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1 Citations 7 References

C INSTRUMENTS

n International Journal of Geoinformatics 5:18-21 · October 2004 with 731 Reads  FEATURED VIDEOS

s Savvaidis Ioannis M Ifadis

stotle University of Thessaloniki 6.86 · Aristotle University of Thessaloniki

Doukas +1 Konstantinos Lakakis

stotle University of Thessaloniki 5.37 · Aristotle University of Thessaloniki
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CALIBRATING GEODETIC INSTRUMENTS

P. Savvaidis, I. M. Ifadis, I. D. Doukas, K. Lakakis,
N. Petridou-Chrysohoidou

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Laboratory
See all › of
SeeGeodesy
all › & Geomatics, Division of Geotechnical Engineering,citation
Department of Civil
Engineering,
1 Citations Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, Univ. Box 465,Download
7 References 54124 Thessaloniki, Greece.
Share Download full-text PDF
http://gserver.civil.auth.gr/

1. INTRODUCTION

Calibration is a set of operations that establish, under specified conditions, th

relationship between values of quantities indicated by a measuring instrument or system
and the corresponding values realized by standards. Calibration is achieved by means of
direct comparison against measurement standards or certified reference materials.
In geodetic works, there is always the need to ensure the quality of the carried ou
measurements, in agreement with the proper per project accuracy specification
Furthermore, it has been demonstrated that the measuring accuracy of the instrumen
weakens during use. In order to achieve the accuracy of the measurements to compl
with the specifications or standards, the calibration of the instruments used (from optic
theodolites and levels to EDM instruments, Total Stations, and GPS systems) is o
paramount importance. The objective of calibration is to certify that an instrument
working within the manufacturer’s specified accuracy and/or legal standards, to reduc
the effects of systematic errors, and to improve the accuracy of measured values b
applying the proper corrections. It cannot reduce the effects of random errors and it doe
not necessarily include mechanical or electronic adjustments.
All categories of geodetic instruments and auxiliary equipment should b
periodically tested and calibrated according to standardized methods and technique
Some of these tests can be done in the field using practical or sophisticated method
while other calibration techniques need to be performed in a laboratory.

2. ERRORS AND CALIBRATION OF THEODOLITES, LEVELS AND

MEASURING TAPES

Opto-mechanical theodolites and levels have traditionally been used for th

measurement of angles and height differences respectively. Electronic theodolites an
digital levels are also being used extensively at the present time. Measuring tapes o
different makes have been used for distance measurements as well. All these instrumen
are subject to errors and need to be calibrated.

a. Theodolites: All measurements with optical instruments are subject to pointing erro
due to focusing, target design, atmospheric conditions etc. Some of the theodolite's erro
can be defined using practical methods in the field. In the laboratory, theodolites ar
calibrated using sets of autocollimators concerning line-of-sight errors, error of vertic

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collimation,
1 Citations errors of inclination, tuning errors of reading microscopes, errors o
7 References
compensators and centring devices. Calibration of the angle measuring system can b
done either by measuring angles issued by horizontal or vertical collimators in differen
regions of the theodolite's graduated circular scale or by using a laser interferometer.

b. Levels and levelling staffs: Opto-mechanical levels can be calibrated using a set o
autocollimators, precise invar staffs and a 30 m height comparison base (in the field or i
the laboratory). Levelling staffs and digital levelling systems (levels and coded staffs) ca
be calibrated by means of a vertical comparator in the laboratory. The levelling staff
mounted vertically on the comparator, i.e. in the position of use. It can be move
vertically by a motor driven carriage. The displacement of the carriage is continuall
tracked with a laser interferometer. In this way, the staff scale (with either equal o
varying (barcode) distribution) can be verified.
Digital levels are used with the calibrated coded staff for taking readings. Th
calibration procedure can be controlled by a PC, which guides the movement of the sta
and records simultaneous interferometer and level readings. It is also possible t
determine the temperature dependency of the staff scales by adjusting the laborator
temperature to different values.

c. Distance Measurement by Taping: There are many types of measuring tapes (inva
steel, cloth, plastic, and fibreglass) of different lengths (15, 20, 30, 50 m etc.). Tapes hav
a nominal length under certain conditions (a set tension and temperature). Over time an
use a tape stretches and calibration has to be carried out frequently. To verify the lengt
of a measuring tape it must be compared to a reference tape or a baseline of know
length.

3. ERRORS AND CALIBRATION OF EDM INSTRUMENTS

EDM instruments can be calibrated by measuring a combination of distances on

calibration baseline. The measured values of certain distances are compared with th
known values of the corresponding baseline distances. Following the adjustment o
observations with the help of specially designed software, the instrument errors an
accuracy estimates can be computed. The instrument errors can be used to monitor th
performance of the EDM over time and, if significant, should be applied to measuremen
taken subsequent to the calibration.
Calibration baselines can be short (up to 30-50 m) and located in a laborator
facility or long (up to several hundred m) and located in the field. They are permanentl
divided into segments marked by specially constructed pillars. Forced centring system
are used on the pillars in order to eliminate setting-up errors. The stability of the pilla
must be monitored to ensure the required calibration accuracy. Both types of baseline
can be used for the determination of the EDM errors. In general, calibratio
measurements over short distances assist in the determination of the additive constan
while longer distances help determine the scale error.
The length of the baselines - to be used as a standard - can be measured by hig
accuracy EDM instruments or laser interferometers. Laboratory (short) baselines, know

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1 Citations 7 References

also as horizontal comparators, utilize PC-controlled automatic procedures for th

calibration of EDM instruments (mainly cyclic errors and additive constant). A moto
driven carriage carrying the reflector of the EDM is moved on a bench. The position o
the carriage along the bench is then controlled using a laser interferometer. Lon
baselines in the field allow the EDM instruments to be calibrated in real field condition
Refraction and geometric corrections to the measured distances are needed before furth
computations. All atmospheric parameter observation instruments must also b
calibrated.
An EDM instrument can be tested and calibrated for all errors one at a time o
simultaneously using a baseline. As stated above, most common EDM instrument erro
are the additive constant, the scale error, and the cyclic error:

a. Additive Constant (or Zero correction or Index Error): All distances measured b
a particular EDM/reflector combination are subject to an unknown systematic erro
caused by electrical delays, geometric detours and eccentricities in the EDM, as well a
differences between the electronic centre and the mechanical centre of the EDM and th
reflector.
Measured distances can be corrected for zero error by the determination of th
additive constant of the instrument/reflector combination on a calibration baseline. Th
calibration process relies on comparing distances that are measured over a set of fixe
pillars. The residuals from the data adjustment should be plotted and examined visuall
for any obvious trends that would indicate if there are systematic errors remaining in th
measurements. The resulting calibration constant is added to each measured distance t
obtain the corrected distance.

b. Scale error (or Scale factor): The scale error describes errors that are linearl
proportional to the length of line measured. These can arise from variations in th
modulation frequency of the EDM, phase inhomogeneities, unmodeled variations i
atmospheric conditions that affect the velocity of propagation, and errors in the collectio
and use of atmospheric data.
For precise surveying applications, it is recommended that the EDM be calibrate
for scale error at least once a year. Scale error is determined by comparing a series o
distances measured along segments of a baseline with the known distances of th
segments. The distance measurements are processed together in a linear least square
adjustment to solve for the unknown scale factor parameter. Once the scale error has bee
determined, all subsequently measured distances are multiplied by the constant sca
factor to yield a corrected distance. An alternative to using a baseline for EDM scal
calibration is to measure its oscillator frequency. The thermometers and barometer use
in the calibration should also be verified against a certified standard, as an error i
temperature and pressure readings will contribute to the scale error of measure
distances.

c. Cyclic error (or Short Periodic Error): It is a function of the internal phas
measurement of an EDM. Cyclic error is caused by interference due to optical/electron

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crosstalk
See all ›
of theSee
reference
all ›
signal onto the received signal orDownload
multipath effects.
citation ShareAs cycl Download full-text PDF
error repeats itself
1 Citations for every unit length contained within a measured distance (unit lengt
7 References

is equal to one half of the modulation wavelength), its sign and magnitude varie
depending on the length measured. The magnitude of the error could be in the order of 5
10 mm, however in modern EDM it is usually less than 2 mm (almost negligible).
Cyclic error is inversely proportional to the strength of the returned signal, so i
effects will increase with increasing distance. Determination of the EDM cyclic error ca
be done by taking measurements at small intervals on a baseline through one full EDM
modulation wavelength, then comparing these values to known distances and, eventually
modelling any cyclic trends found in the discrepancies.
Finally, a short note on the calibration of Total stations: These instrumen
measure both angles and distances. Consequently, the calibration of their optical system
and angular measurements is done according to the procedures described for theodolite
and the calibration of distance measurements is done according to the procedure
described for EDMs.

4. ERRORS AND TESTING OF GPS SYSTEMS

Periodic testing of the accuracy of GPS systems is required especially to ensur

quality control of the receiver itself, to improve the accuracy achieved with this receive
and to legalize the metrology relating to it. GPS receiver manufactures conduct factor
testing employing special testing procedures as suggested by scientific institute
university laboratories etc. As a rule, these procedures are not available to the commo
GPS users.
At the present time, it is very difficult to estimate the biases affecting the accurac
of the GPS systems since the mathematical background of the function of thes
instruments is quite complex. For this reason, the accuracy testing of the GPS is mainl
of a qualitative form and can be conducted through several methods that will be describe
below.
The GPS errors can be divided into several categories, such as satellite relate
errors (satellite clock, orbit, Selective Availability-SA), receiver related errors (receive
clock, multipath, carrier phase, code phase, reflected signals, thermal noises, softwar
delays among the different channels of the receiver), and atmosphere related erro
(ionosphere, troposphere). The accuracy of coordinates derived from GPS observations
dependent upon two main factors: the presence of unmodeled observational errors (suc
as tropospheric and ionospheric delays) or gross errors (such as software incorrectl
resolving the so-called phase ambiguity) and the geometrical strength of the satelli
configuration (Geometric Dilution of Precision, GDOP). Several procedures can b

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utilized
See all for
› theSee
verification
all › of GPS systems. Some of them are:
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1 Citations 7 References
a. Integrity monitoring: The GPS receiver verifies the integrity (usability) of the signa
received from the GPS constellation through Receiver Autonomous Integrity Monitorin
(RAIM) to determine if a satellite is providing corrupted information. A basic ide
involves the use of a ground network of permanent GPS receivers situated on points o
known coordinates. These receivers will get signals from all visible satellites and wi
warn when the performance of their system is significantly reduced.

b. Zero length baseline testing: In zero length baseline testing procedure, two differen
receivers are connected to the same antenna and use the static surveying method. Whe
two receivers share the same antenna, biases due to satellites, atmosphere and multipat
are eliminated during data processing. The results coming from the solution of th
measured baseline should all be zero. Using this method, a good check of th
functionality of the receiver’s circuits and electronics is being done. The zero lengt
baseline testing is also effective for testing GPS antennas.

c. Investigative testing: The GPS equipment is tested in actual field conditions b

measuring distances along a single baseline or a geodetic three-dimensional test networ
that consists of at least four or more stations, with known accurate coordinates (known
a better accuracy level than the one tested). The lengths of the single baseline or th
network baselines may vary from 50 m to 10 km. It is desirable for the test network to b
designed similar to the actual characteristics of the network of the project, especial
concerning height differences and geographical location.
In the case of a geodetic three-dimensional test network, the GPS derived 3
coordinates of the stations are compared with the known coordinates of the same point
using appropriate computer software and analysis and assuming that the most accura
geodetic datum transformations have been applied. The geodetic test network can be use
for the validation of static-based GPS positioning as well as of real-time kinematic (RTK
GPS positioning.
In the case of a single baseline, the simultaneous testing of several different GP
receivers can be performed. It is possible to vary the time of day that the observation
take place as well as the duration of observations. It is also possible to use the sam
datasets and vary the processing options and/software in order to verify the
performance. In a baseline testing procedure, the comparison of distances measured b
GPS receivers to the corresponding baseline distances results into an overall estimation o
the performance of the GPS systems.

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5. STANDARDS
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1 Citations 7 References
Standardization
measurements of testing
in the most andway.
effective calibration
Severalprocedures contributesthe
standards governing to the quality oo
calibration
geodetic instruments are those proposed by the Technical Commission TC172/SC
(Geodetic and surveying instruments) of the International Organization fo
Standardization (ISO). The scope of the TC172/SC6 is stated as “standardization o
terminology, requirements and test methods for geodetic and surveying instruments, the
components and accessories”. The SC is currently working on a series of standard
numbered ISO 17123 “Optics and optical instruments - Field procedures for testin
geodetic and surveying instruments” with parts about theodolites, levels, EDM
instruments etc. Other standards for survey equipment can be found in the Germa
National Body of Standardization (known as DIN standards). Among them is standar
DIN 18723 “Field procedure for precision testing of surveying instruments” also wit
parts about testing and calibrating theodolites, levels, EDM instruments etc. Finally
standard ISO/IEC 17025 “General requirements for the competence of testing an

calibration laboratories” describes the requirements and specifications for the operatio
of a testing and calibration laboratory in detail.
As a conclusion, it must be noted that the traditional methods for checking, testin
and calibration of geodetic instruments have already been partly or totally outdated. Th
science of Surveying has been subject to rapid technical evolution concerning bot
techniques and equipment. As a result, new instruments of increasing complexity o
measuring sub-parts have been introduced consisting of multiple sensors and device
application software, data acquisition and data transfer capabilities. These instrumen
must be treated and calibrated as complete systems, a fact that leads to the necessity o
developing entirely new methods of calibration.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

1. BIPM, IEC, IFCC, ISO, IUPAC, IUPAP, OIML: International Vocabulary of

Basic and General Terms in Metrology (VIM), 1993.
http://www.xs4all.nl/~mlbroens/vim.htm
2. Department of Natural Resources and Environment (2002): EDM Calibration
Handbook, Edition 7, Land Victoria, Australia.
3. EUROMET (2004): Metrology – In Short, 2nd Edition,
http://www.euromet.org/docs/pubs/
4. Rueger, J. M. (1990): Electronic Distance Measurement - An Introduction. 3
Totally Revised Edition - Springer-Verlag.

5 K t b l K dS idi P (1996) A C lib ti N t

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5. allKatsambalos,
See › See all › K. and Savvaidis, P. (1996): A Calibration Network
for the Contro Download full-text PDF
of GPS7Receivers,
References P.O.B., Vol. 21, No. 5, pp. 87-91.
Download citation
Share
6. Rizos, C. (1999): Principles and Practice of GPS Surveying - Version 1.1.,
1 Citations
Satellite Navigation & Positioning Laboratory (SNAP), University of New South
Wales, Australia.
http://www.gmat.unsw.edu.au/snap/gps/gps_survey/principles gps.htm
7. Petridou-Chrysochoidou, N. (1998): Investigation on the Short Range EDM
Instrument Errors, PhD Thesis, Department of Civil Engineering, Aristot
University of Thessaloniki, 1998.
8. Heister, H. and Slaboch, V. (2002): Report on Standards, Quality Assurance an
Calibration - FIG WG 5.1 Activities in 1998-2002, FIG XXII Internation
Congress, Washington DC, USA.

Prof. Paraskevas Savvaidis, Laboratory Director, e-mail: psav@civil.auth.gr

Asc. Professor Ioannis M. Ifadis, e-mail: jfadis@civil.auth.gr
Ass. Professor Ioannis D. Doukas, e-mail: jdoukas@civil.auth.gr
Dr. Eng. Konstantinos Lakakis, Lecturer, e-mail: lakakis@civil.auth.gr
Dr. Eng. Niki Petridou-Chrysohoidou, Lecturer, e-mail: nikix@civil.auth.gr

eferences (7)

sed the investigative testing method introduced by Savvaidis et al. (2004) [23] in which the GPS/GNSS equipment is
nditions by measuring distances along the points of ZNU-GCN. We installed on 4 Jan. ...
sed the investigative testing method introduced by Savvaidis et al. (2004) [23] in which the GPS/GNSS equipment is
nditions by measuring distances along the points of ZNU-GCN. We installed on 4 Jan. ...

work for total stations and GNSS receivers in sub-kilometer distances with sub-millimeter precision

NT
adjid Abbasi · Saeed Abbasi · A. R. Amiri-Simkooei

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