫ 110, 116
plain seam ∫ 199 PTFE fibres ∫ 44, 49, 52f. semi-finished polymer products ∫ 82ff. surface finish ∫ 78
planar products ∫ 82, 85ff. PTFE/glass membrane ∫ 201f., 208 semi-finished product ∫ 160 surface hardness ∫ 223
planar-type semi-finished products ∫ PTFE-coated glass-fibre fabric ∫ 102, 104 planar-type – ∫ 88 surface of revolution ∫ 137
88f. pultruded section ∫ 93 sensorial qualities ∫ 34 surface tension ∫ 121
plank ∫ 90 pultrusion ∫ 81 service temperature ∫ 36ff., 152 surfaces supported by arches ∫ 142
plasticiser ∫ 32, 35, 39f. PVB foil ∫ 41 shadowline joint ∫ 180 surfaces supported by high or low
plastisol ∫ 101 PVC foams ∫ 75 shape memory material ∫ 26 points ∫ 142
pneumatic pre-stressing ∫ 140, 143, 147 PVC foil ∫ 94, 99 shear force ∫ 199 susceptible to flex cracking ∫ 157
pneumatic structure ∫ 17, 129 R shear strength ∫ 153 suspended roof ∫ 16
pocket ∫ 200ff. racking (fabric) ∫ 206 shear stress ∫ 161 swaged fitting ∫ 197
point fixing ∫ 168 radial cables ∫ 19 sheet moulding compound (SMC) ∫ 80 synclastic curvature ∫ 136
poly(p-phenylene ether), modified radome ∫ 13, 17, 182 shellac ∫ 10 synthetic fibre ∫ 11
(PPE + PS) ∫ 43 rainwater gutter ∫ 190 Shore hardness ∫ 36 synthetic resin ∫ 10
polyaddition ∫ 31 rapport ∫ 70 shrinkage ∫ 46 system line ∫ 208
polyamide (PA) ∫ 11, 25, 37, 43 ratchet strap ∫ 196 shrink-wrap plastic sleeve ∫ 198 T
polyamide fabric ∫ 20 reaction to fire ∫ 27, 78, 119 silicic acid ∫ 111f. tangential forces ∫ 208
polyamide fibres ∫ 11, 52, 107, 202 reaction to high temperatures ∫ 78 silicone ∫ 31, 37, 45 tear propagation resistance ∫ 105
polycarbonate (PC) ∫ 23, 37, 42, 82f., 113 reactive resin ∫ 46, 76, 223 – adhesives ∫ 57 temperature ∫ 36f., 39, 152ff.
polychlorotrifluoroethylene (PCTFE) ∫ 121 recycling ∫ 40, 124, 130 – foams ∫ 222 temperature gradient ∫ 213
polycondensation ∫ 31 reduction factor ∫ 154 single-ply foil ∫ 94 temporary tensioning equipment ∫ 196
polyester ∫ 12, 20ff., 42, 197, 200 reel ∫ 94, 96 singularities ∫ 142 Tensairity ∫ 144, 195
polyester fabric ∫ 19, 102, 104 reflectance ∫ 114 size ∫ 48 tensile strength ∫ 35, 37, 105
polyester fibres ∫ 11, 24, 202 reflection ∫ 217 sleeve ∫ 197, 209 tensile surface structure ∫ 136, 138ff.
polyester resin ∫ --> unsaturated poly- refurbishment ∫ 218 sliding bearing ∫ 44 tension ring ∫ 19
ester resin (UP) regulatory function ∫ 212 smoke ∫ 39 testing ∫ 154f.
polyester rope ∫ 200 reinforced edge ∫ 180, 202 snow load ∫ 188, 200 textile-reinforced concrete ∫ 50
polyester webbing belt ∫ 107 relaxation ∫ 36, 151, 155 soiling behaviour ∫ 121 textiles ∫ 48, 69ff., 77, 100ff.
polyester-PVC ∫ 201ff., 208 dynamic – ∫ 139 solar cell ∫ 122f. thermal ∫
polyethylene (PE) ∫ 12, 37, 41 renewable raw materials ∫ 62f. solar energy ∫ 26 – bridge ∫ 213
polyethylene fibres (PE fibres) ∫ 24, 52 resin transfer moulding (RTM) ∫ 79 solar module ∫ 41 – conductivity ∫ 25, 37, 110
polyethylene foil (PE foil) ∫ 99, 115 resin ∫ 37, 45f., 76, 176 solar spectrum ∫ 113f. – conduction ∫ 108, 111
polyethylene ionomers ∫ 41 – casting ∫ 46, 76 solar thermal system ∫ 26, 122 – convection ∫ 109, 215f.
polyethylene terephthalate (PET) ∫ –infusion method ∫ 79 solid polymer sheet ∫ 168 – expansion ∫ 36, 86, 160
12, 37, 42, 87 acrylic – ∫ 58 solvent ∫ 57 – insulation ∫ 108ff., 169f., 214, 216f.
polyhydroxybutyrate (PHB) ∫ 64 epoxy – ∫ 13, 37, 47, 76 solvent adhesive ∫ 57 – insulation measures ∫ 214
polylactic acid (PLA) ∫ 12, 27, 63f. MF – ∫ 46 solvent welding ∫ 57 – mass ∫ 214, 222
polymer blend ∫ 40 phenolic – ∫ 37, 46, 76 sound (of polymers) ∫ 34ff. – performance ∫ 212, 214, 216f.
polymer concrete ∫ 56 reactive – ∫ 58 sound insulation ∫ 117ff. – properties ∫ 36
polymer fibres ∫ 48, 51f. synthetic – ∫ 46, 76, 222 sound reduction index ∫ 118, 217 – surface resistance ∫ 212, 218
polymer floor finish ∫ 58 UF – ∫ 10, 46 space frame ∫ 18, 23 – transmittance ∫ 213
polymer foam ∫ 72 unsaturated polyester (UP) – ∫ 46 spacer fabric ∫ 75, 217 Thermo Plastic Spacer (TPS) ∫ 222
polymer gel ∫ 26 vinyl ester – ∫ 37, 46, 76 span ∫ 86, 188 thermopaint ∫ 33
polymerisation ∫ 31, 41 resources ∫ 124 special effect colourant ∫ 33 thermoplastic processing ∫ 94
polymers ∫ 30ff. retensioning ∫ 194, 200, 209 special effect pigment ∫ 33 thermoplastics ∫ 37, 40ff., 68f., 85ff.
polymethyl methacrylate (PMMA) ∫ return air system ∫ 193f., 221 specific heat capacity ∫ 110 thermosets ∫ 37, 46f., 69
37, 42, 82f., 113 ribs ∫ 178 spelter socket ∫ 197 thixotropic agent ∫ 78
polypropylene (PP) ∫ 12, 37, 41 ridge cable ∫ 142, 201 spiral rope ∫ 198 threaded fitting ∫ 197, 208f.
polystyrene (PS) ∫ 25, 37, 41, 87 rigid foam ∫ 178, 186 splice plate ∫ 161f. THV ∫ 44, 99
polystyrene foams ∫ 74 expanded (EPS) – ∫ 41 splines ∫ 137 toldo ∫ 149
polysulphide rubber (TM) ∫ 45 extruded (XPS) – ∫ 42 spoked wheel system ∫ 19 toughened safety glass ∫ 223
polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE) ∫ rigid polyurethane foam ∫ 12 spring ∫ 205 toughness ∫ 77
37, 44, 99, 105, 202 rise ∫ 145f. sputtering ∫ 97 transfer to two dimensions ∫ 147f.
polyurethane (PUR) ∫ 20, 25, 37, 47 rivets ∫ 162 stabilisers ∫ 25, 32, 39, 131 transfer-moulding method ∫ 80
polyurethane adhesives ∫ 56 road surfacing ∫ 58 state of stress ∫ 135f. translation surface ∫ 137
polyurethane casting resin ∫ 186 Rockwell hardness ∫ 36 axial – ∫ 135 translucency ∫ 25
polyurethane foams ∫ 74 rolling mechanism ∫ 148 membrane – ∫ 143 translucent ∫ 34, 37
polyurethane lacquer ∫ 59 room acoustics ∫ 117f. stiffening ∫ 174, 177 transmittance ∫ 114, 216f.
polyurethane rubber (AU/EU) ∫ 45 rosette ∫ 142 stiffness ∫ 35, 139f., 145ff. transparency ∫ 25, 34, 37
294
Index • Index of names
295
The authors and publishers would like to thank the following sponsors for
their assistance with this publication:
Hightex GmbH
83253 Rimsting (D)
www.hightexworld.com
Compagnie de Saint-Gobain
La défense Cedex (F)
www.sheerfill.com
www.norton-films.com
296