Energy Scavenging and
Powering E-Skin
Functional Devices
This article highlights the importance of scavenging energy from human body
movements and presents some of the key developments that enable energy harvesting
through mechanical and thermal affects, as well as energy management and storage
technologies.
By R. D. I. G. D HARMASENA , K. D. G. I. JAYAWARDENA , Z AKARIA S AADI ,
X UHUI YAO , R. M. I. BANDARA , Y UNLONG Z HAO ,
ABSTRACT | Electronic skins (e-skins), which can seamlessly
adapt and adhere to the body to mimic the functionality
of human skin, are a rapidly emerging research area. Such
e-skins have the potential to revolutionize artificial prosthetics,
robotics, human–machine interfacing, and health monitoring
applications. Powering the e-skin is a critical challenge at
present due to strict performance criteria, including flexibility,
stretchability, mobility, and autonomous operation. One of the
most promising approaches to overcome some of these chal-
lenges is to scavenge energy from the human body’s move-
ments and its surrounding environment. This paper outlines
some of the key potential developments that enable energy
harvesting through mechanical, thermal affects, and low light
sources, as well as energy management and storage technolo-
gies, which could lead toward the construction of autonomous
e-skin modules and self-powered sensing systems.
KEYWORDS | Autonomous systems; energy harvesting; e-skin;
IoT; self-powered electronic systems; wearables
I. I N T R O D U C T I O N
Skin is the interface between the human body and the
external environment, which protects internal organs and
Manuscript received February 15, 2019; revised May 17, 2019; accepted
July 13, 2019. Date of publication August 12, 2019; date of current version
October 3, 2019. This work was supported in part by the EPSRC NanoOPS Project
under Project EP/R025304, in part by the European Commission Horizon
2020 through the CORNET Program under Grant 760949, in part by Leverhulme
Trust under Project RPG-2014-312, and in part by Marcus Lee Foundation.
(Corresponding author: S. R. P. Silva.)
The authors are with the Advanced Technology Institute, University of Surrey,
Guildford, GU2 7XH, U.K. (e-mail: s.silva@surrey.ac.u.k.)
Digital Object Identifier 10.1109/JPROC.2019.2929286
0018-9219 © 2019 IEEE. Personal use is permitted, but republication/redistribution requires IEEE permission.
See http://www.ieee.org/publications_standards/publications/rights/index.html for more information.
2118 P ROCEEDINGS OF THE IEEE | Vol. 107, No. 10, October 2019
AND S. R. P. S ILVA
performs pivotal tasks in sensing and responding to exter-
nal stimuli. Imitating the critical functions of the skin
using artificial material systems through the design of
e-skins holds the key in constructing intelligent robot-
ics and machinery, which can sense the surroundings
and react [1]–[4]. E-skins are designed with differ-
ent multiple functionalities such as sensing mechanical
stimuli (force, pressure, and movement) [5]–[7] and
environmental conditions (humidity, temperature, and
chemicals) [8]–[10], protecting internal electronic circuits
from damage [11], and processing and transmitting the
data [12], [13]. Typically, these functions are achieved
through transduction mechanisms including piezoelectric-
ity [14], [15], piezoresistivity [16], [17], capacitance [18],
[19], triboelectrics [20], [21], optical [22], [23], and
wireless transduction [24].
Conventionally, e-skin applications were powered using
wired power supplies or intermittent sources such as
rechargeable batteries. However, these conventional meth-
ods are becoming increasingly obsolete in constructing the
new generation e-skins, due to performance demands such
as high sensitivity, complexity, lightweight, autonomous
and continuous operation, flexibility, stretchability, wear-
ability, and mobility [1], [25]. E-skins with such properties
can potentially provide exceptional advantages for appli-
cations in health monitoring, artificial prosthetics, robot-
ics, artificial intelligence (AI), human–machine interfacing,
and so on.
According to recent estimations, the power requirement
of a typical tactile e-skin system could reach up to a few
watts, while this value is predicted to decrease signifi-
cantly toward microwatt range with upcoming advanced
 Dharmasena et al.: Energy Scavenging and Powering E-Skin Functional Devices

Fig. 1. (a) Mechanical power generated at different parts of the body of a person walking. Adapted from [27] and [28]. (b) Structure of a
typical TENG containing two triboelectric layers and a pair of electrodes. Adapted from [38]. (c) Schematic of the thin-film-based TENG, and
its applications of lighting commercial bulbs. Reprinted with permission from [166]. Copyright 2013, American Chemical Society.
(d) Schematic and microscopic images of micropatterned PDMS-based TENG self-powered sensor (left) and the demonstration of the
voltage response during the fall of a feather (right). Reprinted with permission from [43]. Copyright 2012, American Chemical Society.
(e) Photograph (left) and corresponding voltage output (right) for a stretchable self-powered TENG during arm bending. Reprinted with
permission from [51]. Copyright 2018, American Chemical Society.

material systems and future device architectures [25].
In this context, energy harvesting, focused on capturing
ambient energy and converting this into electricity, com-
bined with energy management and storage systems is
foreseen as a viable option in powering the next generation
of sophisticated e-skins [1], [2]. Consequently, there has
been a significant interest in the design and construction
of self-powered e-skin modules using abundantly available
ambient energy sources such as mechanical motion, solar
energy, and thermal energy [1], [2], [20], [25], [26].
In this paper, we investigate some of the key energy
harvesting and storage technologies potentially applicable
for e-skins. First, we will discuss developments in mechan-
ical energy scavenging, followed by solar energy and ther-
mal energy harvesting technologies. Next, we summarize
developments in energy management and storage, ending
with future perspectives of e-skins and the conclusions.
II. M E C H A N I C A L E N E R G Y H A R V E S T I N G
Mechanical motion is available in the ambient in forms of
human motions, machine vibrations, vehicle movements,
wind, and waves. These movements can be of low fre-
quency (∼1 Hz for human movements) to high frequency
(several kilohertz for machine and vehicle vibrations).
Generally, mechanical energy is independent and contin-
uous in comparison to other energy types such as solar
and thermal energy [25]. Many ambient movements can
produce significant output power, for instance, an average
person when walking can produce more than 60 W in
different parts of the body [Fig. 1(a)] [27], [28]. This
energy source correlates with the e-skin applications such
as the secondary skin, artificial prosthetics, and robotics.
E-skins are typically deployed as the interface to the exter-
nal environment; therefore, the energy from vibrations,
wind, and waves can be scavenged to construct self-
powered e-skin systems. Many of these ambient mechan-
ical energy sources can produce significant power outputs,
reaching several watts [29]–[32]. Researchers have used
different approaches to scavenge ambient motion, and
some of the most promising technologies related to e-skin
are summarized in the following.
A. Triboelectric Energy Harvesting
Triboelectric energy harvesting has become a promis-
ing energy technology with the invention of triboelectric
nanogenerators (TENGs) [33], [34]. Triboelectricity is a
common phenomenon where a pair of material surfaces
gets statically charged (with opposite polarities) when con-
tacted or rubbed against each other due to the exchange of
electrons [35], ions [36], and/or charged materials [37].
TENGs depend on the triboelectric effect, along with elec-
trostatic induction resulting from the relative movement
of triboelectrically charged surfaces, to convert mechanical
energy into electricity [38]. The first theoretical model

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Dharmasena et al.: Energy Scavenging and Powering E-Skin Functional Devices
fully explaining the working principles of TENGs and
their optimization was presented by our group using the
distance-dependent electric field (DDEF) concept, based
on Maxwell’s equations [38]–[41]. The typical structure
of a TENG is shown in Fig. 1(b), where two triboelectric
materials are combined with two back electrodes [38].
Triboelectric materials are statically charged upon contact
with each other, and the influence of the electric field
from each charged layer on the electrodes depends on
their relative distances. When the triboelectric surfaces
are subjected to contact-separation or sliding movement,
the potential of the electrodes changes, and accordingly,
output charges are exchanged between the electrodes
through an external load, enabling the energy harvesting
process.
TENGs are commonly categorized into four work-
ing modes; vertical contact-separation mode (VCSTENG),
lateral sliding mode (LSTENG), single electrode mode
(SETENG), and free-standing layer mode (FSTENG) [31].
Early TENG designs focused on flexible energy har-
vesters with high peak power and energy conversion
efficiencies. This included the use of nanoparticles and
nanomaterials to enhance the device performance. For
example, Zhu et al. [42] developed a thin-film slid-
ing mode TENG for energy harvesting, using a metal
grating and a patterned polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE)
layer [Fig. 1(c)]. This reached a peak power density
of 500 W/m2 and overall energy conversion efficiency
of 50%. TENGs were also designed as self-powered sen-
sors, for example, a TENG with micropatterned poly-
dimenthylsiloxane (PDMS) and polyethylene terephtha-
late (PET) was demonstrated with a detection limit
of ∼13 mPa, detecting the pressure of a falling water
droplet and a feather [Fig. 1(d)] [43].
TENGs contain some specific advantages that are use-
ful in e-skin applications, such as flexibility, stretchabil-
ity, wearability, and lightweight. They can be constructed
using a variety of materials and fabrication techniques,
at low cost [44], [31]. Furthermore, nontoxic and bio-
compatible materials such as silicone, PET, and PDMS
can be used in these processes [45]. TENGs are compat-
ible with low-frequency movements, therefore provide a
suitable platform for ambient energy harvesting. Using
these properties, TENG designs with a specific focus on
e-skin applications have emerged in recent times. A self-
healing TENG with stretchable and transparent properties
was demonstrated using PDMS and a silver nanowire
composite [46]. The power output of this device reached
327 mW/m2 when subjected to a motion of 2 Hz, charging
a 4.7-μF capacitor to 4 V using human wrist movement.
In another example, a skinlike TENG sensor was developed
with a plane resolution 1.9 mm, which was used as a
sensory skin of an artificial hand [Fig. 1(e)] [47]. Similarly,
several multifunctional TENGs have been presented for
e-skin applications [48]–[51]. For example, a soft skin-
like TENG was fabricated by combining a ionic hydrogel
electrode and an elastomer [48], providing a uniaxial
2120 P ROCEEDINGS OF THE IEEE | Vol. 107, No. 10, October 2019
strain up to 1160%, and a transparency of 96.2% for visible
light. When subjected to a motion of 1.5-Hz frequency
(∼100-kPa contact pressure), the TENG produced a power
density of 35 mW/m2 , powering an electronic watch. The
same device was used as a e-skin pressure sensor, with a
calculated sensitivity of 0.013 kPa−1 .
A large number of textile-based wearable TENGs have
been introduced containing conductive fibers, yarns,
and fabrics, which could potentially support the power-
ing of e-skin-based devices [52]–[56]. Finally, the new
field of tribotronics, which couples the triboelectrics
with semiconductor electronics, and related developments
such as contact electrification field-effect transistors have
shown the potential for self-powered sensory systems and
power management systems, which would benefit the
autonomous e-skins [57], [58].
Despite their potential, TENGs have to overcome sev-
eral drawbacks before their successful integration with
e-skin devices [31], [38], [40]. They inherit high internal
impedances along with low current outputs due to their
structure. Typically, TENGs power generation is discontin-
uous with sporadic output pulses. Furthermore, the dura-
bility and stability of these devices while withstanding
mechanical and chemical conditions in wearable- and
e-skin-related scenarios have to be further improved.
In our view, the recently published TENG optimization
techniques based on the DDEF model could be used to
engineer the device, motion, and material parameters to
address the impedance and low current issues to a con-
siderable extent [40]. The recent attempts in develop-
ing new material systems and device architectures have
resulted in high output devices with enhanced durability
and stability, which could lead to more robust TENGs for
e-skin [31]. Different power management strategies and
circuits currently being developed for TENG power man-
agement could alleviate the discontinuity issue, especially
through the construction of near dc output via systematic
phase shifting [59]. However, these techniques need to be
further developed and integrated into an e-skin compatible
architecture in the future.
B. Piezoelectric Energy Harvesting
Piezoelectricity is observed in some crystalline mate-
rials, polymers, and biological substances, typically with
no inversion symmetry [28], [60]. These materials get
electrically polarized under mechanical stress, and the
polarization charges appear as a variation in the surface
charge density, resulting in the piezoelectric potential.
Under periodic stress, piezoelectric generators produce
an alternative voltage, which is used to drive an output
current. A range of piezoelectric materials has been used
for energy harvesting, including Pb(Zr, Ti)O3 (PZT), ZnO,
BaTiO3 (BT), and poly(vinylidene fluoride) (PVDF) [28],
[61]. The piezoelectric mechanism of wurtzite-structured
ZnO is demonstrated in Fig. 2(a), where the surface poten-
tial varies according to the applied stress [62].
 Dharmasena et al.: Energy Scavenging and Powering E-Skin Functional Devices

Fig. 2. (a) Schematic of the atomic model of wurtzite ZnO (left), and the piezoelectric behavior of the material during compression and
tension (right). Reprinted with permission from [62]. Copyright 2016, John Wiley and Sons. (b) Schematic of the development steps of a
horizontally aligned ZnO nanowire-based PENG. Reprinted with permission from [64]. Copyright 2010, American Chemical Society.
(c) Application of a vertically aligned ZnO nanowire-based PENG as a power source for a neuroprosthetic device. Reprinted with permission
from [65]. Copyright 2012, American Chemical Society. (d) Schematic of a fiber-type PENG. Reprinted with permission from [68].
Copyright 2012, John Wiley and Sons. (e) Photograph of a piezoelectric bioskin connected to the wrist (left), and corresponding current
output indicting the pressure associated with the blood flow through near-surface arteries (right). Reprinted with permission from [15].
Copyright 2017, Royal Society of Chemistry. (f) Schematic of an electromagnetic microenergy harvester with a levitating magnet. Reprinted
with permission from [77]. Copyright 2008, Elsevier Ltd.

Conventional piezoelectric materials such as PZT are
known to produce relatively high power outputs [25];
however, they are brittle, less durable, and could cause
health concerns due to materials such as lead. Alter-
natively, ZnO is commonly used to construct flexi-
ble piezoelectric nanogenerators (PENGs) due to its
favorable mechanical properties, low cost, scalability,
and biocompatibility, despite its relatively lower per-
formance [62], [63]. For example, Zhu et al. [64]
developed a PENG with horizontally aligned ZnO nanowire
arrays deposited on parallel strips of electrodes [Fig. 2(b)],
resulting in a peak output power density of 11 W/cm3 . The
same group constructed a PENG with vertically aligned
ZnO nanowire arrays between indium tin oxide (ITO)
and Al electrodes, resulting in a maximum output power
density of 0.78 W/cm3 under manual pressing [65], which
was demonstrated as a power source for a neuroprosthetic
device [Fig. 2(c)]. As flexible substrates, textiles have
been used to directly integrate piezoelectric nanomaterials,
constructing PENGs that can potentially be used with the
e-skin [62], [66]. Moreover, polymeric piezoelectric mate-
rials such as PVDF and its copolymers have been effectively
used to construct PENGs [67]. For example, Lee et al. [68]
developed a fiber-type PENG with ZnO nanowires aligned
in a PVDF impregnated polymer [Fig. 2(d)]. This device
produced a power density of 16 μW/cm3 through the
movement of elbow, demonstrating the potential as a
power source and a sensor.
Piezoelectric devices with multifunctional sensing and
skinlike characteristics have been developed in recent
times [15], [69]. Wang et al. [69] fabricated a single
electrode PENG composed of PVDF nanofibers, capable
of sensing pressure and temperature on a single unit.
Similarly, Sultana et al. [15] presented an electro-spun
nanofiber-based PENG for sensing physiological signals,
with a mechanosensitivity of ∼22 V/N with high stability
(for 375 000 cycles) [Fig. 2(e)]. Moreover, the combina-
tion of piezoelectric and semiconductor technologies has
resulted in the development of piezotronics and piezopho-
totronics fields, with potential implications in the e-skin
technology such as pressure detectors, strain sensors, and
photodetectors [1], [70], [71].
Piezoelectric devices present several key challenges
regarding its use with e-skin applications. Conventional
piezoelectric materials provide better output perfor-
mance at the expense of flexibility, stretchability, robust-
ness, and so on. Novel nanoscale material systems
(e.g., PZT nanoparticles) to develop PENGs could improve

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Dharmasena et al.: Energy Scavenging and Powering E-Skin Functional Devices
their mechanical behavior [72], [73]. Similar to the case
of TENGs, piezoelectric energy generators produce low
current and high-impedance output signals, in forms of
periodic pulses, which decreases their effectiveness in pow-
ering e-skin devices. Some of these drawbacks could be
minimized through proper optimization techniques, which
focus on the device design, output extraction, and power
management circuits [25], [62], [74]. PENGs typically
require poling of the piezoelectric materials, and their
outputs can be relatively lower than that of a compa-
rable TENG, especially for flexible devices. With further
research, PENG could evolve with high outputs and lower
device impedance, acting as reliable and robust energy
sources for e-skin applications.
C. Other Mechanical Energy Harvesting Methods
Apart from nanogenerators, several other motion scav-
enging technologies using small-scale devices have been
presented. Electromagnetic generators (EMG) contain per-
manent magnets and coils, where the relative movement of
the closed coils in the magnetic field results in an induced
output current [28], [75]. In one example, an EMG
microgenerator composed of two pairs of NdFeB magnets
sandwiching a copper coil held by a cantilever, generat-
ing an output power of ∼460 μW/cm3 (load = 4 kΩ,
frequency = 52 Hz) [76]. Saha et al. [77] constructed
a portable EMG, with a cylindrical permanent magnet
levitated through a coil, using two other permanent
magnets [Fig. 2(f)]. This device produced a 2.46-mW
power output at 2.75-Hz movement [77]. However, the
weight and rigid components of current EMG technologies
are considered key disadvantages for flexible and wearable
applications [25], which could negatively affect the com-
patibility and performance with e-skin devices. In addition,
variable capacitor-type generators such as dielectric elas-
tomer generators (DEGs) have been presented as flexible
energy harvesters [78]. However, these devices suffer from
low power densities and mechanical performance, and in
some cases, the requirement of an external power source
to bias the electrodes hindering their applicability for self-
powered e-skin applications. Researchers have developed
self-priming DEGs [78] and electret coupled DEGs [79] to
overcome some of these issues; however, their electrical
and mechanical performance still needs improvement and
successful integration with e-skin is yet to be established.
III. P H O T O V O L TA I C E N E R G Y
H A RV E S T I N G
Among the most widely investigated energy harvesting
technologies, photovoltaic (PV) energy harvesting is per-
haps the most studied with investigations ranging from
1-sun to indoor illumination. The following sections dis-
cuss PV technologies that have the potential toward wear-
able energy harvesting activities.
2122 P ROCEEDINGS OF THE IEEE | Vol. 107, No. 10, October 2019
A. Organic Photovoltaics
For over a period approaching 25 years, organic PVs
have been viewed as a low-cost technology due to their
printability at a high rate. This view is mainly driven
by the low processing cost associated with roll-to-roll or
sheet-to-sheet technologies [80], [81]. Although initial
device efficiencies based on Poly(3-hexylthiophene-2,5-
diyl) and [6,6]-Phenyl-C70-butyric acid methyl ester
(widely referred to as P3HT and PC70BM) stagnated
at ∼4%–5% by 2005 [Fig. 3(a)] [82] with further
improvements being impeded due to the relatively
low quantum efficiencies of the P3HT:PC70BM system,
higher operational voltages and efficiencies approaching
7%–8% were made possible by substituting the P3HT with
the Poly[N-9’-heptadecanyl-2,7-carbazole-alt-5,5-(4’,7’-di-
2-thienyl-2’,1’,3’-benzothiadiazole)] system (PCDTBT)
system [Fig. 3(b)] [83]. Subsequently, a number of
breakthroughs in the synthesis of new semiconducting
polymers led to the development of poly[[4,8-
bis[(2-ethylhexyl)oxy]benzo[1,2-b:4,5-b’]dithiophene-2,
6-diyl][3-fluoro-2-[(2-ethylhexyl)carbonyl]thieno[3,4-b]
thiophenediyl]] (PTB7) [84] and its sister polymers
such as Poly[4,8-bis(5-(2-ethylhexyl)thiophen-2-yl)benzo
[1,2-b;4,5-b’]dithiophene-2,6-diyl-alt-(4-(2-ethylhexyl)-3-
fluorothieno[3,4-b]thiophene-)-2-carboxylate-2-6-diyl)]
(PTB7-Th) [85], which enabled the lab scale device
efficiencies exceeding 10% [86] [Fig. 3(c)].
One of the principle factors impeding further progress
in the technology was the continuous dependence on
PC70BM in all organic PV device architectures. Since
2016, new developments in novel molecules to replace
the PC70BM has led to a resurgence in the field.
For example, molecules such as (5Z,5’Z)-5,5’-((7,7’-
(6,6,12,12- tetraoctyl-6,12-dihydroindeno[1,2-b]fluorene-
2,8-diyl)bis(benzo[c][1,2,5]thiadiazole-7,4-diyl))bis
(methanylylidene))bis(3-ethyl-2-thioxothiazolidin-4-one)
(O-IDTBR) [87], [88] and 3,9-bis(2-methylene-(3-
(1,1-dicyanomethylene)-indanone))-5,5,11,11-tetrakis(4-
hexylphenyl)-dithieno[2,3-d:2’,3’-d’]-s-indaceno[1,2-b:5,
6-b’]dithiophene (ITIC) [89] have enabled power
conversion efficiencies exceeding 10% to be routinely
obtained [Fig. 3(d)], driven by enhancing harvesting in
the IR portion of the electromagnetic spectrum harvested
enabling higher currents with higher operating voltages.
Furthermore, the use of O-IDTBR also enabled enhancing
the efficiencies of P3HT-based organic solar cells to 6%–7%
with potentially enhanced device stability [87], [88]. The
progress on the development of newer absorbers does
not appear to slow down with recent work suggesting the
possibility of obtaining 15% conversion efficiencies under
simulated solar irradiation conditions [83], [85], [88],
[90], [91].
B. Dye-Sensitized Photovoltaics
The dye-sensitized solar cell (DSSC) device architec-
tures are based on a mesoscopic photoelectrode material
 Dharmasena et al.: Energy Scavenging and Powering E-Skin Functional Devices
(often titania in anatase phase) that is infiltrated with
dye sensitizer electrolytes as the light-absorbing mate-
rial. Very early reports on the low illumination per-
formance of DSSCs based on copper complexes were
shown to have conversion efficiencies of ∼2.2% at
20-mWcm−2 illumination intensities [92]. This was
improved to ∼8.3% at 23-mWcm−2 illumination based on
a combination of bis(2,9-dimethyl-1,10-phenanthroline)
copper complex and an organic sensitizer (C218) [93].
More recently, Freitag et al. [94] demonstrated this by com-
bining the D35 dye together with XY1 sensitizer in com-
bination with the Cu(II/I)(tmby)2 TFSI2/1 redox shuttle
(here, TFSI and tmby indicate bistrifluoromethane sulfon-
imidate and 4,4 ,6,6 -tetramethyl-2,2 -bipyridine, respec-
tively), a power conversion efficiency of 28.9% under a
warm white light source emitting 1000 lux [Fig. 3(e)]. Fur-
ther gains in efficiency have been enabled by modifying the
architecture to reduce the diffusion path of the redox medi-
ator, enabling a power conversion efficiency of 32% under
1000 lux illumination intensity [95]. These improvements
are in contrast to the lower power conversion efficiency
of 21% enabled by a flexible GaAs cell provided by Alta
devices under similar illumination conditions [94].
C. Inorganic Photovoltaics
PV technologies based on polycrystalline and monocrys-
talline silicon have dominated the PV energy harvest-
ing market, especially in terms of outdoor applications.
However, a number of properties such as a narrower
bandgap and processing costs make crystalline Si PVs a
not-so-preferred option for indoor light-harvesting appli-
cations. Of the number of systems that have been widely
utilized for such applications there is amorphous sili-
con (a-Si) and, more recently, GaAs. Despite the growth
made in terms of powering electronic devices based on
a-Si ambient light harvesters, the deposition of a-Si is
based on chemical vapor deposition, which requires sub-
strates that are capable of withstanding high process-
ing temperatures such as glass. Although flexible archi-
tectures can be formulated on thin glass, it remains
to be seen whether this will be translated into com-
mercial products or whether the competing technologies
such as organic photovoltaics (OPVs) and DSSCs are
more likely to be looked upon more favorably in this
regard.
In terms of other conventional inorganic semiconductors
that enable energy harvesting based on ambient lighting,
GaAs can perhaps be considered to be a strong contender.
However, as discussed previously, the work reported by
Freitag et al. [94] is suggestive that DSSCs may be a more
preferred option in this regard, especially under indoor
lighting conditions.
D. Lead Halide Perovskite and Quantum Dots
Other potential thin-film candidates that may find appli-
cations in powering portable devices include thin-film
perovskites and quantum dot device architectures.
Perovskites have recently gained the attention of the PV
community due to the combination of high efficiencies
exceeding that of other thin-film PV systems and low
fabrication costs, a combination that has so far not been
observed for other commercial systems. Beyond the bulk
perovskite system, absorber based on quantum dot mate-
rials (including perovskites and cadmium telluride) is also
another potential candidate toward PV energy harvesting.
Although the technology has seen improvements over the
recent years, especially under solar light harvesting, and
more products are now slowly entering the market (e.g.,
display technology), the use of heavy metals often places
concerns similar to that of the bulk perovskite absorbers as
highlighted above.
On a holistic view regarding the biocompatibility of
PVs, both organic PVs as well as DSSCs are considered
to be highly biocompatible due to the absorber materials
used in both technologies. However, to enable the entire
device stack to be biocompatible requires the adoption of
carbon-based conducting materials as material contacts.
This biocompatible behavior is in contrast to the more
emerging PV material systems including perovskites and
quantum dots where the solubility of the lead salts in
the former as well as the presence of heavy metals in
the latter presents significant risks, especially for wear-
able electronic applications. Therefore, in addition to con-
siderations based on the power outputs based on these
technologies, future technologies should also take into
account the biological impact of materials escaping into
the surrounding environment (including the users) should
the device architecture undergo irreversible mechanical
failure.
Considering the applicability for e-skin, organic PVs
enable various unique benefits for wearable technolo-
gies. First, due to the low processing temperatures (often
<150 ◦ C), organic PVs can be readily integrated into
flexible substrates such as thermally stabilized PET or poly-
ethylene naphthalate (PEN), which can only withstand
moderate temperature processing. Second, organic PVs
are integrable with ultrathin foils enabling specific power
outputs that outweigh a majority of other wearable PV
energy harvesting contenders by an order of magni-
tude or even higher [Fig. 3(f)] [91]. Finally, the low cost
and large scalability makes it ideal for the flexible wearable
energy harvesters and sensors. Furthermore, the carbon-
based nature of the technology also ensures that organic
PVs are biocompatible, especially upon replacement of
conventionally used metal electrodes with conducting
polymer contacts. For DSSCs, the use of many of the
liquid electrolytes was often viewed as a significant barrier
toward their commercialization. However, a majority of
these appear to have been overcome as evident from the
commercial products available on the market [96], [97]
with their use being demonstrated over several sites.
In addition, the reduction of the electrolyte content in the
more recent breakthroughs also suggests that the uptake of
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Fig. 3. (a) Current density–voltage characteristics for a high-performing P3HT:PC70BM solar cell (power conversion efficiency 5%)
incorporating a TiOx optical spacer. Reprinted with permission from [167]. Copyright 2006, John Wiley and Sons. (b) Example characteristics
of a PCDTBT:PC70BM solar cell incorporating a TiOx optical spacer with a power conversion efficiency of 6.1% with an internal quantum
efficiency approaching 100%. Reprinted with permission from [83]. Copyright 2009 Nature Publishing Group. (c) Current density–voltage
characteristics for a PTB7-Th:PC70BM device demonstrating a power conversion efficiency of 10.28%. Reprinted with permission from [85].
Copyright 2015 Nature Publishing Group. (d) Example current density–voltage characteristics for P3HT and PTB7-Th (also referred to as
PCE10)-based solar cells incorporating IDTBR and IDFBR nonfullerene acceptors. Reprinted with permission from [88]. Copyright 2016 Nature
Publishing Group. (e) Current density–voltage characteristics for DSSC consisting of D35 and XY1 dyes in conjunction with
Cu(tmby)2 electrolyte in acetronitrile (solid line) and propionitrile (dashed line) under 200 and 1000 lux illumination. Reprinted with
permission from [91]. Copyright 2012 Nature Publishing Group. (f) Specific output of this solar cell in comparison to other PV technologies.
Reprinted with permission from [91]. Copyright 2012 Nature Publishing Group.

DSSCs in the wearable electronics market is more likely to IV. T H E R M A L E N E R G Y H A R V E S T I N G

be favorably viewed. Perovskites PVs remain to be another
promising candidate for such e-skin applications due to
their high power outputs. However, the solubility of lead
in these systems in water presents a significant hazard
and therefore likely restricts their large-scale uptake in e-
skins in the absence of proper barrier layers. Hence, proper
encapsulation technologies that prevent the escape of this
system in the eventuality of mechanical failure need to be
developed prior to adaptation in the wearable electronics
market. Similar concerns remain for quantum dot-based
technologies that usually incorporate heavy metallic ele-
ments, including lead. From the family of conventional
inorganic semiconductors, GaAs and a-Si are perhaps the
most favored in e-skin applications due to their high power
outputs. However, in terms of their specific power outputs,
it is highly likely that with the development of encapsu-
lation techniques, the solution-based PV systems are more
likely to be utilized for e-skin applications.
A. Body Heat Energy Source
Different parts of the body show different temperatures
due to the heat generated through blood flow, which can
be used to scavenge thermal energy (Fig. 4). Generally,
under ambient room temperature of 295 K, heat dissipa-
tion is estimated to be 1–10 mW · cm−2 on average, and
10–20 mW · cm−2 on the wrist due to the proximity
of the radial artery to the skin [98]. During a rest-
ing position, around 116 W of thermal power is dissi-
pated, and the theoretical maximum power recovered is
around 13.8 W, limited by the Carnot efficiency (assum-
ing a body temperature of 310 K and the ambient
temperature of 273 K) [99]. Therefore, the heat gen-
erated in the human body is sufficient to power the
low power e-skin and wearable devices, which nor-
mally require input power within microwatt to milliwatt
ranges [100].

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 Dharmasena et al.: Energy Scavenging and Powering E-Skin Functional Devices
Fig. 4. Temperature of human skin from different body points at
three room-temperature environments. Reprinted with permission
from [113]. Copyright 2016, Royal Society of Chemistry.
Despite technologies such as pyroelectrics, which con-
vert temperature fluctuations into a voltage [101], in this
work, we mainly focus on thermoelectrics, which is the
most commonly used thermal energy harvester. A ther-
moelectric generator (TEG) is a solid-state device capable
of the direct conversion of thermal energy into electric-
ity [102]. This energy conversion arises due to the Seebeck
effect when a temperature gradient exists across thermo-
electric elements. The latter are predominantly p-type and
n-type semiconductors, thermally in parallel and electri-
cally connected in series in order to guarantee maximum
efficiency [103]. The figure of merit (ZT), which is a
performance rating for TEGs, is expressed as
S2σ
ZT = T (1)
κ
where S is the Seebeck coefficient, σ is the electrical
conductivity, κ is the thermal conductivity, and T is the
absolute temperature at which the device is measured.
Equation (1) shows that a high ZT requires a high power
factor (S2 σ) and a low κ, which strongly depend on
temperature, charge density, and charge mobility; there-
fore, optimizing them independently is challenging [104].
Currently, commercial TE materials such as bismuth tel-
luride (Bi2 Te3 ) have a ZT of ∼ 0.8, with an efficiency
of ∼5%–6% [102], [105]. Hence, increasing ZT four times
would enable a predicted efficiency of around 30%, mak-
ing TEG an attractive field for waste heat recovery.
B. Low Dimensionality for Organic and
Inorganic Materials
Following their early development, TE materials
have been developed through two different approaches,
in forms of organic and inorganic materials. This allowed
the use of new families of bulk materials and their alloys,
and the use of low-dimensional materials such as car-
bon nanotubes (CNTs) [106]. In both material groups,
independently controlling the ZT variables indicated
in (1) is difficult. This can be overcome by reducing the
dimensionality of materials from 3-D to 2-D quantum wells
such as graphene, and to 1-D quantum wires, and finally
to 0-D quantum dots [107]. The idea is to cause changes
at the density of states (DOS), by introducing interfaces
that can reduce thermal conductivity as a result of phonon
scattering, while not affecting the electronic transport in
order to maintain superior electrical properties [108].
For example, in the high-temperature range, higher
thermoelectric performance was shown through employ-
ing nanoengineering in bulk materials. A ZT of 1.8
at 773 K for n-type material was reported when anti-
mony (Sb) nanoparticles were added into 0.1% PbI2 -doped
lead telluride (PbTe) using a conventional melting tech-
nique [109]. This enhancement is largely attributed to
the dual-site point defect scattering, which resulted in a
reduced lattice phonon thermal conductivity. Further work
was also conducted by Zhao et al. [110], who experi-
mentally reported a ZT of 2.6 at 923 K, achieved along
the b-axis of the unit cell of tin selenide (SnSe) single
crystals. This remarkably high ZT was due to the low
thermal conductivity estimated to be 0.23 W/mK caused
by the layered structure of SnSe, which reflect the anhar-
monic and anisotropic bonding between different layers.
In lower temperatures such as the ambient environment,
Bi2 Te3 is widely used, where incorporating nanostruc-
tures can enhance its efficiency. A nanostructured p-type
Bi0.5 Sb4.5 Te3 was shown to have a ZT of ∼1.4 at 373 K,
whereas an n-type semiconductor Bi2 Sb0.3 Te2.7 showed
a ZT ∼1.0 at 398 K, with a power factor of 4000 and
3500 μW m−1 · K−2 , respectively [111], [112].
The inorganic TE materials above show higher ZT val-
ues relative to organic materials; however, their lack of
flexibility and high cost reduce their potential in wearable
applications. For example, Fig. 5(a) shows a rigid TEG that
can be implemented on the wrist with a maximum output
power of ∼32 μW when the average ambient temperature
is 295 K and the skin temperature is 310 K [113].
Other materials such as polymer-based composites and
carbon-based materials provide benefits such as low
cost, lightweight, and flexibility. In addition, their dis-
ordered polymer chain structures and the possibility of
obtaining misaligned CNT films result in low conduc-
tivities; thus, improving the overall efficiency as long
as the electronic transport properties are not compro-
mised. On the other hand, the solution processability
of these materials enables doping mechanisms, which
can increase the charge concentration. For example,
Poly(3,4-ethylenedioxythiophene) (PEDOT) is one of the
most successful conducting polymers used due to its envi-
ronmental stability, low-density, and high electrical con-
ductivity when mixed with suitable dopants and ease
of synthesis [114]. The main downside to PEDOT is its
solubility in water, which can be solved when mixed with
polystyrene sulfonate (PSS). Thermoelectric properties of
PEDOT:PSS can be increased through a treatment involv-
ing cosolvents of organic solvents and water followed
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Fig. 5. (a) Rigid TEG made of Bismuth Chalcogenide materials highlights the TEG fastened on a watch baseplate using PDMS as a thermal
insulator, and a comparison between a custom made TEG and a commercial off-the-shelf (COTS) TEG. The graph shows the output power as a
function of air flowing where the custom TEG outperforms the COTS TEG by 20 µW. Reprinted with permission from [113]. Copyright 2016,
Royal Society of Chemistry. (b) Flexible TEG made of multiple superposed layers of CNTs with an output power of ∼2.5 µW at a 27.5-K
temperature difference. Reprinted with permission from [120]. Copyright 2017, Nature communications. (c) Glucose sensor powered by
72 p-n pairs made of flexible CNTs displaying an output power of 3.1 µW at a 32-K temperature difference. Reprinted with permission
from [121]. Copyright 2014, ACS Nano.

by an additional treatment using organic salts [115].
When a PEDOT:PSS film is treated with a cosolvent
of 80 vol% dimethylformamide (DMF)-20 vol% water,
and 0.1 M methylammonium iodide, the film exhibits a
high Seebeck coefficient of 28 μV · K−1 and an electrical
conductivity of 1831 S · m−1 , resulting in a power factor
of 144 μW m−1 · K−2 .
Carbon-based materials attracted significant attention
for TEGs. For instance, CNTs can offer independent
tunability of the ZT parameters [116], [117]. Their high
aspect ratio and high electrical properties allow them to
be integrated in TE materials as buckypaper with high
density and random orientation, which can decouple the
electrical conductivity from thermal conductivity. This is
achieved via processing CNT powder in a solution mixed
with surfactants in order to prevent aggregation of the
CNTs due to Van der Waals forces, followed by vacuum
filtration, which results in thin flexible films [118]–[120].
An air-stable CNT film with alternating p-type (doped
with oxygen) and n-type [doped with polyethylenimine
(PEI)] semiconductors was developed with a power
factor of ∼1500 μW m−1 · K−2 and an output power
of ∼2.5 μW at a 27.5-K temperature difference [120].
Another group developed a glucose sensor with
72 pairs of p-n-type semiconductors with a power factor
of 103 and 38 μW m−1 · K−2 for p-type and n-type
films, respectively [121]. The doping process involved
the use of sodium dodecylbenzenesulfonate (SDBS)
in order to disperse CNTs. Conversely, air-exposed
CNTs were functionalized into n-type using PEI and
diethylenetriamine (DETA). This device resulted in
an output power of 3.1 μW at a 32-K temperature
difference and 1.8 μW when integrated into a glucose
sensor. Another techniques reported by An et al. [122]
revealed a method of annealing a CNT web followed
by a treatment with benzyl viologen (BV) that is
an n-type dopant, which resulted in a power factor
of 3103 μW m−1 · K−2 , whereas treating the CNTs
with 2,3,5,6- tetrafluoro-7,7,8,8-tetracyanoquinodimethane
(F4TCNQ) demonstrated a value of 2252 μW m−1 · K−2
for p-type. Consequently, a p-n module made of ten
pairs of TEGs was designed producing ∼8 μW at
20-K temperature gradient. Fig. 5(b) and (c) shows
different flexible TE CNT devices discussed above where it
is highlighted how flexible and relatively efficient modules
can be used as self-sustaining batteries for operating
wearable devices. Hence, CNT-based flexible TEG shows
the potential for autonomous energy systems for e-skin
working in low-temperature range.
In summary, TEGs have shown progression in recent
years, especially with the introduction of nanomaterial
structures. Incorporating organic and inorganic nanoparti-
cles and low-dimensional carbon-based materials, in addi-
tion to using solvents, have significantly improved the ZT
parameters by altering the phonon and electronic DOS.
A key challenge for TEG in powering e-skin is the low
thermal contact (especially for bulk TE materials) at the
interface between a bulk TEG and the skin. However, using

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 Dharmasena et al.: Energy Scavenging and Powering E-Skin Functional Devices
CNT materials, for example, may overcome the problem of
the thermal contact due to their flexibility and compatibil-
ity in curved body surfaces, although the charge transport
properties are hindered due to the tube-to-tube contact
resistance, thus resulting in a lower efficiency. In addition,
CNT-based TEG could potentially provide better mechan-
ical properties and biocompatibility for wearable applica-
tions. Engineering physiochemical properties of CNTs have
been shown to increase their applicability in biomedical
applications [123], [124], which signals the potential for
biocompatible TEG designs. Therefore, it can be concluded
that both organic and inorganic TEGs provide future poten-
tial for self-sustainable e-skin devices; however, further
improvements are necessary for increasing power gener-
ation and ensuring that biocompatibility requirements are
met.
V. E N E R G Y S T O R A G E
Given the intermittency of ambient energy harvesting,
energy storage becomes important to ensure the
continuous operation of e-skin devices. Traditional energy
storage devices such as bulky rechargeable batteries and
supercapacitors are fragile and rigid, which is the main
critical challenges in the application of the skin-attached
energy storage devices. Generally, these devices should
be durable, mechanically bendable, stretchable, and thin
enough by reason of various deformations originating
from human activity [25]. Thus, planar batteries and
supercapacitors with flexible and stretchable properties
have entered the research spotlight. The two key paths in
realizing e-skin compatible energy storage units have been
defined as the material design and structural engineering
(Fig. 6) [125]. Up until now, a number of promising
solutions, which exhibit superior performance, have been
demonstrated. Here, we highlight some of the representa-
tive works, summarize the strategies for developing e-skin-
based energy storage devices, and offer insights on future
opportunities.
A. Material Design
Intrinsically free-standing and flexible materials with
good electrochemical activity and electrical conductivity
are promising electrode materials for constructing flex-
ible energy storage devices. Among them, the flexible
carbon materials, such as CNT, carbon nanofiber (CNF),
and carbon cloth have been widely explored for years
owing to their outstanding chemical/mechanical stability,
good electrical conductivity, lightweight, and high surface
area [126]–[128]. Although CNT and CNF may not
provide the ideal electrical properties compared with
graphene, they can create porous fabrics or a matrix for
buffering various deformations and internal stresses, with
the fabric networks providing short ion-transfer pathways
and free space for electrolyte penetration [Fig. 6(a)] [129].
The free-standing carbon membranes achieved by vacuum
filtration or mechanical pressing can be used as both cur-
rent collector and anode material directly with or without
prelithiation treatment, where the capacity of the full
cell could be retained in the condition of mechanical
bending and twisting during a regular charge–discharge
process [130]. In addition, conductive polymers with good
elasticity can also be used as electrode materials or coating
layers in various energy storage devices [131]. As an
example, Wang et al. synthesized a self-healing polymer
(SHP) for Li-ion battery that is able to repair itself and
recover functionalities despite being subject to mechanical
damage. The ratio between the resistance and initial resis-
tance at different strains shows that their polymer-based
composite remains conductive over the entire stretching
cycle [Fig. 6(b)] [132].
For the conventional inorganic electrode materials
including LiCoO2 , LiMn2 O4 , and V2 O5 , which have high
and stable redox potentials, it is possible to be incorporated
with the e-skin by combining with other flexible/
stretchable materials as composites. For example,
commercial LiCoO2 has been embedded in CNT networks
by using ultrasonication and codeposition methods
[Fig. 6(c)] [129]. According to stress–strain test results,
this as-prepared composite is highly strong and flexible,
which can be applied as cathode materials for flexible
full-battery fabrication. Other high-capacity anodes
including Si, Sn, SnO2 , and Fe3 O4 nanoparticles could
be integrated into CNT for enhancing the mechanical
properties [133], [134]. The free-standing Si/CNT
composite with superior flexibility has been obtained
from the CVD method, and its fabric structure has been
shown to be good for electrochemical performances [134].
In addition, as a typical 2-D material, graphene owns a
unique advantage of incomparable mechanical stability
as substrate compared with CNT and CNF, which is
contributed to achieving durable devices. The lithium-ion
battery, which was fabricated by using graphene composite
as a cathode and prelithiated graphene as an anode, could
exhibit good reversible charge–discharge performance
even when the battery is twisted or rolled [135].
In addition, to realize or further improve the stretchabil-
ity, precompressed structures could be used. For instance,
Zhao et al. [136] developed a novel large-scale shape-
controlled assembly technique by assembling inorganic
silicon nanowires into U-shapes. This device could be
released from the substrate with etching a sacrificial
layer, yielding free-standing convex structures with a large
tensile or compressive stress buffer [Fig. 6(d)] [136].
Similarly, it could be further extended to biaxial prestrain
to generate biaxial wavy geometry, e.g., the crumpled pat-
terns of graphene paper film, which could provide stretch-
ability along all in-plane directions [Fig. 6(e)] [137]. This
kind of crumpled graphene allows for a stretchy shell in
electrode materials, yielding a self-adaptive behavior of
spontaneous unfolding–folding synchronized with cyclic
expansion–contraction volumetric variation of core mate-
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Fig. 6. (a) SEM and TEM (top right inset) image of CNTs. The bottom right inset photograph shows that the CNT string can be easily
extracted out. Reprinted with permission from [129]. Copyright 2012 Wiley. (b) Chemical structure (top inset) and photograph (bottom inset)

of the synthetic SHPs. The ratio between the resistance (R and initial resistance (R0) at different strains shows that the SHP/carbon black
nanoparticles composite remains conductive over the whole stretching cycle. Reprinted with permission from [132]. Copyright 2013 Nature
Publishing Group. (c) Schematic of the structures (top) and SEM images of binder-free LiCoO2 /CNT cathodes. Reprinted with permission
from [129]. Copyright 2012 Wiley. (d) Schematic of the large-scale shape-controlled deterministic assembly of nanowires (top), and dark
field optical image of the nanowire at different stages of assembly and bending process. Reprinted with permission from [136]. Copyright
2016 American Chemical Society. (e) Schematic of macroscopic deformation of a graphene sheet on a biaxially prestretched substrate (top).
SEM images of first wrinkles graphene (bottom left) and crumpled graphene as the substrate is biaxially relaxed (bottom right). Reprinted
with permission from [137]. Copyright 2013 Nature Publishing Group. (f) Schematic of a flexible battery with 3-D interconnected GF as both
the cathode and the anode (top). Lighting a red LED device under bending (bottom left) and cyclic performance of the battery under flat and
bent states (bottom right). Reprinted with permission from [139]. Copyright 2012 National Academy of Sciences. (g) Schematic of origami
battery and photograph of a soft origami/kirigami battery at most stretched state. Reprinted with permission from [143]. Copyright
2015 Nature Publishing Group. (h) Schematic of a completed device, optical images of the Al electrode pads and self-similar interconnects on
a Si wafer and illustration of “self-similar” serpentine geometries used for the interconnects (top). Operation of a battery connected to a red
light-emitting diode while biaxially stretched to 300% (bottom). Reprinted with permission from ref [144]. Copyright 2013 Nature Publishing
Group. (i) Scheme of a 1-D wirelike coaxial stretchable supercapacitor (top). Cross-sectional SEM image of the supercapacitor with two
CNT-based electrodes and gel electrolyte in between (bottom left). $CV$ curves of the fiber-shaped supercapacitor without bending and
being bent showing a stable capacitance of 19.2 F g−1 . Reprinted with permission from [146]. Copyright 2013 Wiley.

rials, which can release strain and maintain good electric
contact simultaneously [138].
In general, appropriate material designs are the first
step in the development of flexible energy devices. These
approaches could make some of the brittle and rigid
electrode materials bendable and stretchable without
fracturing the material through mechanical changes in the
e-skin electronics. Nevertheless, the use of the flexible
substrate will reduce the overall energy density of the
battery, and minimizing inactive components in electrodes
is a useful way to increase the energy density. There-
fore, it is important to reconcile the relationship between
flexibility and electrochemical performance. With the
increasing development in flexible devices, we believe

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 Dharmasena et al.: Energy Scavenging and Powering E-Skin Functional Devices
that designs of electrode materials with both outstanding
flexibility and electrochemical performance will still be a
hot topic in the future.
B. Device Structure Engineering
The successful developments of highly flexible elec-
trodes make it possible to assemble bendable skin-attached
energy storage systems. Some integrated planar full cells
with the typical sandwichlike structure were demon-
strated in the past seven years. As shown in Fig. 6(f),
Cheng et al. [139] reported a thin planar lithium-ion
battery with both free-standing and flexible graphene
foam (GF) composite electrodes as anode and cathode,
and the fabricated battery exhibited excellent structural
flexibility. There were no obvious failures of structure
and decay of electrochemical performance even when the
battery was bent to a very small radius, where results show
that well-designed electrodes could be easily fabricated
into bendable energy storage devices for e-skin.
The stretchable property is another key challenge in
the development of skin-attached devices. Although some
bendable energy storage devices fabricated with carbon
composites or assembled with intrinsically elastic organic
electrodes could provide good stretchability, severe struc-
tural failure will still occur when the devices are stretched
significantly [140]. Therefore, specific structural design
at the system level has become the accepted approach
in the development of soft devices, and to some extent,
the planar energy storage devices assembled via struc-
tural engineering may eliminate the material limitation
in traditional electrode materials with the disadvantages
of being brittle and stiff. Traditional techniques such as
origami and kirigami have been widely used in soft battery
design [141], [142]. By combining the procedures of
cutting and folding, the stretchability of the as-fabricated
battery is over 100% while retaining electrochemical per-
formance, which allows for its use in functional planar
devices [Fig. 6(g)] [143]. In addition, a compliant sub-
strate is preferred to achieve better device stretch capabil-
ity. By using low modulus silicone elastomers as substrates,
Xu et al. [144] reported a pouch cell composed of small-
scale storage arrays, which were connected by a series of
serpentine interconnects made by Cu and Al [Fig. 6(h)].
This pouch cell consisting of 100 disks has reversible
stretchability up to 300%, without obvious structure and
electrochemical performances degradation.
In addition, attributing to the lightweight and easy inte-
gration with clothes, wirelike coaxial stretchable energy
storage devices have been developed rapidly in recent
years [145]. Flexible wirelike batteries or supercapacitor
can be woven into various clothes, yielding excellent com-
patibility with e-skin. The coaxial wire-shaped superca-
pacitors were fabricated by wrapping aligned CNT sheets,
a thin gel electrolyte layer, and another CNT sheet coaxially
onto elastic fibers [Fig. 6(i)] [146]. Because of the low
contact resistance and high contact area between the elec-
trolytes and electrode, this supercapacitor yields a stable
high capacitance of 19.2 F g−1 with and without bending.
In addition, biocompatibility avoiding immune reac-
tions with the human body is an essential requirement in
the development of e-skin devices [147]. However, most
of the biocompatible materials are nonelectrochemically
active, and many high-performance electrode materials
and common organic electrolytes are toxic. Rational and
durable encapsulation methods are necessary for energy
storage systems. Manipulation for extreme conditions such
as puncture, tear, and safety must also be considered. It is
highly recommended that the nontoxic electrode and elec-
trolyte be used in the energy storage systems. Considering
all aspects, the most widely accepted prototype in e-skin
attached energy storage systems is carbon-based aqueous
supercapacitors with biocompatible encapsulation. In addi-
tion, the all-solid-state battery and supercapacitor are also
promising candidates, which can effectively avoid issues
of electrolyte leakage. Despite recent improvements in the
prototypes examined, their electrochemical performance is
still far from optimum when compared to the traditional
biotoxic organic systems, leading to insufficient practi-
cal application potential in long-term operational require-
ments. Therefore, one of the solutions is to improve the
energy density of the above two prototype, and the other
is to develop new nontoxic high-performance electrode
materials and systems.
In summary, a suitable design for skin-attached energy
storage devices should meet the following three require-
ments: 1) integration to full-cell level system, including
the electrodes, electrolytes, and packaging; 2) compara-
ble electrochemical performance and bendable/stretchable
capability in cell-level evaluation; and 3) high safety and
avoidance of biotoxic materials. The better understanding
of the interactions between material design and struc-
tural engineering is critical for guiding the development
of the next-generation devices. The development of soft
and high-performance electrode materials is the first step,
allowing subsequent fabrication of full-cell devices by
using rational structural engineering to integrate with the
e-skin devices. This attached energy storage device could
enable the extension of the application range of e-skin and
accelerate the e-skin’s commercialization in many areas.
A comparison of the advantages and disadvantages of
different energy harvesting and storage technologies as
well as some examples for flexible or wearable devices with
potential future implications in the e-skin technology are
shown in Table 1.
VI. T O W A R D I N T E G R AT E D S E L F-
P O W E R E D E-S K I N S Y S T E M S
Developing self-powered e-skin involves the integration
of energy harvesting and storage systems with con-
stituent electronic control circuits, sensors, and actuator
elements [25], [148]. The compatibility and system-level
integration between these components are a key factor
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Dharmasena et al.: Energy Scavenging and Powering E-Skin Functional Devices
Table 1 Comparison of the Merits and Demerits of Energy Harvesting and Storage Technologies, With Device Examples
to ensure successful operation of the electronics. In this
section, we discuss some of the recent examples of inte-
grated energy systems with implications in autonomous
e-skin modules.
As an example, an integrated mechanical energy har-
vesting and storage module with wearable properties was
reported by Guo et al. [149] [Fig. 7(a)]. The TENG was
fabricated using a silver nanowire electrode sandwiched
in silicone rubber, where the movement between the
skin of the wearer and silicone created the triboelectric
charging. This device produced an output power density
of ∼4 mW/m2 , lighting up several LEDs (at 1.5 Hz). The
supercapacitor was constructed by using gold-coated paper
substrates where graphite was deposited as the active
material, and this device reached a specific capacitance
of 12 F/g (1 mF/cm2 ) at a scan rate of 10 mV/s. Kirigami
patterns were used to introduce stretchability up to 215%
in to the design. The two units were combined, to create
the stretchable integrated system, obtaining a charging
current of 1.6 μA and continuously powering a digital
watch.
An example of integrating a solar cell with an energy
harvesting device was reported by Yun et al. [150] where
a stretchable array of high-performance microsupercapac-
itors was combined with Si-based solar cells to power
an integrated strain sensor [Fig. 7(b)]. An array of
SU-8 photoresist platform was embedded in a polymer
substrate, and the device components were connected
with serpentine interconnections of polyimide encapsu-
lated Ti/Pt metal film. The strain sensor, fabricated using
a PDMS/fragmentized GF composite, was used to sense
2130 P ROCEEDINGS OF THE IEEE | Vol. 107, No. 10, October 2019
the arterial pulses and externally applied strain. The solid-
state planar microsupercapacitor array achieved an areal
capacitance of 5.17 mF cm−2 with 80% of initial capac-
itance retained after 5000 charge–discharge cycles. The
Si solar cells (a-Si, 0.5W/0.5V) were hexagonally cut and
connected to the electrodes, ensuring wearable properties
essential for e-skin applications.
An integrated thermal energy harvesting and storage
system was proposed by Thielen et al. [151], where a
novel TEG was combined with a power conversion and
energy storage units. This device was demonstrated for
harvesting human body heat, producing a power density of
around 14 μW/cm2 , and a maximum theoretical energy
conversion efficiency of 24%.
Scavenging multiple energy types has been used as a
strategy to allow efficient utilization of ambient power
sources, providing potential in constructing reliable power
sources for the e-skin applications. Yang et al. [157]
developed a flexible hybrid energy cell, which can har-
vest solar, mechanical, and thermal energy simultaneously
[Fig. 7(c)]. This device consisted of a combined pyro-
electric and a piezoelectric generator, fabricated using
a polarized PVDF film and a pair of silver electrodes.
The solar cell was placed on the top, with a trans-
parent ITO film, ZnO nanowire array, P3HT film, and
Ag electrode. The output of this hybrid device was used
to light LEDs and to power an LCD display. More recently,
a fiber-based wearable energy harvester was developed by
Wen et al. [153], targeting energy scavenging from ambi-
ent light and human motion [Fig. 7(d)]. This energy
harvesting unit composed of a fiber-shaped dye-sensitized
 Dharmasena et al.: Energy Scavenging and Powering E-Skin Functional Devices

Fig. 7. (a) Schematic of the stretchable TENG (left) and the schematic representing fabrication steps of the Kirigami supercapacitor (right)
and photographs of the integrated TENG supercapacitor device. Reprinted with permission from [149]. Copyright 2016, American Chemical
Society. (b) Photograph of the integrated Si-based solar cell and microsupercapacitor array (left) and the inset indicating its circuit diagram,
and demonstration of the energy harvesting system under arm movement. Reprinted with permission from [150]. Copyright 2018, Elsevier
Ltd. (c) Schematic representing the structure of a flexible hybrid energy cell for solar, mechanical, and thermal energy harvesting. Reprinted
with permission from [157]. Copyright 2013, American Chemical Society. (d) Fiber-based wearable hybrid energy harvester for solar and
mechanical energy harvesting. Reprinted with permission from [153]. Copyright 2016, American Association for Advancement of Science.
(e) Example power management unit for a triboelectric energy harvester. Reprinted with permission from [158].

solar cell unit [Fig. 7(d-i)], fiber-shaped supercapacitor
unit [Fig. 7(d-ii)], and a TENG that was constructed
on their interface. The solar cell produced Jsc =
1.92 mA/cm2 , Voc = 0.74 V, fill factor of 0.64, and
overall power conversion efficiency of 5.64%. The per-
formance of the supercapacitor indicated a linear specific
capacitance of 1.9 mF/cm, and a linear energy density up
to 1.37 mJ/cm. In integrating these elements, the solar
cell fibers and supercapacitor fibers were first woven
individually as different fabrics, and then connected with
each other constructing the TENG devices, thus fabricating
a self-powered system with the capability of powering
LEDs, digital watches, and sensors.
The overall output power management holds a key
importance in effectively utilizing the harvested energy,
which requires the integration of energy harvesting
and storage units with the power management circuits.
Such systems are necessary to modify the typically dis-
continuous or sporadic outputs of energy harvesters, and
convert into stable output signals in order to directly drive

Vol. 107, No. 10, October 2019 | P ROCEEDINGS OF THE IEEE 2131
Dharmasena et al.: Energy Scavenging and Powering E-Skin Functional Devices
electronics, or for energy storage purposes. For example,
a power management circuit designed for a TENG energy
harvester is depicted in Fig. 7(e) [158], consisting of a
combination of rectifiers, capacitors, inductor, and a pair of
electric switches (connected to a logic circuit). Connected
to a TENG and an energy storage unit, this system was
capable of converting random alternating current gener-
ated using human body motion into a near direct current
output with an approximately 60% efficiency.
Therefore, integrating different energy harvesting, stor-
age, and power management methods contains many
advantages such as increased energy output, continuity,
and reliability. However, significant work is still needed
in improving their compatibility, impedance matching,
interfacing, and overall efficiency [1], [25], [148] while
conserving the wearable properties such as flexibility, bio-
compatibility, and durability.
VII. C O N C L U S I O N
Electronic skin or e-skin, which targets to mimic the func-
tionalities of the human skin, is an exciting research area
with potential applications in robotics, healthcare, com-
munication technologies, AI, and the Internet of Things
(IoT) [25], [159], [160]. Autonomous e-skins would pro-
vide continuous sensing and responding capabilities with
maintenance-free long-term operations. However, ensur-
ing the power supply to e-skins is a major challenge [1],
[25]. With the recent advances in low power electronics,
ambient energy harvesting is noted as a viable option in
this regard [1], [148]. Herein, we discussed some of the
current and upcoming technologies that are considered as
leading candidates for powering e-skin.
Ideally, the power sources should be able to provide
an adequate power supply to operate e-skin devices
while containing flexibility, stretchability, and durability to
comply with the e-skin. Characteristics such as biocom-
patibility, multimodal sensitivity (pressure, temperature,
pressure, and chemicals), self-healing properties, and the
capability of withstanding environmental factors are desir-
able in many applications [161]. As discussed in this paper,
some of these challenges can potentially be overcome
by the recent developments in materials, processes, and
integration technologies. The invention of novel flexible
energy harvesting technologies and transduction mecha-
nisms plays a key role in this regard, for which the TENG,
PENG, TEG, and solar energy technologies enabling flexi-
bility and significant output power, provide prime exam-
ples [33], [38], [41], [88]. Some of these technologies
demonstrate orders of magnitude superior performances in
comparison to the conventional power supply and storage
methods, especially using ambient energy sources, provid-
ing low cost, improved stability, and biocompatibility [1],
[29], [31], [62]. Furthermore, innovation in novel high-
performance materials has benefitted this field, enabling
better power conversion efficiencies, with improved stabil-
ity and flexibility [83], [89], [106], [109]. Such strategies
2132 P ROCEEDINGS OF THE IEEE | Vol. 107, No. 10, October 2019
are reinforced with the use of nanomaterials and advances
in nanofabrication techniques, where the device size can
be significantly decreased and the component density
increased, obtaining higher sensitivities and efficiencies
and higher operational capacity [63].
At the device level, different fabrication techniques
and device architectures have been used with con-
ventional materials as well as novel material devel-
opments, to achieve stretchable and flexible systems.
These approaches include the incorporation of intrinsi-
cally stretchable materials with relatively hard mater-
ial structures, and techniques such as shape and struc-
tural engineering to obtain the required mechanical
properties [149], [150]. Many of these techniques
are adaptable for large-scale fabrication or compatible
with existing industrial manufacturing methods, provid-
ing potential for mass-scale manufacture with low cost
and high yield, targeted at future energy harvesting
demands [148], [150]. Another interesting prospect in the
development of autonomous e-skin is the advances in self-
powered sensors, which respond to external stimuli by
generating intrinsic outputs [62], [162].
Apart from the energy harvesting and storage devel-
opments, their effective integration to e-skin and wear-
able modules is essential to ensure continuous power
to the electronic components. Therefore, integration of
energy harvesting, storage, and power management units
becomes significant. As discussed in this work, integration
of flexible energy harvesting and storage devices compat-
ible with wearable applications and e-skin-based devices
have been demonstrated recently, which can be further
developed in the future [150], [163]. Simultaneously
harvesting multiple energy types and the construction of
“All-in-one” energy systems are exciting prospects,
to ensure continuous and efficient power supply for the
e-skin [153], [164], [165]. In addition, wireless energy
and data transfer is seen as a viable technique to enhance
the remote operation of e-skin systems [25].
A number of challenges still remain in the process
of realizing self-powered e-skin modules, which calls for
further research and developments. The mechanical prop-
erties and the environmental stability of energy harvesting
and storage devices, as well as the e-skin as a whole,
need to be further improved to withstand general appli-
cations as well as extreme conditions. The efficient and
optimized integrating of different energy harvesting units,
energy storage devices, and transducers is highly challeng-
ing; therefore, better material systems and processes are
required to progress current approaches. In this regard,
factors such as the interfacing, impedance matching, out-
put rectification, and the material compatibility need to
be considered. The fabrication of overall power supply
systems with low cost, lightweight, safety, and seamless
integration is a major challenge. These improvements are
likely to result in e-skins that closely resemble human
skin, bringing us a step closer to the creation of ideal
humanoids.

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Dharmasena et al.: Energy Scavenging and Powering E-Skin Functional Devices
ABOUT THE AUTHORS
R. D. I. G. Dharmasena received the B.Sc.
degree in engineering from the University
of Moratuwa, Moratuwa, Sri Lanka, in 2014,
and the Ph.D. degree from the University
of Surrey, Guildford, U.K., with a focus on
energy harvesting, in 2019.
He is currently a Research Fellow with the
Advanced Technology Institute, University of
Surrey, Guildford, U.K. His current research
interests include mechanical energy harvesting, fundamentals of
triboelectric nanogenerators, and wearable electronics.
K. D. G. I. Jayawardena received the B.Sc.
degree in engineering from the University
of Moratuwa, Moratuwa, Sri Lanka, in 2008,
and the Ph.D. degree in electronic engineer-
ing from the University of Surrey, Guildford,
U.K., in 2012.
He is currently a Postdoctoral Researcher
and developing new high-efficiency per-
ovskite and organic solar cells and high sen-
sitivity X-ray detectors and imagers with the Advanced Technology
Institute, University of Surrey.
Zakaria Saadi received the B.Sc. degree
in electronics and electrical engineering
from the University of Surrey, Guildford,
U.K., in 2014, and the Ph.D. degree in
flexible thermoelectric generators (TEGs)
based on carbon nanotubes (CNTs) from the
Advanced Technology Institute, University of
Surrey, in 2019.
His current research interests include
TEGs for energy harvesting, advanced organic materials, and
renewable energies.
Xuhui Yao received the B.Sc. degree from
the Wuhan University of Technology, Wuhan,
China, in 2016. He is currently a joint
Ph.D. candidate at the Wuhan University
of Technology and University of Surrey,
Guildford, U.K.
He is a Visiting Scholar with the National
Physical Laboratory, Teddington, U.K. His
current research interests include low-cost
and long-life electrode materials for sodium/potassium-ion batter-
ies and in situ electrochemical probing.
2136 P ROCEEDINGS OF THE IEEE | Vol. 107, No. 10, October 2019
R. M. I. Bandara received the higher
Diploma degree in chemistry from the Insti-
tute of Chemistry, Rajagiriya, Sri Lanka, in
2012, and the B.Sc. degree in chemistry
from the University of Cincinnati, Cincinnati,
OH, USA, in 2014. She is currently working
toward the Ph.D. degree at the Advanced
Technology Institute, University of Surrey,
Guildford, U.K., with a focus on thin-film pho-
tovoltaic (PV) technologies, specifically organic PVs and perovskite
solar cells.
Yunlong Zhao obtained postgraduate and
undergraduate research training with the
Wuhan University of Technology, Wuhan,
China, from 2009 to 2014.
From 2014 to 2018, he carried out joint
postdoctoral and doctoral research at Har-
vard University, Cambridge, MA, USA. He
is currently an Assistant Professor with the
Advanced Technology Institute, University
of Surrey, Guildford, U.K. He is also a Senior Research Scientist
with the National Physical Laboratory, Teddington, U.K. His current
research interests include novel energy storage devices and elec-
trochemical probing, nanobioelectronic devices/sensors, and 3-D
soft electronic systems.
S. R. P. Silva received the bachelor’s
and Ph.D. degrees from Cambridge Univer-
sity, Cambridge, U.K., in 1990 and 1994,
respectively.
In 1995, he joined the University of Surrey,
Guildford, U.K., where he is currently the
Director of the Advanced Technology Insti-
tute. He has given more than 600 presen-
tations at conferences, has authored more
than 550 journal papers, and holds 35 patents. He has more than
18 000 citations with an h-index of 69, and has received research
funding in excess of £30 m. His current research interests include
nanoelectronics, large-area electronics, and renewables.
Prof. Silva is a Fellow of the Royal Academy of Engineering, U.K.,
and the National Academy of Sciences, Sri Lanka.