Unit 1

Some Issues of Current Interest

in Science, Medicine, and Technology

INTRODUCTION

In this unit three issues are outlined – climate change, “mad cow”
and foot and mouth diseases, and resource security and safety. What
do these very different phenomena have in common? Why should
they be of interest to us? Each of these cases has held the attention
of the international media at different times. What they also have in
common is the very wide potential impact they could have on the
quality of life of many of the world’s citizens.

In the Caribbean, we sometimes feel far removed from issues such

as these; they do not seem connected to our daily lives.
Nevertheless, we ask you to consider them carefully. You may come
to realise that living on a small island does not insulate us from
events taking place in other countries. Perhaps we need to think
more about the impact of science, medicine, and technology not
only in national and regional contexts but in international contexts
as well. We hope that, having completed the unit, you will have a
better appreciation of the need for scientific and technological liter-
acy for all citizens if we are to understand the changes taking place
around us and make meaningful contributions to our societies.

FD12A 5
 OVERVIEW

Sessions 1, 2 and 3 cover climate change, “mad cow” and foot and
mouth diseases, and resource security and safety in the Caribbean, in
that order. In each case you are asked to consider the scientific and
technological aspects of these issues as well as the implications for
society, both internationally and locally. The unit ends by questioning
the relevance of these issues to our societies and our personal lives.
Some of these issues will be referred to again in more detail in Unit 3
of this Module, and in much of Module 2, The Impact of Science on
Society.

LEARNING OBJECTIVES

After completing this unit you should be able to:

1. Describe the possible causes, the effects, and the implications of

global warming

2. Discuss some of the issues surrounding the non-compliance of

some nations with international environmental agreements

3. Discuss why infectious diseases of animals, such as “mad cow”

disease and foot and mouth disease, are of concern internationally
and locally

4. Outline the concerns surrounding the issues of food and energy

security, and water resources, with particular reference to small
nations such as those in the Caribbean

5. Identify some issues of current scientific, medical and,

technological interest of particular relevance and importance to
the Caribbean, as well as to the wider international community

6. State some of the important inter-relationships between scientific,

medical, and technological issues

7. Describe some of the social and economic implications of the

relationships between scientific, medical, and technological issues.

8. Explain the necessity for being able to assess critically, issues of

current scientific, medical, and technological interest in the
Caribbean.

6 FD12A
 FOR THE STUDENT

A number of readings are provided for you. You are asked to read
through as many as you can. Some readings provide more details on
topics covered in the text; others deal with related but different
issues. The intention is for you to sample different views. You must
form your own opinions. However, we expect that you will be able
to support your views with scientific knowledge and factual infor-
mation from the text or the readings.

READINGS

• Arctic ice heats global warming debate. From Innovations 5 – 7

November 2000. http://www.abc.net.au/ra/elp/innovatn/inots793_b.htm

• Donahue, James. Melting ice caps and thunder. From The Mind of
James Donahue. perdurabo10@lycos.com

• Environment: Nuclear waste shipment a health hazard to

Caribbean. World News Inter Press Service. January 1998.
http://www.oneworld.org/ips2/jan98/nuclear.html

• Gellateley, Juliet. Foot the bill and shut your mouth. Viva! LIFE,
Issue 18. Summer 2001, p.20. Also available at
http://www.vivaorg.uk/ Foot and Mouth Home Page.

• Greenhouse gases, global climate change and energy.

http://eia.doe.gov/oiaf/1605/ggcc

• Greenaway, Anthony. The linkages between ozone depletion and

climate change. The Gleaner, Monday, September 16, 2002.
• The green house gas effect. In Impacts of the Kyoto Protocol on US
energy markets and economic activity. Energy Information
Administration, U.S. Dept of Energy, Oct. 1998.

• Health effects of air pollution. Health and Environment. World

Resources Institute 1998–99. gregm@wri.org

• Jamaica receives further assistance with ODS phase out. The

Gleaner, Monday, September 16, 2002.

• LeDoux, Joseph E. Nature vs. nurture: The pendulum still

swings with plenty of momentum. The Chronicle of Higher

FD12A 7
 Education. © Joseph E. LeDoux, Ph.D. December 1998.
http://xchar.home.att.net/tna/ledoux.htm

• Nature vs. nurture: An unnecessary debate. Centers for Disease

Control and Prevention, Office of Genetics and Disease
Prevention, July 2000.

• Mad Cow Disease: The BSE epidemic in Great Britain.

http://www.accessexcellence.org/WN/madcow96.html
• The potential of icebergs as a global source of fresh water.
© 1991–2001, SMEC Holdings Ltd. webmaster@smec.com.au

• The pros and cons of nuclear energy.

http://members.tripod.com/funk_phenomenon/nuclear/procon.htm

• Pros and cons of nuclear generation.

http://ess.geology.ufl.edu/ess/Labs/TermPapersFall99-00/Cavanaugh/Pr

• Statement by Caricom Heads of Government on the Shipment

of Nuclear Waste through the Caribbean Sea. Press release,
67/1999 (17 July 1999).
http://www.caricom.org/pressreleases/pres67_99.htm

• Thompson, Dick. Melt away future. Time, Nov. 1997, pp.38–40.

8 FD12A
 Session 1.1
Climate Change

In recent years, there has been considerable concern about the

impact of what are called “greenhouse gases”.

What are greenhouse gases?

When fossil fuels and other carbon-based materials are burned,

n FIND OUT...
other major sources
gases are given off into the atmosphere. One of the most common
of greenhouse of these gases is carbon dioxide. Large quantities pour into the
gases.
atmosphere every day from automobiles, factories and power
stations. Events such as forest fires and volcanoes also make their
contribution.

How do greenhouse gases affect temperatures and climate?

There is evidence that the average temperature of the world is

increasing slowly. When carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases
are emitted, they rise high into the atmosphere surrounding the
earth where they form a layer that traps heat close to the earth.

Some scientists believe that the immense amounts of gases

produced by combustion of carbon-containing substances are largely
responsible for this increase in the world’s temperature. (By one esti-
mate, we have poured about 25,425,068,880 tonnes into the air so
n FOSSIL FUELS
far this year, 2002.) Others argue that this is simply part of the
Natural gas normal fluctuations in the world’s climate. They point out that not
Oil so long ago, geologically speaking, another large variation in the
Coal
earth’s temperature took place. This was the most recent Ice Age.
n SOME
GREENHOUSE GASES
Changes in atmospheric temperature control the air currents around
Carbon dioxide
Methane the globe that are responsible for annual and seasonal weather
Nitrous oxide patterns. Although the increase in temperature is taking place very
Hydrofluorocarbons
slowly its effects are already becoming evident.

FD12A 9
n There have been
several ice ages in
the history of the
earth when very cold
periods alternated
with relatively
warmer periods.
20,000 years ago ice
covered nearly 1/3 of
the earth’s land
surface. One
immense ice sheet,
two miles thick in
places, buried most
of Canada and
reached as far south
as Illinois. Other
massive ice sheets
covered much of
northern Europe and
Asia.
Possible long-term impacts of global warming
• Increased desertification as water sources dry up in areas that
were once fertile.
• The melting of glaciers and the polar ice-caps, causing a rise in
sea levels and the disappearance of very low-lying islands.
• Changes in the nature of crops that can be cultivated in different
parts of the world. For example, growing grapes in the
“temperate” zones may become a real possibility.
• Loss of coral reefs due to the death of the temperature-sensitive
organisms that build the reef.
The Kyoto protocols: the US response
The Kyoto protocols are a set of agreements developed at an interna-
tional conference in Kyoto, Japan in 1997. They include a time
frame for participating countries to reduce the emission of green-
house gases by specified amounts over an extended period. Although
the international community agreed that there was urgent need for
such protocols, the Bush Administration in the USA decided, in
early 2001, that it could not support the agreement. However, some
European countries have made significant progress in reducing emis-
sions in their countries. The American response is a major setback
because the USA is a significant source of the greenhouse gases
being emitted at present. To date, this issue has not been resolved.

Table 1.1 World Carbon Dioxide Emissions from the Consumption and
Flaring of Fossil Fuels, 1991-2000

Region/Country 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000
North America 1,552.59 1,577.33 1,608.42 1,642.15 1,652.22 1,711.55 1,743.55 1,757.44 1,783.87 1,832.50
Central & South
204.01 208.85 217.86 224.1 235.85 244.29 254.13 263.03 265.39 268.65
America
Western Europe 1,002.76 965.54 957.66 953.02 972.65 1,000.03 1,005.72 1,006.23 984.14 999.62
Eastern Europe &
1,190.49 1,124.13 1,033.96 914.03 877.48 861.21 806.51 789.58 824.22 844.23
Former U.S.S.R.
Middle East 217.37 223.57 234.02 243.91 251.29 259.09 272.45 276.66 281.43 288.01
Africa 204.93 205.7 213.26 215.75 225.69 224.29 238.31 246.02 238.11 240.14
Asia & Oceania 1,510.12 1,574.99 1,673.86 1,769.99 1,859.67 1,913.40 1,954.74 1,915.37 1,945.73 1,970.22
World Total 5,882.27 5,880.12 5,939.03 5,962.94 6,074.86 6,213.86 6,275.41 6,254.33 6,322.90 6,443.38

(Million Metric Tons of Carbon Equivalent)

Source: Extracted from http://www.eia.doe.gov/iea/tableh1.html

10 FD12A
 CRITICAL THINKING ACTIVITY

1. Do you think global warming is an issue that should

concern Caribbean leaders and peoples? Give reasons for
your opinion.

2. China generates a high proportion of its electricity by

burning coal. What position would you expect countries
such as China to take with respect to the Kyoto protocols?

3. What arguments would you put forward to a country that is

dependent on fossil fuels to convince them of the need for
change?

4. Which aspects of global warming would you expect islands

with a sand- and sea-based tourist industry to be most
concerned about and why?

FD12A 11
12 FD12A
 Session 1.2
“Mad Cow” Disease and Foot and
Mouth Disease

“Mad cow” disease in the news

In the mid 1990s, in the United Kingdom (UK), there was great
concern within the cattle industry because of increasing reports of a
disease that caused cattle to stagger around and lose control of their
movements. Concern mounted, as the disease seemed to be related
to one called “scrapie” which had been recognised for many years in
sheep but not in cattle. The general population became even more
alarmed when it was discovered that the disease can be transmitted
to humans who eat infected beef as a variant of Creuzfeld-Jakob
disease (vCJD), a human form of the disease that the cows had.

What is “mad cow” disease?

The technical term for the disease is Bovine Spongiform
Encephalopathy (BSE). The disease affects the central nervous
system of the animals and is usually fatal. Initially scientists
thought the disease was caused by a virus. However, the infective
agent is now believed to be a brain protein called a “prion” that has
undergone a change in shape that renders it harmful.

How is “mad cow” disease spread?

n DID YOU KNOW...? A major cause of the rise of BSE in cattle was the practice of “feed-
that cattle feed may ing cattle to cattle”! Included in the feed supplied to cattle were
contain more than rendered remains of cattle and other animals such as sheep, some
15% protein from left-
over parts of presumably infected with “scrapie”. The rendering process (heating
butchered animals to cause the melting of the fat) did not remove the sources of infec-
e.g. blood, used
chicken litter, tion. When eaten, this abnormal protein can be absorbed and cause
feathers and offal? normal related proteins to change their shapes into the abnormal
patterns of the BSE protein. The cattle supplied with infected feed
could develop BSE and pass it on to humans. A major problem in

FD12A 13
 tracking diseases of this sort is that many years elapse between
exposure and the development of symptoms. During that time
already infected animals can spread the disease to healthy animals
without any signs that this is happening.

Impacts and concerns

The first concern of the agricultural industry was about the impact
of the epidemic on sales of beef and therefore the economic well-
being of cattle farmers. Their fears were justified. Once the disease
had been identified, most countries banned the importation of cattle
from the UK. Soon after this, sales of all beef products from the UK
fell sharply. Also costly, were the systems that had to be put in place
to prevent the spread of the disease and to ensure that beef
produced for market did not include infected animals and would be
safe for human consumption. Slaughterhouses which handled cattle
had to be inspected to ascertain high standards of hygiene.
Slaughtering and butchering practices were also carefully monitored
and each member of a herd had to be identified and tagged. Even in
countries such as the USA, which does not usually import many
beef products from the UK, BSE became a cause for concern. In
October 2002, the first case of an infected human was detected in
the USA.

?
? QUESTIONS

1. In your opinion, should these costly procedures be followed

whether there is an outbreak of disease or not? (Remember
“prevention is better than cure”!)

2. Do you think that your government has been able to enforce

good standards of food hygiene in your country, including
the slaughter and handling of meat products? (If you do not
know, you should try to find out.)

Foot and mouth disease

A more recent disaster for the UK cattle industry has been the very
widespread occurrence of foot and mouth disease. The disease gets
its names from its most obvious signs, the lesions and sores that

14 FD12A
 develop around the mouth and on the feet of the cattle. Although
this disease is not necessarily fatal, it severely reduces the produc-
tion of both milk and beef. Thus the economic viability of the cattle
industry is compromised. The cost of the recent outbreak to the UK
government – and therefore UK taxpayers – is in the billions of
pounds.

You may have seen signs in Caribbean airports announcing that

meat imports from the UK were banned and that passengers on all
flights from the UK had to walk on disinfecting mats before enter-
ing the immigration and customs area. In Jamaica, for example,
these measures were introduced in 1985 in an attempt to prevent
the spread of this disease from the UK.

Some farmers and many citizens consider the measures used to

contain the spread of foot and mouth disease extreme. These
include:

• the wholesale slaughter of entire herds on farms with only a few

infected animals, and

• the slaughter of herds on farms close by, even when they appear
healthy.

Nevertheless, studies of the patterns of the spread of the disease

support the rapid and thorough culling of infected and potentially
infected herds as an effective control strategy.

ACTIVITY

Construct a list of regulations that Caribbean governments

could use to reduce the likelihood of diseases such as BSE and
foot and mouth entering and spreading in the region. Include
the measures described above and add your own ideas.

Suggestion: Organize your list into categories, e.g. preventing

entry into the island, treatment and control, education, dealing
with outbreaks.

FD12A 15
 CRITICAL THINKING ACTIVITY

1. There has been much debate about the effectiveness of a

vaccination programme against foot and mouth disease. Do
you think this might be a desirable alternative to mass
slaughter of herds? What is the basis of your opinion?

2. There is no known link between foot and mouth disease and

any human disease. Given the fact that the disease is not
fatal, do you think governments should continue to take
precautions to prevent the spread of the disease in their
countries?

3. To what extent do you think the activities of one country

are important in limiting the spread of diseases around the
world?

4. What might be some of the reasons for the absence of foot

and mouth disease from the USA since 1929?

16 FD12A
 Session 1.3
Resource Security and Safety
in the Caribbean
We usually use the term “national security” in considering events
such as the attack on the World Trade Centre on September 11,
2001 or increasing security at airports or spending on our armed
forces. However, our security as sovereign nations goes much deeper
than that. To what extent are we secure when we depend on exter-
nal sources for essentials such as food and energy? How secure are
we internally when our water supplies are “under attack”? We will
now look at some of the issues raised by these questions.

Food security

The Caribbean has a very large food import bill. We have become
dependent on a number of other countries for basic foodstuffs such
as flour, rice, cornmeal, meat, fruit, and vegetables. With our ever-
increasing populations and the decline in local agriculture, this is
likely to be the case for a long time. This dependence raises a
number of issues:

• Availability: Events outside the Caribbean region can seriously

limit our access to these sources of food. Damage to crops from
extremes of climate and weather, and international conflicts can
cut us off from our regular supplies quite suddenly.

• Costs: Importing most of our food from abroad is also an

economic concern, as we have no control over the costs of the
products or their transport.

• Quality: Since we import so much of our food we need to:

Have confidence in the standards of farming in the countries

from which food is imported.

Pay attention to the methods being used in the countries

from which our foods come (The debate about BSE,

FD12A 17
 genetically modified, foods and the use of various
agricultural chemicals should concern us).

Have confidence in the inspection and hygiene procedures of

the food industries of exporting countries. The recent
anthrax scare highlighted the possibilities of exporting death
in this way.

ACTIVITY

Make a list of four imported foods that you consider essential to

your diet. (At least one food must be flour-based.) What local
substitutes can you think of that would adequately replace
these foods, if that became necessary?

CRITICAL THINKING ACTIVITY

1. Caribbean populations are becoming more and more

dependent on external sources of food than before. Suggest
reasons for this trend and how it might be counteracted.

2. Given recent security concerns, do you think Caribbean

countries should take steps to ensure that a “reasonable
proportion” of our food is produced in the region?

3. List some of the measures that could be introduced to

achieve this? (For example, ways to encourage farming and
fishing, counteract the impact of advertisements that push
foreign foods, reduce costs of locally grown produce, and
so on.)

Energy and security

The Caribbean also has a very large energy import bill, mostly as
derivatives of the petroleum industry. Few Caribbean countries have
significant energy reserves in the form of oil or gas. The major
exception is Trinidad and Tobago, which has significant supplies of
both. The energy generated and used in the Caribbean is therefore
largely dependent on external suppliers. The cost of this energy is

18 FD12A
 beyond our control and rising. This has serious implications for our
development and our economies.

The generation of energy by nuclear fission is not an issue in the

Caribbean. However, there is a major safety and security issue of
concern to the Caribbean based on its use by other countries.
Nuclear power stations in Japan send their used fuel rods to Europe
for reprocessing. These spent rods are still highly radioactive. They
are exported by ship to Europe and the refined fuel and waste,
generated in the reprocessing, are shipped back to Japan. The ship-
ping routes, although usually kept secret, presumably for security
reasons, go through the Caribbean. A serious accident, as a result of
a terrorist act or a massive storm, for example, could expose the
environment in the Caribbean to considerable risk from an activity
over which we have no control and from which we gain no benefits.

ACTIVITY

Find out more about the advantages and disadvantages of using

nuclear power. Consider efficiency, safety, cost, transport, and
disposal of used radioactive material.

Given what you found out, comment on the feasibility of

constructing a nuclear power plant on a Caribbean island.

Water resources

Water is crucial to all aspects of human existence. Most Caribbean

countries have adequate water supplies, although a few of them
now depend in part on imported water (e.g. from Andros in the
Bahamas) or on desalination plants (e.g. in Antigua and Barbados).
Some, such as Dominica, with a population of about 70,000, have a
more than adequate supply by rainfall alone. While quantity of
water may not be of immediate concern in the Caribbean, water
quality should be. Pollution of rivers and streams is increasing
rapidly worldwide. The Caribbean is no exception.

In other parts of the world, access to and control of water supplies

is likely to be one of the most contentious issues of this century and

FD12A 19
 this could be made worse by global warming. Governments will
wish to ensure that they have control of sufficient water resources
to meet the present and future needs of their peoples. This can be
very difficult when such resources are rivers that flow through a
number of countries. The quality and quantity of the water flowing
from one country to another varies considerably depending on how
each country uses this shared resource. This can create serious
disagreements between neighbouring countries.

There have been some interesting suggestions made about the possi-
bility of exporting water from Canada (which has a population
about one tenth that of the USA) to the USA but many Canadian
environmentalists oppose the idea. Some countries are more inter-
ested in using flowing water to generate electricity, rather than for
other needs. This is another reason why sharing rivers is of serious
concern.

CRITICAL THINKING ACTIVITY

1. Are there any effective attempts at water conservation in

your country? In your opinion, should this be a priority for
Caribbean governments?

2. Do you think that there should be an increased focus on

alternative energy sources – such as solar and wind – by
Caribbean governments in order to reduce dependence on
imported energy supplies? (See Module 2 Unit 1)

3. In light of concerns about the dangers of transporting

radioactive materials by sea, do you think the Caribbean
should have any influence on the ways in which spent
nuclear fuel is transported across (a) international waters
and (b) between Japan and Europe?

20 FD12A
 Session 1.4
Why Should I Care?

Science, medicine and technology in everyday life

Science, technology and medicine have an increasing impact on the

way we live. In addition they are inextricably bound together in the
modern world. At first glance, the issues outlined in the previous
pages may appear to have little direct impact on your own life. You
may well ask “Why should I care?

Thanks to information and communications technology we have

become part of a global community. We are part of a shrinking
world where an attack on one developed country has repercussions
around the globe. International travel brings visitors to and from
our shores on a daily basis, and more and more of our citizens visit
other countries. The implications of this for matters of health
cannot be overemphasized. Environmental pollution does not stay
in the atmosphere of the countries that create it.

FD12A 21
 If you think carefully about your everyday life, you may begin to
identify other issues besides the ones that we have raised that affect
you directly:

• A continuous, clean water supply

• An effective sewage collection and treatment system
• A continuous and reliable power supply
• Some reliable form of transport, whether private or public
• A supply of food that is both nutritious and cheap
• Access to a good health system

To what extent are these local and personal issues separate from the
larger issues discussed in this unit? We ask that you keep this ques-
tion in mind as you continue the course.

ACTIVITY

Consider the following points for discussion in your next

tutorial or teleconference

n The development and use of information and

communications technology, (see Module 2, Unit 4),
provides an excellent example of the ways in which we have
become part of a global community. We have access to more
information about health and disease, the environmental
impact of industry and the impact of climate change on the
Caribbean. We can see for ourselves the effects of
mismanaging global resources and how this can affect our
region. Can we afford to have others make important
choices for us, especially choices that might affect our very
existence on the planet?

n Many people would argue that, given recent developments

in science, technology, and medicine, there is urgent need to
provide an education through which people may become
“scientifically and technologically literate”. By so doing, a
nation can ensure that its future decision making is as well
informed as possible. Should Caribbean countries be aiming
for scientific and technological literacy for all? Is this too
idealistic a goal?

22 FD12A
 n No one expects any one person to be fully informed about
all of the key issues affecting the economic and social
development of a country. Should we therefore leave the
decision making about issues of scientific and technological
importance to “experts”? Perhaps you will agree with the
view expressed over 50 years ago by Sir Winston Churchill
that scientists should be “on tap not on top”. (This issue is
raised again in Unit 3 of this Module.)

n Our governments often enter into international agreements

that may determine their ability to provide us with basic
necessities. International events and concerns can have a
direct impact on our lives, as demonstrated clearly by the
events of September 11, 2001. Are we in a position to ignore
what takes place in the rest of the world? (Before
considering this question you might like to list all the ways
you can think of that September 11 affected your country).

n If you decide that you do care about some of these issues,

perhaps you can then identify ways in which you can
become better informed about them (e.g. through the
Internet, newspapers or television). In addition, you should
consider how you might contribute to debates on improving
provisions for at least one of the issues from the list on page
24. List your arguments clearly for further consideration
when covering related areas in Module 2.

n Is doing this course a waste of your time?

SUMMARY

In the previous part of this unit you were asked to think about
issues which have appeared in the news media in the past few years.
These included, global warming thought to be caused by greenhouse
gases, and “mad cow disease” and foot and mouth disease in cattle
in Britain, both of which caused epidemics that could spread abroad.
These issues become news not necessarily because of their scientific
or technological interest, but usually because there is some perceived
impact on society, often bad.

FD12A 25
 Not so much in the news but of equal importance were the issues of
energy and food security, and secure water resources raised next.
Our dependence as a region on outside sources of energy and food
was questioned and the need to maintain sources of clean water
was mentioned. We also noted that water, as a shared resource could
become a problem.

When such issues appear to threaten our safety or us, only then do
we become more concerned about the state of scientific knowledge
or the ways in which a technological advance may affect our envi-
ronment. Regardless of the issues involved, it is important for all of
us to have some understanding of the ways in which scientific
knowledge is generated and the scope and limitations of scientific
findings. Unit 2 of this module is about just this.

DISCUSSION

Science, technology, and medicine have an increasing impact on

the way we live. In addition they are inextricably bound
together in the modern world. At first glance, the issues
outlined in the previous pages may appear to have little direct
impact on your own life. You may well ask “Why should I care?

26 FD12A
 Unit 2
Scientific Methods
and the Nature of Science

INTRODUCTION

What do the following terms have in common? “Tests show”,

“scientifically proven”, “clinically proven”? Many advertisements
claim that a particular characteristic of a product has been “scientifi-
cally shown” to be better than its rivals. By using these terms, it is
fairly easy to convince consumers that the claims made for a prod-
uct are well founded and beyond dispute. Science and things scien-
tific are generally held in high regard. Despite the fact that some
scientific discoveries have had negative outcomes such as pollution
or the production of nuclear weapons, many of us have great faith
in anything that is “scientific”. We believe that there is something
special about science and its methods. We need to understand what,
if anything, is so special about science. What is the “scientific
method” that supposedly leads to these very reliable results? Why
do we place this confidence in science and scientists?

We hope that this unit will give you an insight into the ways of
science and scientists and an appreciation of their contribution to
how we see our world. Understanding the various concepts and
issues may also help you to recognise that scientific knowledge is
not as secure as is commonly supposed and that scientific theories
are never conclusively proven. We hope that the differences between
science and other cognitive pursuits will also become clear as you
reflect on these various ideas.

FD12A 27
 OVERVIEW

In this unit we first consider some of the methods that are used in
the practice of science. The inductive, deductive, and hypothetico-deduc-
tive methods are dealt with in that order. We then consider the use of
deductive inferences in science and note some of the problems that
have been identified with the inductive method. The concept of a
scientific paradigm and the changing of such paradigms are then
discussed. The status of scientific fact is also analysed in this
context. Methods used in historical research are compared with
those used in science in order to highlight the ways in which the
scientific approach is unique. The roles of observation and experi-
mentation as well as theories and models in science conclude the
section.

LEARNING OBJECTIVES

After completing this unit you should be able to:

1. Explain the term induction, cite examples, and describe the

inductive perspective of scientific progress

2. Outline some of problems that have been identified with using

the inductive method in science

3. Explain the term deduction and, with the use of examples,

describe the use of deductive inferences in science

4. Describe the hypothetico-deductive perspective on scientific

investigation and progress

5. Discuss the concept of a scientific paradigm and the changing of

such paradigms and associated “facts”

6. Describe the characteristics of scientific observation and

experiments and discuss relationships between them

7. Describe the place of theories and models in science

8. Outline and discuss differences between science and other

cognitive activities

28 FD12A
 FOR THE STUDENT

You should be able to define clearly the terms that have been high-
lighted in italics above. It is advised that you write them and their
meanings down as you go along so that you can refer to the mean-
ings whenever they turn up after they are first mentioned.

The timeline included in the readings will help you to acquire a

perspective on the events discussed in this unit. You may add to it
as you go through this unit (and others) any events or persons that
appear to be significant. Perhaps you would prefer to create your
own timeline as you read about different people and occurrences in
the modules.

READINGS

Introduction to the Scientific Method

http://teacher.nrsl.rochester.edu/phy_labs/AppendixE/AppendixE.html

Beyond the Atom. FD 12A, Module 1 History, Section 1 pp 12 – 14.

Astronomy: Ptolemy, Copernicus and Galileo FD 12A, Module 1

History, pp 22 – 26 (include diagram from p 20).

Slowiczek, Fran and Peters, Pamela M. Discovery, Chance and the

Scientific Method. Access Excellence Classic Collection http://www.acces-
sexcellence.org/AE/AEC/CC/chance.html.

History of Science and Technology: Timeline. Extracts from A

Chronology of Significant Events in the History of Science and Technology
http://crimsonbird.com.

The Discovery of Penicillin: The Role of Chance. Source: BBC

Medicine through Time.

FD12A 29
30 FD12A
Session 2.1
Is Science Objective?

Induction and the inductive perspective

Scientific knowledge is proven knowledge. Scientific theories

are derived in some rigorous way from facts of experience
acquired by observation and experiment. Science is based on
what we can see and hear and touch, etc. Personal opinion or
preferences and speculative imaginings have no place in
science. Science is objective. Scientific knowledge is reliable
knowledge because it is objectively proven knowledge.
Chalmers (1982)

The passage quoted above describes what is perhaps the accepted

view of science. Read it carefully and see whether you agree with all
of it. As you go through the unit, return to it from time to time and
see whether your opinion changes in any way. This may be a long
and bumpy ride but hopefully an interesting one as we try to get
into the minds of scientists and understand how they do what they
do. It is also an important unit as so much of what we have and do
is tied to science in one way or another.

The “science” (?) of phrenology

At the end of the eighteenth century at the University of Vienna in

central Europe, two lecturers, F. C. Gall and J. C. Spurzheim, devel-
oped the “science” of phrenology. The theory was that the brain
determined human personality. Different character traits were
formed by different parts of the brain and the relative size of each
part would therefore indicate the strength of each characteristic of
an individual. Most importantly, Gall and Spurzheim believed that
by studying the external shape of the skull, they could reveal these
characteristics.

Over thirty characteristics were reported to have been located,

including acquisitiveness, aggressiveness, generosity, and holiness.
Gall and Spurzheim believed that merely by observing the bumps on

31
 a person’s head aggressive, generous, holy or other behaviour could
be predicted. This “science” seemed to have practical application and
became popular among some psychiatrists until it was replaced by
other psychiatric theories. Gall was eventually removed from his
position at the university because his theory appeared to conflict
with the accepted religious account of sin and virtue.

CRITICAL THINKING ACTIVITY

1. From the account given above do you think that phrenology

was

(a) unscientific,
(b) scientific, but bad science, or
(c) good science but prevented from developing by religious
prejudice?

2. How do you think the links were made between the skull
shape and the different patterns of behaviour? (Guesswork,
observations or knowledge of the brain?)

3. Suggest how you might attempt to establish whether or not

phrenology was scientific.

4. Do you think that the University of Vienna was acting

appropriately when it expelled Gall for supporting a theory
that undermined an accepted account of morality? If a scien-
tific statement is contrary to an accepted religious view is it
appropriate to reject the scientific view?

The reputation of science

We now take science for granted but it was only within the twentieth
century that the general population began to accept science as a
valuable way of thinking about and investigating the world around
us. Evidence of the high regard for science and its value is plentiful.

• It is now fully supported by our educational systems; the

sciences are taught in schools and universities around the world.

• The increase in human knowledge that has resulted from science

has led to many improvements in our lives.

32 FD12A
 • By applying scientific methods and the resulting knowledge,
human beings can now control their environment to a far
greater extent than was possible before.

• Improvements in medicine and developments in science and

technology based industries, have brought scientists respect and
considerable financial support from governments and the private
What is your sector.
personal opinion of
science? Do you • Some people see science as the “highest” form of human
share these views?
reasoning.

• The scientific approach is now applied to a wide range of

disciplines that were previously considered non-science.

Why is scientific knowledge considered “proven knowledge”?

This reputation rests on the belief that scientific knowledge is objec-

tive and reliable because of the methodology of science. Scientific
methods are seen as making use of observation and experiment, to
discover natural laws from which theories can be constructed and
predictions made. These methods are considered to be culturally
neutral and open to all. Given the right tools and the opportunity,
any individuals conducting a particular investigation properly
should reach the same conclusions.

Other cognitive practices are believed to possess considerable weak-

nesses when compared to science. Science is said to be rational,
based on reason, while other practices are judged to be ideological,
based on theoretical ideas and assumptions, not necessarily based on
facts. It is thought that the scientific method allows us to escape
from ideology. But does the practice of science actually live up to
these high ideals?

CRITICAL THINKING ACTIVITY

Which characteristics of science account for the faith with

which scientific findings are accepted? Make a list for future
reference as you go through the unit.

FD12A 33
 Everyday experience and science

You do not have to be a scientist to know that you should not

touch a piece of metal that is glowing red. You have learnt that this
means that the object is very hot, either from your own unpleasant
experiences or from other people’s reports. This is quite different
from understanding why an object glows red when it is very hot or
how the colour of the glow and the temperature of the object are related.
Science can be said to begin when we try to go beyond common
observations and experience using particular methods that are
considered appropriate to explore the world.

“What is the scientific method?” This is a controversial question

and few scholars would agree on an answer. The idea that science
rests on a secure foundation built through observation and experi-
ment has been challenged. So has the idea that there is some kind of
procedure that enables us to derive scientific theories in a reliable
way. An easier question for us to consider then is, “What methods
do scientists use?”

We will describe several methods associated with science but we are

not advocating adherence to any particular method, for imagination
and even luck (such as in the discovery of penicillin) have made
large contributions to the advance of science. Later we shall see that
scientific theories are never conclusively proven true, although this
does not mean that the theories have no value. We will now
consider the methodologies of science so that you will be able to
evaluate scientific claims more objectively.

Induction
The inductivist view of science

During the Scientific Revolution that took place mainly during the
seventeenth century, the philosopher Francis Bacon, and many of
his contemporaries, summarised the scientific attitude of the times
when they stated that if we want to understand nature then we
must consult nature, that is, observe nature.

According to the inductivist, science starts with observation. The

observer should have normal sense organs, should record with an

34 FD12A
 unprejudiced mind what he or she can see, hear, smell, and touch
with respect to the situation. Facts about the world can be deter-
mined and established as true by an observer’s use of his or her
senses. In the inductivist perspective, these facts constitute the base
from which the laws and theories that make up scientific knowledge
are derived.

Inductive reasoning means that a general rule is framed on the basis of a

collection of individual observations (or “facts”).

Here are two examples of observations any of us could make:

• The dog bit the child.

n Indicators are
substances used by • The blue litmus paper turned red when immersed in the acid.
scientists to detect if
a certain chemical is
present or, if a We check the truth of the statements by observation with the use
substance has of our senses. These results apply to a particular place and time.
certain properties.
Indicators change Now consider some related statements about the same situations
appearance when in that might be part of the scientific knowledge:
contact with the
substance being
tested for. Litmus is • From psychology: Dogs have an inherent need for an aggressive
an indicator that
turns red in acids outlet.
and blue in alkaline
substances (such as • From chemistry: Acids turn blue litmus paper red.
baking soda.)
These latter statements are broader and say much more about our
universe. They are generalisations that refer to all events of a partic-
ular kind at all places and at all times; the first one describes dogs in
general. Similarly, when any blue litmus paper is put into any acid
the colour of the paper always changes from blue to red. The laws
and theories that make up scientific knowledge make general asser-
tions like this (Chalmers 1982).

The inductive method

How do we go from making observations to making statements of

scientific knowledge or laws? The inductivist says that we can
justify scientific laws on the basis of a finite number of observations
and that if certain conditions are met we can then generalise from
observations to a universal law. As an example, let us consider the
heating of bars of metals. When bars of metal are heated, it can be
shown that they expand, although only by small amounts. Thus we

FD12A 35
 go from observing heated metal bars to the general law, “Metals
expand when heated”.

For generalisations like this to be considered legitimate within the

inductive perspective the following conditions must be fulfilled:

i. The number of observations leading to the generalisation

must be large.

ii. The observations must be repeated under a wide variety of

conditions.

iii. No observation should conflict with the derived universal

law.

Condition (i) is necessary because it would not be legitimate to

conclude that all metals expand when heated after just one observa-
tion of the expansion of one metal bar. (Neither would it be legiti-
mate for us to conclude that all British men are drunkards just
because we have seen one very drunk British man.) A large number
of independent observations are necessary before any generalisation
is justified; we must not jump to conclusions on the basis of limited
evidence.

One way to increase the number of our observations would be to

heat a particular bar of metal many times. But would this allow us
to make a claim that all metals will behave this way when heated?
Clearly these new observations would still be an unsatisfactory
basis for making the generalisation above. We know about only one
bar. That is why condition (ii) is necessary. “All metals expand when
heated” will only be a reasonable generalisation if metals are
observed to expand under a wide variety of conditions.

Different kinds of metals should be heated, including, for instance,

long iron bars, short iron bars, gold bars, copper bars and so on. The
bars should be heated both at high pressures and low pressures or
heated by starting at high or low temperatures. If, on all occasions
and under all conditions, the heated metal bars all expand then it is
appropriate to write the general law. How many other different
conditions for testing metal expansion can you think of?

36 FD12A
 Finally, if one metal bar does not expand when it is heated, then the
universal generalisation stated above would not be justified, which
is why condition (iii) is essential.

The type of reasoning that takes us from a list of observations to a

universal statement or law is called inductive reasoning and the
process is called induction. An inductive statement or inference is a
statement about the properties or behaviour of a group of objects or
situations that is formulated on the basis of direct evidence from a
sample of the objects or situations.

Let us consider another example: I am not going to like this song by

Whitney Houston since I have never enjoyed any of her songs
before. Because I have listened to Whitney Houston sing many
songs and have never enjoyed any of them (many previous observa-
tions under various conditions) I do not expect to like the next track
that I am going to hear. Is this a reasonable conclusion?
Discuss the way in
which superstitious
beliefs may relate to Very often, inductive reasoning is used in even less reliable ways.
inappropriate
inductive reasoning.
Sometimes it depends on information received from other people,
Do you think racial that has no basis in fact. Sometimes it is based on too few observa-
profiling can be
justified as having
tions. Many prejudices that people possess can be seen as examples
fulfilled the three of unjustified inductive thinking. They are inappropriate generalisa-
conditions of
inductive reasoning?
tions formed from limited data that have become a general belief.

TRY THIS EXERCISE

Read the story carefully and then answer the questions below.
Try to follow the child’s line of reasoning as you go along. To do
this you have to accept that the child had no prior knowledge of
anything to do with materials that burn. The information being
used is just that which is present at the time of the story.
A child became lost and decided to make a fire. He collected a variety
of objects and discovered that some of them burned while others did
not. To avoid collecting useless objects the child classified his
information and after several trips his lists contained the information
below.
Will burn: tree limbs broomsticks pencils chair legs
Will not burn: mangoes tin cans marbles rocks

FD12A 37 37
 At first, organising the information in this way was helpful but as
these objects became scarce the child tried to find a rule to guide him
to new burnable materials. Looking at the two piles the child noticed
that the ones that burned had one property in common; they were all
cylindrical. So the child proposed this generalisation: “Cylindrical
objects burn.”

The next day the child went looking for more burnable materials but
forgot to take the list. He remembered his generalisation and so
returned with a tree limb, an old cane and three wooden baseball bats
(all successful predictions). He was also pleased that he had not
bothered to carry back a car radiator, a piece of metal chain and a
large door, as since these objects were not cylindrical, he had no
reason to expect them to burn.

The successful predictions made the child confident that his

generalisation was true. The next day he deliberately left the list and,
using his rule, collected two pieces of metal pipe, a soft drink bottle,
and an old car axle, while leaving behind a cardboard box full of
newspapers. To his dismay he found that none of the items that he
carried would burn and so during the cold night that followed he drew
these conclusions:
The cylindrical shape of an object that burns may not be associated
with its flammability after all.
Even though the ‘cylindrical’ rule is not useful tree limbs, broomsticks,
pencils, and other items in the list still burn. He must take the list
next time.

1. Identify the use of inductive reasoning in the preceding

passage.

2. Suggest an alternative “general rule” that the child may have

used, given the evidence the child had. (Hint! Consider the
materials from which the objects were made).

3. What limitations does this example suggest for using induc-

tive reasoning?

4. How would you explain to the child why his reasoning was
faulty? (Suggestion: Refer to the three conditions mentioned
earlier).

38 FD12A
 The inductivist view of scientific progress

According to inductivists, science continues to grow as the quantity

of data available to us increases. As the number of facts established
by observation increases, and the facts become more precise (due to
improved methods of observing and better equipment), more and
more laws and theories of greater scope may be constructed by
inductive reasoning. The perception that inductivist science is objec-
tive and reliable derives from the fact that both observation and
inductive reasoning are themselves believed to be objective. In
Session 2.5 we will consider whether observation is indeed objective.

CRITICAL THINKING ACTIVITY

1. How is research evidence gathered and analysed in the disci-

pline that you are now following?

2. Identify any examples of inductive reasoning in the disci-

pline.

3. Do you think the conclusions or “laws” derived from the

research evidence are firmly established?

Difficulties with induction

From an inductivist point of view scientific laws are generalisations

from observations. As we call these generalisations “laws” they
sound certain. (The word law seems to imply that nature must obey
them!) In fact, scientific laws cannot be firmly established,
confirmed or proven in this way. This is because they cannot cover
all the possible situations to which they are applied. Scientists
cannot make all the observations that would be necessary so there is
always the possibility that an exception will arise.

Exceptions may disprove a law. One amusing example is the story of

the inductivist turkey told by Bertrand Russell (a well known and,
sometimes controversial, English philosopher).

On his first morning at the turkey farm the turkey was fed at 9
a.m. However, he did not jump to conclusions but waited until
he had a large number of observations of being fed at 9 a.m. He
made these observations under a wide variety of circumstances,

FD12A 39
 on Wednesdays, Thursdays and all other days, on warm days
and cold days, on rainy days and dry days. Every day he added
another observation to his list until he was finally satisfied and
made the inductive inference, “I am always fed at 9 a.m.” Alas,
this conclusion was shown to be false when, at 9 a.m. on
Christmas Eve, instead of being fed, his head was chopped off.
An inductive inference, with many independent observations,
had led to a false conclusion.

As a further example, if we observe a large number of parrots under

a wide variety of circumstances and all of them are green we may
conclude, “All parrots are green”. This is a perfectly legitimate induc-
tive inference. There is, however, no guarantee that the next parrot
we observe will not be blue.

Induction cannot be justified on logical grounds. (Chalmers 1982)

Induction is therefore not a logically valid process. It appears that
scientific knowledge has so-called laws, which are not derived in a
logical way. This has been called the “Problem of Induction”.
Despite this problem, there is no contradiction in claiming that “all
observed parrots have proven to be green” and that “not all parrots
are green”.

The number of observations that is “enough” varies. We say that we need

a “large number” of observations to be made. How would we know
how many observations are large enough? For instance, how many
times would you put your hand into a fire before concluding that
fire burns? In situations like this, a large number of observations
would be completely inappropriate (if not idiotic!). On the other
hand, it would not be justifiable to conclude that smoking causes
lung cancer simply because one or two heavy smokers contract
cancer. It took hundreds of examples to draw that conclusion; there
are still smokers and some scientists that are not convinced. These
examples show that the “large number” clause must be modified;
sometimes it is vital and at others it may be irrelevant.

The number of variations required could be infinitely large. Next we have

the difficulty of establishing what is a sufficiently wide variety of
circumstances or how different the circumstances must be in order
to fulfil the criterion for “a wide variety of conditions”. When inves-
tigating the boiling point of water do we need to vary the air pres-
sure, the purity of the water, the method of heating, and the time of

40 FD12A
 day? The answer to the first two questions is, in fact, “Yes” and to
the second two questions is “No”. The list of variations could be
extended forever by adding (and having to test) variations such as
the colour of the container, the identity of the experimenter, the
geographical location, and so on. Unless we can eliminate irrelevant
variations, the number of observations required will be infinitely
large. Induction does not suggest how we can decide which factors
are important in a given situation and which are unnecessary.

Observations cannot be completely objective. How could we find out

which variations are unnecessary? Significant variations may be
distinguished from those that are irrelevant by considering what we
already know of the situation i.e. use theoretical knowledge.
However, this means that theory is playing a vital role prior to
observation and guiding our observation. Remember inductivists say
we should observe objectively, with no preconceptions. Using what
we know to decide what to test challenges the very basis of induc-
tivism. We will return to this important idea in a later section.

ACTIVITY

Write down one example of inductive reasoning that you used

recently to form an opinion about some person or circumstance.
Answer honestly!

1. Explain in your own words what inductive reasoning entails.

2. Did you have enough evidence to form your opinion?

Consider number of observations, variety of circumstances
and possible variations under which you made your observa-
tions.

3. Was your conclusion really justified?

FD12A 41
 QUICK REVIEW

The inductivist view: Science starts by making objective

observations. By making many observations, under a variety of
circumstances, we can form general rules or laws. There should
be no exceptions, if the law or rule is valid.

Science progresses by accumulating facts from making

observations.

Difficulties with induction: An exception may turn up despite

previously making a large number of observations. There is no
way to know how many observations or how many different
circumstances are enough, except by referring to a theory. Using
theory contradicts the supposedly objective nature of inductive
reasoning.

42 FD12A
Session 2.2
Deduction

Deductive reasoning

Let us now consider another type of reasoning that scientists use.

Deductive reasoning involves inferring particular instances from a
general law i.e. using what is general to predict what is true for a
specific case. A deduction is therefore a statement about the properties
or behaviour of a particular object (or situation) that is derived from what
is already known about the group to which the particular object (or situa-
tion) belongs. In this case, we move from the general to the specific
by applying simple rules of logic.

Is deductive reasoning foolproof?

Let us consider the following example of persons falling from the

top of a building that is about 20 metres high. We start with two
premises and one conclusion.

1. Everyone who falls from the top of this building suffers a severe
injury.

2. Jim has fallen from the top of the building.

3. Therefore Jim has suffered a severe injury.

Statements 1 and 2 are the premises and statement 3 is the conclu-

sion. It is logical to argue that if statements 1 and 2 are true, then
statement 3 is bound to be true. For 1 and 2 to be true and 3 to be
false would involve a contradiction. This is the key feature of a logi-
cally valid deduction. If the premises are true, then the conclusion
must be true. From this position we can explain Jim’s injury when
he does fall and also predict that “If Jim falls then he will suffer an
injury.” Underlying this is a law we can call “the law of falling from
high buildings”! (Can you state the law?) We can see from this
example that explanation and prediction are closely related to each
other.
43
 ACTIVITY

Suggest why small children do not listen to reason.

Possible answers:

i. They do not have enough experience (numbers of observa-

tions or variety of circumstances) to make reasonable infer-
ences. (Use inductive reasoning)

ii. They refuse to accept the “laws” presented by their parents

even though they do not have enough experience to arrive at
the laws themselves (not in a position to reason deductively).

The question arises: Is deductive reasoning always sound? Consider

the next example.

i. All passages about scientific methods are boring.

ii. This passage is about scientific methods.
iii. This passage is boring.

If the premises 1 and 2 are true, the conclusion (3) must be correct.
(However, we are now trying to avoid 3 and thus deny premise 1!).

Another interesting example: if I am told that each jersey in a

container in a shop costs $100 and the jersey that I want is in the
container, it should cost $100. In real life, is this always the case?

44 FD12A
 These examples highlight the important fact that the premises on
which the conclusion rests must be true. The problem lies in verify-
ing them; this is not always possible or easy. A deduction may be
based on large numbers of observations but unexpected exceptions
can overturn what has been accepted as a law.

Deductive reasoning and scientific theory

We can now understand one way that scientific laws and theories
may be used to either predict future events from present knowledge
or explain events that have occurred. The following two examples
illustrate this point.

i. All water from the tap boils at about 100 °C.

ii. My car radiator contains tap water.
iii. If the temperature reaches 100 °C, the water in my car radiator
will boil.

This is a valid logical argument. We deduce prediction 3 from the

scientific knowledge contained in premise 1 and the information
about the situation in 2.

i. Concrete expands when heated.

ii. Concrete cracks if too much pressure is put upon it.
iii. Concrete paths will crack if spaces are not left between the
sections of concrete to allow room for the expansion on hot
days.

This latter example shows very clearly how deductive reasoning

based on scientific knowledge can be of immense practical value in
making predictions that affect our everyday lives.

ACTIVITY

Consider each of the following groups of statements and before

answering the questions that follow, comment on the type of
reasoning, the premises, and the resulting conclusion.

a. Belize is west of Jamaica

b. Jamaica is west of Antigua
c. Therefore Belize is west of Antigua

FD12A 45 45
 a. Some patients with spots have measles
b. Eileen has spots
c. Therefore Eileen has measles

a. All pigs have wings

b. Animals with wings cannot fly
c. Pigs cannot fly

1. Which example is the only acceptable and valid argument?

Can you state clearly why it is valid? (If not, review the
discussion on deductive reasoning.)

2. In which case are both premises false? Nevertheless, can the

form of the argument be classified as an example of deduc-
tive reasoning?

3. In which example is the first premise insufficient for arriving

at a valid conclusion?

QUICK REVIEW

In deduction we start with a general law from which we can

make predictions about anything that law covers. Reasoning is
based on premises that must be true and if so the conclusions
must also be true. As with induction, unexpected exceptions
can overturn a law. Deduction on its own does not increase
scientific knowledge.

Induction vs. deduction

There are important differences between induction and deduction:

In induction we argue from the particular to the general. After making

observations about an object or situation we apply and extend the
resulting statement to new objects or situations. In deduction, on the
other hand, we go from the general to the particular; we apply the conse-
quences of a general statement to one particular object or situation
that belongs to the class to which the general statement refers.

Deductive arguments are logically valid but inductive arguments are not.
Deductive reasoning is therefore safer than induction provided the

46 FD12A
 initial general statement is true. An inductive statement, however,
always involves an element of doubt, as it is possible to arrive at a
wrong inference from correct information. General statements
(laws) do not necessarily follow from the particular observations
made and we cannot be sure that laws will always be obeyed.

Only inductive reasoning opens new horizons and sets new problems.
Deduction does not, give us anything new. Not only does induction
summarise the information we have gathered but it also expands
our knowledge. For example observations may suggest hypotheses
to be tested. Induction, although it has its problems, can play a
useful role in furthering scientific knowledge. Deduction only relates
the consequences of the initial statements to the case being consid-
ered. It does not suggest further investigation.

It would be useful at
Inductive methods stress the importance of unbiased “facts” from observa-
this point to read tion. However, many important scientific theories refer to concepts
section 2.4, about
“facts”.
that cannot be observed directly, only their effects are observed.
Atoms, electrons or gravitational fields are examples of such
concepts. In a sense these are creations of scientists that are better
seen as representing their ideas about these phenomena. These ideal-
isations describe as best they can, the patterns found by observation.
They then need to undergo further testing by making more observa-
tions and performing more experiments. Thus, it is important to
appreciate that the basic scientific laws that we have been
discussing are not ultimate truths that have been “discovered” in
nature.

ACTIVITY

1. Select from sessions 2.1 and 2.2 one example each of induc-
tive and deductive reasoning. Write these down and then
add two additional, original examples.

2. Construct a table to summarise the differences or character-

istics of inductive and deductive reasoning.

3. Write a short essay (one page will do) comparing the ways in
which inductive and deductive reasoning contribute to scien-
tific knowledge. Some information in session 3 may also be
helpful. Make sure to include the following:

FD12A 47 47
 • A definition of inductive reasoning and deductive
reasoning
• The limitations of induction and deduction
• The extent to which both types of reasoning have added
to scientific progress
• Your opinion on which one has been more useful

48 FD12A
Session 2.3
The Hypothetico-Deductive
Approach

What is the hypothetico-deductive approach?

When people, including most scientists, talk about the “scientific

method” they are usually referring to the hypothetico-deductive
approach. It is based on using observations to formulate hypotheses,
testing them under controlled conditions and arriving at conclu-
sions, based on the findings of the tests. These findings may not
support the original hypothesis.

This scientific method can be broken down into four steps:

1. Observation: Some event or situation is observed that presents a

problem. It may be the results of a previous investigation or
some occurrence in nature that a scientists wishes to know more
about.

2. Hypothesis formation: An explanation for the event is put

forward. This hypothesis suggests a cause for the observation.

3. Prediction: The hypothesis is used to make one or more

predictions as to what would happen, if it were true.

4. Experimentation: Finally the hypothesis is tested to see if the

predictions were accurate. These tests are carried out under
carefully controlled conditions to ensure that the results are
reliable.

From the results of these tests deductions are made which lead to
conclusions that either support or reject the hypothesis. If the
hypothesis is rejected then a new hypothesis can be formulated,
sometimes based on the results of the previous tests, and the
process repeated. If many experimenters repeat the same tests and
get the same results, the hypothesis may be regarded as a theory or

49
 law or it may be used to modify an existing theory. We will now
look at some of these steps in more detail and also at how different
scientists have used this approach over the years.

What is a hypothesis?

When you are confronted with an event for which you do not have
The best explanation an explanation you may put forward a suggestion. The suggested
should: explanation is your best guess, given all the information you have.
• fit neatly with all
other accepted This information or data may be from current observations about
theories the particular event or information you remember about similar
• be consistent in events and their circumstances. What you have done is to propose a
itself, i.e. without self-
contradiction hypothesis. A scientific hypothesis is basically the same as your
• be simpler than suggested explanation except that certain conditions apply. While it
other accounts and is a reasoned guess based on current evidence it often includes a
• make novel
predictions which can
prediction from what is already known. We can define a hypothesis
be tested by as a reasoned guess formulated as a statement of expectation about the
observation and
things being studied. It is put forward tentatively, usually on the basis
experiment and lend
further support to of incomplete evidence. In general, the scientific hypothesis has to
theory. fit in with accepted scientific laws and theories although it may
suggest replacing part of a previous theory.

The role of hypotheses

In the hypothetico-deductive approach the hypothesis is carefully

tested. How does a scientist know what to test? Since the hypothe-
sis suggests a cause scientists can predict that if certain conditions
are met then particular results will follow. A very simple example
will make the point. If a hypothesis states that “seeds of species X
need light to germinate” then it can be predicted that they will not
germinate if kept in the dark. Scientists can then collect many of
the seeds, divide them into two batches expose both sets to condi-
tions ideal for germination except that one set will be kept in the
dark and the other in the light.

The main value of hypotheses is that they encourage and initiate

experimental activity. If this activity supports the hypothesis we
may maintain the hypothesis for further testing. If the initial results
of testing lead to rejection of the hypothesis it points the researcher
in another direction. In any case, further work continues.

50 FD12A
 It is interesting to note that scientists never speak of proving a
hypothesis, the most positive thing they can say is that the results
of an investigation support the hypothesis. This cautious approach is
necessary as more tests at a later date may provide evidence that
overturns the hypothesis or shows that the prediction it made is
incorrect. Hypotheses and theories cannot be conclusively proven.

Hypothesis and testing: Dependent and independent variables

Common sense tells us that because two things happen at the same
time it does not mean that one causes the other. There may be other
factors (variables) involved in this coincidence that are less obvious.
(Ignoring this possibility is a very common error in explaining the
causes of everyday events.)

Experimentation takes observation further and usually involves

making observations under carefully controlled conditions. A central
feature of many experiments is that all but one of the variables that
are under the experimenter’s control, are kept constant. By control-
ling conditions important relations are not obscured by accidental,
unimportant or interfering circumstances.

You can try it yourself

For example, a simple pendulum (a small weight suspended at the
by tying a piece of end of a thin string) swings to and fro at a regular rate that can be
thread to a small
object like a metal
timed. To find what affects the time for one swing (the time period)
nut and finding out we can change the length of the pendulum, the weight at the end of
the effect of as many
different variables as
the string, how far from the vertical we pull the weight before
you can think of. letting it go and so on. These variables that we can change are called
independent variables, the time period (what we are investigating) is
the dependent variable (we want to find out what it depends on).

An experimenter tests the effect of changing one independent

variable on the dependent variable and holds all the other
independent variables constant. As the others are not changing,
the experimenter can be sure that any effect is caused by the
single changing variable.

FD12A 51
 ACTIVITY

State a hypothesis (a suggested explanation) for the following

observation:

“Although there are approximately equal numbers of male and

female students at primary level who say they enjoy science,
there are fewer male than female students doing university level
biology”.

Here is one example of a hypothesis: Girls are better at doing

biology than boys. I can check my hypothesis by asking the
following questions.

1. Does it offer a reasonable explanation for the observation?

(Yes, I think so!)

2. Can it be used to make a prediction? (Yes, girls will do better

on a Biology test than boys.)

3. Can the prediction be tested? (Yes, by giving both groups a

well-designed and fair test and comparing their results.)

4. Can I control other factors (variables) when administering

the required tests? (Yes, to a reasonable extent. We can make
sure both boys and girls doing the test have covered the
same course, are of the same ages, have had the same teach-
ers and so on.)

Now try your example. If it is reasonable you should answer

“yes” to each of the questions also.

Experiments and testing theories

Galileo and the importance of observed “facts”

Galileo was one of the first scientists to break with the tradition of
his day. He felt that established facts or observations should be accepted
as such even when the observations did not fit into a currently
accepted theory. This may seem obvious to us but in Galileo’s day
scientific observations were frowned on if they did not support
accepted versions of the world. For Galileo, the important thing was
to accept the facts and build or modify the theory to fit them.

52 FD12A
 Popper and falsifying theories

More recently the philosopher Karl Popper emphasised the use of

experiments that can show theories to be false. He holds that it is
precisely the fact that scientific theories can be falsified by experi-
ment that distinguishes scientific knowledge from other ideologically-
based disciplines, where whenever contrary evidence is presented it
is always explained away.

In Popper’s view, science proceeds by the formation of hypotheses

and by attempts to disprove the hypotheses by testing them.
Progress is made when a hypothesis is tested and a new observation
or experimental result shows that something is “wrong” with a
theory. The theory must then be modified or corrected to accommo-
date the new findings thus improving its accuracy; the result is a
better theory. This is very different from the popular view of
science, which focuses on gathering evidence to prove a theory.

As an everyday example, consider the boiling point of water.

Repeated measurements of the boiling point of water in Bridge-
town, Kingston, Roseau, Port of Spain, St. John’s and so on, support
the law, “The boiling point of water is 100 degrees Celsius (100o C)”.
When the boiling point of water is measured at Knox College in
Jamaica, however, it is always a couple of degrees less than 100 oC.
Can you think of two effects this might have?

1. It disproves the original law (it falsifies the law).

2. It leads to a search for a suitable way to modify the law to
include the new information.

The lower boiling point is explained by the fact that Knox College is
about 1,000 metres (over 3,000 feet) above sea level. At this altitude
the pressure is lower than at sea level and the boiling point is lower
at lower pressures. Thus the addition of the phrase “at one atmos-
phere pressure” improves the law, making it more precise. What
should the law now state?

Similarly, if instead of pure water we use seawater (which contains

many dissolved substances) in the test, at sea level, the boiling point
is higher than usual. Thus a phrase referring to the purity of the
water also needs to be added to the law, again improving its

FD12A 53
 precision. Can you now adjust the law to include this new
information?

The law would now read, The boiling point of pure water at one atmos-
phere pressure is 100 degrees Celsius (100 oC).

ACTIVITY

Are such laws of any use to us?

Question: Can you use the information in the

passage above to suggest why food cooks more
quickly in a pressure cooker. (Hint: The pressure
inside a pressure cooker is higher than outside pressure.)

Figure 2.1 A schematic of the Scientific or Hypothetico-deductive

method

54 FD12A
 The inductive method versus the hypothetico-deductive
approach

Inductivists see experiments and observation as enlarging our store

of accepted facts. In the hypothetico-deductive model experiments
are designed to test, and potentially deny, our theories and hypothe-
ses. As a way of comparing the two read the following passage and
then answer the questions that follow. You may wish to review the
sections on Inductive and Deductive reasoning before attempting
this activity.

ACTIVITY

Consider the following act of clinical diagnosis as performed by

two different doctors. You are comparing the hypothetico-
deductive approach (adopting a hypothesis and then testing it)
with the inductive approach (observing without holding any
prior ideas or expectations. Read the cases carefully and then
answer the questions that follow.
A male patient comes to his doctor feeling ill. The doctor sets out to
discover what is wrong. He empties his mind of all prejudices and
preconceptions and observes the patient intently.
He records the patient’s pulse rate, tests his reflexes, and inspects his
tongue (an organ that seldom stands up to public scrutiny!).
He then proceeds to other, more sophisticated actions: the patient’s
urine is tested, blood counts and blood cultures are made, biopsies of
liver and marrow are sent to the pathology department, tubing is
inserted into all apertures and electrodes applied to all surfaces.

The factual evidence is then assembled, classified and “processed”.

Finally, a diagnosis is arrived at by reasoning; it is something you
ate!
The second doctor observes the patient with a purpose, an idea in
mind. From the moment the patient enters she sets herself questions,
prompted by foreknowledge of the patient, or by a sensory clue. These
questions direct her thought and her examination of the patient. In
each case, what she finds guides her towards making new
observations which will tell her whether the provisional views she is
constantly forming are acceptable or unsound.

Is the patient ill at all? He tends to be a bit of a hypochondriac! Was

FD12A 55 55
 it indeed something he ate? His diet seems to be OK. Has he at last
done his liver irreparable damage? An upper respiratory virus is
going around and perhaps this is relevant to the case ? Let me test his
breathing.

Here there is interplay between an imaginative and a critical

process, between conjecture, critical evaluation, and some
investigations.

A reasonable basis for treatment or for further examination will

be obtained, though the doctor will keep an open mind and
perhaps suggest other tests. The internal dialogue begins against
a background of information and observation.

1. Given the information that you have just reviewed, classify

the different approaches that the two doctors adopted.

2. On what evidence is your classification based? (Review these

last two seesions and go through the diagram of the hypo-
thetico-deductive model again.)

3. Explain which of the two approaches appears to you to be

the most appropriate way to make a diagnosis and why.

4. Which of the two approaches do you consider best suited for

research in your discipline? Discuss the advantages and the
limitations of both methods with respect to your area of
study.

56 FD12A
Session 2.4
How Science Progresses

What is a scientific paradigm?

The word paradigm was first used in science by the science histo-
rian, Thomas Kuhn, who used it to refer to the set of fundamental
beliefs (or premises) to which scientists subscribe and which they use as a
framework for conducting research. A scientist that belongs to a certain
branch of science is accepting a given set of paradigms. Sometimes
when a particular set of beliefs, or ways of looking at some aspect of
nature, is accepted for the first time a new paradigm is created and a
new discipline or specialisation comes into being.

Initially new concepts have to be repeatedly defined and defended as

the discipline develops its own identity. As more work is done in the
area definitions become more detailed and precise. It may reach a
point when only scientists working in that area are able to read and
understand fully, academic reports of the work. In this way, scien-
tific, and other forms of knowledge, have become sub-divided into
more and more specialisations and less available to the general
public. Once a paradigm is generally accepted, scientists can take its
premises for granted. Work is done to expand knowledge only in the
doubtful areas of the paradigm.

The field of medicine provides a good example of this. Not so long

ago if your side hurt you went to a doctor and if something such as
your appendix needed to be removed the same doctor removed it.
This is now unthinkable. You may be sent to a specialist in internal
medicine who makes a diagnosis or sends you to another doctor
who specialises in problems of the intestinal tract, a gastro-enterolo-
gist, who may pass you on to another doctor who handles specific
parts of the tract. Each specialist knows more about a smaller area
of the discipline.

57
 Scientific revolutions

One inductivist argument claims that science increases knowledge

cumulatively. A look at the history of scientific knowledge shows
that this is a false description of how science progresses. A new
theory often does not add to an old theory but shows instead that it
had been false. For example, Copernicus’ (1543) heliocentric theory
of the universe (where the Sun is taken as stationary and the Earth
orbits around it) did not add to Ptolemy’s (384 BC) theory (where
the Sun was believed to orbit the Earth). It showed that Ptolemy
was mistaken.

Why do you think

Sometimes in science we have what Kuhn terms a “scientific revolu-
Kuhn chose the word tion”. Such revolutions may depend on a new idea being accepted
“revolution” to
describe this
by some workers, or stimulated by a technological innovation. We
change? often speak separately of scientific revolutions and technological
revolutions but one is often dependent on the other.

Kuhn divided scientific activity into two parts: normal science and
extraordinary science. Normal science is research that is based on
the currently accepted paradigm. Extraordinary science, on the other
hand, takes place outside the paradigm. In the latter case, experi-
ments and observations begin to produce results that contradict
parts of the accepted paradigm. As the number of these difficulties
grows “extraordinary science” begins. When a body of data starts to
accumulate that poses major problems for a theory Kuhn’s process
of radical change may occur. A new paradigm takes over, a new
consensus begins to prevail and the revolution is underway. The
new ideas enable a range of previously puzzling phenomena to be
explained and so activities are undertaken to examine these
phenomena. We look at examples of this next.

An interesting and important point is that when results apparently

disprove the original theory many scientists resist the idea of chang-
ing the paradigm to fit the new data. Instead they try to give
reasons why the new data are unsound or use some other technique
to defend and maintain their paradigm.

58 FD12A
 CRITICAL THINKING ACTIVITY

1. Explain the meaning of the term “paradigm” in science.

2. Try to identify within a discipline with which you are

familiar a paradigm that used to be accepted and has now
been discredited.

Moving continents: rejecting and accepting theories

Scientific revolutions or “paradigm shifts” are usually not instanta-

neous; years of argument between scientists may precede the final
acceptance of the new paradigm. The acceptance of plate tectonics by
the earth sciences community is a very good recent example.

Continents were thought to be unmoving, permanent blocks,

surrounded by the oceans, without a history of change. In the eigh-
teenth century, however, it was noticed that the coasts of the conti-
nents to the West of the Atlantic (North and South America) and
the continents to the East (Africa and Europe) if brought closer,
would fit together, somewhat like the pieces of a jigsaw puzzle. Two
scientists, the German von Humboldt and the American Snider-
Pellegrini, suggested that in the past the continents on either side of
the Atlantic had been joined together and later separated by floods.

A German scientist, Alfred Wegener, then presented a more startling

hypothesis; there was once a single original continent that had sepa-
rated and drifted apart. He offered a wide variety of evidence to
support his claim but he was unable to explain how this took place.

In the northern hemisphere most scientists scorned Wegener’s idea

and did not consider much of the evidence seriously, until the late
1950s. Geophysicists also ridiculed the idea of lateral movements on
this large scale on the grounds that the earth’s crust was too rigid.
Those who rejected other evidence presented by Wegener, such as
the similarity of fossils found on distant continents, had difficulty
providing alternative explanations. (By contrast, many geologists in
the southern hemisphere had accepted the new paradigm even
before the Second World War, as in the South evidence of former
links between continents is strong).

FD12A 59
 Figure 2.2 According to the continental drift theory, the super contnent
Pangaea began to break up about 225-200 million years ago, eventually
fragmenting into the continents as we know them today.

Source: http://pubs.usgs.gov/publications/text/historical.html

The geologists needed a causal explanation. Much later in the 1960s

and 1970s, it was again the geophysicists who provided this
evidence in favour of continental drift. They developed models of
the sea floor spreading and plate tectonics that explained the great
lateral movements (see p 78 for a discussion of the use of models in
science).

60 FD12A
 It is now believed that the outer crust of the Earth or mantle is
divided into enormous sections called tectonic plates. The conti-
nents rest on different sections of these plates. It was argued that
the continents drifted apart as the sea floor spread, enlarging the
ocean basins. This movement is the result of heat rising from the
Earth’s core to the surface by convection in the mantle. This puts
pressure on the edges and other sections of the tectonic plates, grad-
ually forcing them over or under each other at their edges.

Once the idea was accepted it offered explanations for a number of

previously unexplained phenomena. The mechanism explained:

I. Continental drift
II. The coastline fit of the continents
III. The alignment of mountain ranges, especially on either side of
the Atlantic
IV. The presence of the remains of the same prehistoric reptiles in
both Brazil and South Africa
V. The distribution of fossil plants

It has also been discovered that volcanic activity is prevalent along

the plate margins. Continental drift also explains some earthquakes.
Earthquakes occur when tension built up between adjacent plates as
they move against each other, is suddenly released.

The theory of plate tectonics and continental drift fits in with a

wide range of evidence, climatic, biological as well as geological and
gives a simpler and more unifying and coherent explanation of these
developments than any previous theory. However, in terms of how
sciences develop, the important issue here is that for many years
scientists supporting the older model explained away new evidence;
many became very emotional in defending the older paradigm
within which they had carried out all their research for many years.

Species and their histories: A controversial theory

In 1859 Charles Darwin, an English scientist, published The Origin of

Species. The publication of this work started a major controversy
that continues to this day because the theories that it put forward

FD12A 61
 challenged the notion that all species on earth were created exactly
as they are now. The clergy and the general public considered
Darwin’s ideas heretical. The theory of evolution is still hotly
debated. At present there are cases before the courts in the US
asking that special creation be included on the school curriculum.

In The Origin of Species Darwin argued that present species are the
result of gradual changes over millions of years. In other words

(a) animals and plants living today are the evolved descendents or
relatives of animals and plants that lived long ago, and

(b) these animals and plants evolved or changed gradually by a

process called natural selection.

Darwin made many detailed observations of fossils (the remains of

plants and animals that lived millions of years ago) and he
compared the characteristics, of animals living in different parts of
the world. Two important observations seemed to support Darwin’s
hypotheses.

1. In the fossil records he observed changes in the characteristics of

particular groups or species and that new species emerged at
certain times that were not present before.

2. The distribution of animals living in different parts of the world

showed certain similarities.

Having made these and other observations, he proposed a mecha-

nism by which this could be explained. This he called the theory of
natural selection. The argument on which this theory rests was
presented as follows:

I. Within a particular population (members of a species living in

the same place) there are always variations or differences in
some characteristics.

II. Because of these differences, some members of the population

will be better able to survive and reproduce than others; that is
some are more successful and some less successful.

III. If the characteristics that contributed to survival and

62 FD12A
 reproduction were passed on by inheritance from parents to
offspring, more of the offspring with these characteristics will
survive and pass them on to their offspring.

IV. Gradually over many generations the entire population would

have these characteristics as the less successful members of each
generation would die out.

Evolution occurred as a result of favourable characteristics becoming

the common features of the group. As these characteristics were not
selected by anyone, Darwin called this “natural selection”.

The evidence for evolution and natural selection is largely circum-

stantial yet it remains the most compelling explanation for the vari-
ety of species found on earth today and in the past. Clearly there is
no way to test this hypothesis. The question therefore arises, can
observations and deductions alone support a hypothesis?

Natural selection was one possible mechanism of evolution, but not

the only one. To show that it was possible does not prove that it did
take place or that it was the predominant mechanism of evolution.
To support his theory of evolution, like any good scientist, Darwin
had to show that:

• Evolution offered the best explanation for a large number of

characteristics of plants and animals.
• Evolution was usually a result of natural selection and not of
other factors.

In this case, to make the necessary links with the ancestral plants
and animals, Darwin had to work back from present observations,
e.g. geographical distribution of present species or the distribution of
fossils in the rock strata. By arguing from present evidence to the
past that was unobservable, he tried to show that natural selection
provided the best explanation for his observations. (Keep this point
in mind for our next session.) He and many others have done so.

The theory of evolution by natural selection has stood the test of

time because it offers explanations that are simpler and more coher-
ent than any others so far constructed. These explanations make
sense of data from very different fields of study: biogeography,

FD12A 63
 comparative anatomy, the study of fossils, similarities in the
embryos of different species and the remains of “useless” or vestigial
organs in animals. A vast network of interconnecting explanations,
both geological and biological, can be fitted together through apply-
ing Darwin’s theory. Predictions can be made: in rock strata no
mammalian fossils should be discovered at levels below the lowest
fossils of fish with backbones, no human fossils should be found at
the same levels as dinosaur fossils, no fossil birds at levels lower
than the lowest amphibian fossils, and so on.

With the development of genetics and molecular biology, Darwinian

theory has become increasingly complex, but the basic claims to
evolution and the mechanism of natural selection remain strong.
Nevertheless, it is well to remember that like all scientific theories
and hypotheses the theory of evolution and natural selection will
remain open to challenge.

Scientific facts and changing paradigms

Scientific facts are statements made after observation. In science this often
requires the experienced use of apparatus and understanding certain
concepts. We tend to behave as if scientific facts are unchanging
truths on which all scientific knowledge is based. It is as if we
believe that these facts can be found somewhere out in nature but
this is not the case. For example, take the fact that pure water boils
at 100°C at one atmosphere pressure. How can we find that fact in
nature? Before we could make this statement, we would have to
know and understand concepts of “boiling”, “temperature”, and
“pressure” and possess and know how to use a thermometer and
have a supply of pure water.

Facts are theory-laden. Statements of fact contain the assumptions of

a particular paradigm. As shown above, when we say water boils at
a certain temperature we are accepting the truth of the related
concepts. We know about thermometers, temperature, and pressure
before we start to work. Since facts are theory-laden, they may be
changed when the associated theories and their assumptions change.
This was the case before and after Galileo revolutionised the study
of astronomy.

64 FD12A
 Facts (the ways in which we interpret what we observe) change with time.
When we observe the sun “moving” across the sky we might say
“the sun is orbiting the earth”. This statement of “fact” is consistent
with the observation and this is what was believed to be a fact in
Galileo’s day. Now we know differently and can make a different
statement of fact: “the earth is spinning on its own axis relative to a
stationary sun.”

Facts do not simply accumulate as science proceeds, instead they change

or evolve, or may disappear to be replaced by others. Perhaps when
the results of exploring space and data from telescopes such as the
Hubble telescope are collated, the paradigm within which we now
operate will change and so will the relationship between the move-
ments of the earth and sun.

The fact is that facts change. As we have seen in this session, scien-
tific knowledge progresses sometimes by small discoveries and
sometimes by radical shifts. In all cases, making careful observations
is the key. We have seen that large numbers of detailed observations
can provide enough information to form viable hypotheses that are
supported by additional observations. New theories can be proposed
by a process of deduction. When these theories allow prediction of a
wide range of phenomena they carry as much weight and are as
influential as theories arrived at by experimental investigation.
Perhaps science is not so different from other disciplines as we
think!

ACTIVITY

Use either the theory of evolution or the theory of plate

tectonics and continental drift to describe how:

(a) Present day observations can be used to construct an expla-

nation of past events.

(b) The case for a new theory can be deduced logically from
observational data without the need for experimentation.

(c) To be accepted, new theories must offer explanations for a

range of phenomena.

(d) Facts change depending on current beliefs.

FD12A 65
 CRITICAL THINKING ACTIVITY

Before the next session, think about and write down the
answers to the questions below.

1. What do you think historians do as research?

2. In what ways are their research activities different from

what scientists do?

3. Do you have greater confidence in the theories of historians

or scientists? Give a reason for your answer.

66 FD12A
Session 2.5
Scientific Methods

Are historical methods different from those of science?

To further clarify what we have considered in the preceding section

we now look at the activities of historians. The historian sets out to
construct narratives, not laws. These narratives are constructed to
explain how and why past events occurred. Let us consider
Columbus’ travels around Trinidad. One challenge for the historian
is that the events of the past are no longer open to observation now;
the modern historian cannot observe Columbus in his travels. The
problem for each historian is how to construct an account and
demonstrate that this new account is more accurate than previous
ones. As the past is not observable, the historian uses objects in the
present that can be observed; he/she depends on available “evidence”.

To construct an account of Columbus’ Trinidadian experience,

evidence may come from the logbook of his ship, letters to or from
Columbus, and other records.

n First the historian has to describe the specific piece of evidence,

the observable object, so that it can be accepted as providing
authentic evidence of the event that he/she is seeking to establish.
In this case the historian may need to show that this object is a
letter that was actually written in the past, by Columbus himself
and that it was written as a result of his experiences and encounters
while traveling in Trinidad.

n To relate Columbus’ experiences to his writing, the historian

predicts that we can find conditions off the coast of Trinidad that
Columbus mentions in his account. (We can – the low salinity of
the Gulf of Paria.)

n To confirm that the document is indeed a letter from Columbus

the historian predicts that the signature on the letter (and the ink

67
 used, as well as other factors) will have appropriate similarities to
other signatures of Columbus. (This can be done in the Spanish
archives.)

There will be, of course, additional procedures and any account may
suffer from gaps. The aim is to establish the most completely
consistent and coherent narrative (at least more so than previous
ones). For example, a previous narrative may have claimed that
Columbus never traveled round Trinidad and that the letter is a
forgery. So the historian may need to look at the new narrative to
ensure that:

n The narrative does not contradict other narratives of events in

Spain, in Santo Domingo (where Columbus wrote the letter) and in
Trinidad. These narratives form a complete network of inter-related
events.

n Ideally, the narrative will enable the historian to predict and

discover new evidence, e.g. documents in the Spanish archives or
new, that is, previously unnoticed, geographical features around
Trinidad.

In relation to our interest in the methods of the sciences, the follow-

ing features of historical methodology should be noted:

• The events that took place are unobservable but can be inferred
from objects that can be observed in the present.

• Currently observable objects, e.g. the letter, must be described

appropriately so that they can be accepted as part of the
historical record.

• The object is linked to the events of the past by a causal

account; the events accepted as accurate are those which offer
the best explanation for the evidence in hand.

• The account has to be consistent with other accounts; the new

information must make sense in light of what is already known.

• An account that makes it possible to predict the discovery of

new evidence is preferred; perhaps another document is referred
to and this can now be found.

68 FD12A
 • Objects presented as evidence can be re-described to fit the
account of past events (the letter can be re-described as a forgery
if it does not fit in with known facts); having “evidence” is not
enough, it must be accepted as authentic.

• To achieve the most complete account, that is, the most

satisfactory history, we can either change the account of past
events (Columbus never went to Trinidad) or we can change the
description of the evidence (it is a forgery not a letter) or both.

• Certainty is impossible as the discovery of new objects

(evidence) can always require changes in the account.

This sounds quite similar to the way in which the theory of evolu-
tion was constructed. So what is the fundamental difference
between historical and scientific methods? We will explore this in
the next section. (See also Module 2, Unit 5.)

ESSAY

Compare the methodologies used by scientists and historians.

Include in your answer, the objectives of research, the nature of
the evidence that is used, the methods used to gather and
examine evidence, and how the findings of both disciplines may
be used to reappraise previous theories. One approach is
outlined below.

Possible answer:

Objectives: Scientists set out to construct laws and add to theories

while historians set out to construct narratives of events that took place
in the past.

Nature of the evidence: Scientific evidence is based on facts observed in

nature or the results of observations made during experimentation.
Historical evidence consists of objects found in the present that can be
linked with the past.

Methods used to gather data: Scientists put forward hypotheses that

include predictions and test these hypotheses under controlled
conditions. The results of the tests may support the hypotheses or not in
which case new hypotheses are proposed and tested. Historians first

FD12A 69 69
 describe the objects being used as evidence very carefully so they can be
accepted as valid. From a careful study of the objects they may predict
the discovery of more evidence that supports the evidence already in
hand.

How findings are used: Scientific findings that support the original
hypothesis that was tested often require that the underlying theory be
modified to accommodate the new findings. Science progresses as
existing theories are modified and made more accurate or precise.
Historical narratives cannot be tested in the same way. They are
accepted when they provide a better and more complete account than
previous accounts of the same event and are consistent with other
accepted historical data.

In both cases findings may lead to changes to existing knowledge or

modifications to incorporate both the new and the older knowledge.
Sometimes the new knowledge or the old is rejected. In science this may
lead to further testing of new hypotheses.

When experimentation is not possible, scientists may use methods that

are similar to historians. They use observations of what is available in
the present to construct explanations for past events that they think are
responsible for what they observe in the present. From these
explanations they make predictions that, if accurate, support their
explanations. New theories constructed in this way are accepted when
they offer the best explanations for a wide range of previously
unexplained observations.

Observation, instrumentation, and new knowledge

New instruments: accepting new knowledge

It is clear that observations play a key role in scientific knowledge.

As noted earlier, the “triumph” of observation occurred in the seven-
teenth century when both the telescope and the microscope were
developed. We can only imagine the excitement of the first scientists
to see what had never been seen before: large numbers of stars
above and large numbers of protozoa and bacteria below (“animal-
cules” as first reported by Anton van Leewunhoek). As the new
instruments became accepted, new knowledge became possible.
Observation became the dominant source of knowledge and was

70 FD12A
 used increasingly to refute older theories. In science it came to have
priority over all other sources of knowledge.

However, the new instruments were not immediately accepted.

What happens when How could an astronomer convince others that what the instru-
you see or hear ment showed was, in fact, a previously unobserved planet or star
something you have
never seen nor heard and not a blur or smudge on the lens? Galileo sighted sunspots, the
before? Do you try to mountains of the Moon and the moons of Jupiter but these amaz-
make sense of it,
given what you know ing discoveries were not favourably received. The problem was that
or dismiss it as not what was seen ran contrary to accepted ideas, some of which were
true? You probably
try to do a bit of both
religious in origin.
like most of us!
Was Galileo’s impatience with those who did not immediately
accept his findings fully justified? Faced with a conflict between
what you think you know and what you observe, it is not always
easy to accept the new observation. You can:

(a) Accept the theory (what you know) and reject the new
observation.
(b) Accept the observation and reject the theory (your previous
knowledge).
(c) Change the way you look at both to make observation and
theory consistent.

We tend to take the option that makes the most sense, given what
we already know.

Making scientific observations is not a natural ability. When under-

graduate biologists or medical students first look at slides under a
microscope they often report that they do not see what they
“should see”. They need experience, training, and advice to interpret
the image seen. Have you ever tried to make sense of an
X-ray photograph? In order to make valid observations we need
trained observers; untrained observers are unable to see anything.

Making scientific observations – can we trust our senses?

As we discussed earlier, observations of one sort or another play a

key role in scientific and other forms of research. Are our observa-
tions always reliable? Do we all see things the same? You have prob-
ably come across various optical illusions where a drawing can be

FD12A 71
 seen either as one image or as another quite different one, but not
both at the same time.

Even when we all receive the same data

from our senses, we do not necessarily
perceive those data in the same way. We
do not simply see like a camera; our
brains help to construct the images
we perceive, using sense data as well
as previous knowledge and experience.
The part played by previous know-
ledge and experience leads to expecta-
tion; that is, we see what we expect
Figure 2.3 Example of an
to see.
optical illusion

Like facts, observation can be seen as

“theory-laden”, that is, guided by prior knowledge and concepts held by the
individual, because of the important parts played by expectation and
assumption. For example, if someone calls out the names of cards
that are being shown to you in quick succession, a red five of
spades, for example, may be confidently called the five of hearts,
without your realising that anything is wrong. Each card is
described according to an expected category, and not as it really is.
You do not expect spades to be red so you “see” hearts instead.

Beliefs without the support of Look quickly at the triangle and

observational data do not form read what is written inside it.
part of science. In religious
practice, for example, it is
acceptable to believe what
we can neither see nor prove A
but in science this is not so. BIRD
Scientific beliefs must be
supported by reasons. IN THE
Since observation plays such
THE BUSH
a crucial role in formulating
hypotheses and interpreting
Did you see the “the” twice?
experimental results we need
to be aware of what is Figure 2.4

72 FD12A
 implied when a scientist reports “findings” based on “observations”
and then formulates new hypotheses and theories that direct
further research. Scientists are only human and sometimes because
of what they already know they see what they expect to see, not
what is really there.

The German philosopher Kant (working at the end of the eigh-

teenth century) pointed out that knowledge could not be founded
on sense experience alone, as we needed to have certain concepts to
make sense of our observations. To see a tree, humans need to have
a prior concept of a tree – sense experiences without prior concepts
are blind. In Kant’s view reason has to guide all investigation and
observations can only produce knowledge through experiments
designed to answer questions formulated by reasoning.

Different approaches to experimentation

Experimentation using natural conditions – the work of Harvey

Experimentation first received special emphasis in the seventeenth

century, with the English theorist Francis Bacon highlighting the use
of experiments for acquiring natural knowledge. This involved inter-
vening and actively manipulating some aspect of the physical world.
He thought this knowledge would give humans control of nature
and to do this we needed to understand the causes of behaviour and
change in the natural world. This information could be used to
formulate statements or laws about how nature works.

Bacon’s ideas were well illustrated by William Harvey’s study of the

circulation of blood in animals. Harvey established for the first time
that blood circulated around the body, pumped by the heart through
the arteries and returning to it along the veins. He reached this
conclusion after carrying out a series of experiments on animals and
humans that he illustrated and discussed in his book, Anatomical
Exercises on the Movement of the Heart and Blood in Animals, in 1628.

By placing pressure and releasing it at certain points along veins in

the arm the flow of blood in them could be stopped and restarted.
Harvey observed that it caused bulges where valves in the veins
obstructed the flow in one direction but not the other. The proce-
dure for carrying out one of Harvey’s experiments is included in

FD12A 73
 your readings. You might like to try it on someone with prominent
veins. It works very well. The experiment confirms that the move-
ment of blood in the veins is only towards and not away from the
heart.

Harvey interfered with the course of nature (blocking the flow of

blood to a vein) to establish the existence of a process (the circula-
tion of the blood) by looking at a cause and effect relationship. He
arrived at his conclusions although he did not observe any connec-
tion from the arteries to the veins. However, his conclusions
allowed the existence of capillaries to be predicted. They were only
observed by another scientist, five years after Harvey’s death.

Experimentation in artificial environments – Galileo’s work

Galileo Galilei, the Italian astronomer and physicist, who worked at

the same time as Harvey, adopted a different approach to experi-
ments. Galileo’s interest was in kinematics, the description and meas-
urement of the movement of objects. In contrast to Harvey,
Galileo’s experiments did not interfere in the natural flow of events.
His experiments were carried out in artificial environments to avoid
any interference from the events in the everyday world. His aim
was to develop a set of simple laws of motion, expressed in a mathe-
matical way.

Galileo realised that making observations in natural surroundings

could not provide explanations that would give simple laws. For
example, apart from any “law of fall”, the fall of fruit from a tree
could be a result of several different conditions, such as the move-
ment of the wind, the shaking of the branch, the shape of the fruit
and so on. In a natural setting how would a scientist be able to say
which variable was most influential and in what way?

In carrying out his experiments, Galileo concentrated on certain

variables (e.g. time and space) and ignored or minimised others (e.g.
friction) as best he could. In studying the motion of the pendulum he
deliberately ignored the friction of the string on the nail to which it
was attached. When he rolled a ball down a slope he had the ball
very carefully polished and the slope covered with a suitable mate-
rial so that he could eliminate friction from his calculations.

74 FD12A
 Working in this way Galileo was able to develop hypotheses that
showed certain mathematical relationships. His intention was that
these hypotheses would become laws when his observations
supported them. However, many of his hypotheses expressed rela-
tionships that could not be directly observed. His law of inertia
claimed that an object moving horizontally would retain its velocity perpet-
ually (keep moving at the same rate forever!) unless other forces interfered
with it. Obviously nothing of this sort could be observed. A moving
object would have all sorts of forces interfering with it and no
object could be observed perpetually. However, by assuming that
the law was correct, he could make certain predictions and if these
predictions were correct, that is, if they were observed, then the law
would be supported.

Like Harvey, Galileo depended on experiment to reach his conclu-

sions. He did not depend only on observations in the natural world.
He used experiments to test and support predictions. Successful
predictions vindicated his original hypotheses and thus supported
the laws. From these laws additional predictions could be made. Both
experiment and observation are essential for producing scientific knowledge
and this, above all, distinguishes science from other cognitive practices.

ACTIVITY

1. Write down what you understand by the terms given below

as used by a scientist. Go through Session 2.5 again and
check how many you got right. Construct for your own use,
a simple scientific glossary using these and any other words
you need to remember from this unit.
Experiment Variables Theories
Findings Dependent variable Laws
Hypothesis Independent variable Kinematics
Inference Prediction Theory-laden
Observation Scientific knowledge Sense data

2. Use the terms in the first column to fill in the boxes below
to show the sequence of activities carried out by a scientist
during an investigation.

FD12A 75 75
 ð ð ð ð

3. All scientific knowledge starts with making observations.

List some of the reasons why we cannot always trust what
we think we observe.

4. Would you agree that we should treat all scientific knowl-

edge with some scepticism? Give reasons for your answer.

76 FD12A
Session 2.6
Scientific Theories and Models

A good example – Newton’s theory of gravitation

What goes up must come down! The question is, why? What laws
govern the falling of objects towards the earth? Sir Isaac Newton, a
professor of mathematics at the University of Cambridge in
England, followed Galileo’s mathematical approach in his
Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy of 1686. This work laid
out Newton’s theory of gravitation. The theory can be summed up
in a single statement: Attractive forces between two bodies, depend on
their masses and on the distance between them. This theory of gravita-
Mass: The quantity
of matter a body tional forces was remarkable for its simplicity, its coherence and the
contains. The weight surprising range of predictions that it made possible. It made possi-
of an object is
determined by its ble predictions about the tides and the shape of the earth and it
mass, not its size. could be applied to the smallest of objects on earth as well as the
relationships between heavenly objects in outer space. On earth,
what goes up comes down because it is attracted to the earth.

ACTIVITY

Can you put Newton’s theory into your own words? One way
to look at it is as follows: When two objects are separated from
each other the attraction between them depends on how far
apart they are and the difference between their masses.

The theory of gravitation was a peak of scientific achievement in

the seventeenth century. It provided a benchmark for what the
merits of a scientific theory should be: a set of very few general state-
ments that correctly describe and explain all experimental observations
about the behaviour and properties of a large variety of objects or systems.
Despite this, Newton offered no certainty. Like the good scientist
that he was, he acknowledged that his theory was open to correction.

77
 The role of models

Many theories are easier to understand by using models. However, it

is important to remember that a theory is much more than a model
although it may incorporate a model. The term model is used academ-
ically to refer to an imagined mechanism or process that represents the real
mechanism or process. It is an artificial construction invented to show
or to simulate the properties, the behaviour or the relationship
between individual parts of the object being studied. The
Rutherford model of the structure of an atom was based on the
solar system and the planets.

electrons orbitting
nucleus

nucleus

Figure 2.5 The structure of an atom

Adapted from:

Figure 2.6 The solar system

78 FD12A
 All grains of ordinary table salt (sodium chloride) have the same
shape, a cube, even if their sizes are different. There is regularity in
the internal structure of the grains, which cannot be seen directly,
but can be deduced from chemical and physical experiments. To
visualize this structure, it is useful to build a three-dimensional
model using small cubes and balls of two different sizes to represent
the arrangement of chlorine and sodium atoms as we think they are
in the grain.

Figure 2.7 Diagram of a salt crystal as we visualize it (sodium chloride)

Models may be similar in some ways to the objects that they repre-
sent but they are not replicas of the real thing. Nevertheless, models
are very useful because they

• aid our understanding of what is not visible by relating the

unknown to something with which we are already familiar,

• allow us to imagine the mechanism or the process. We can

manipulate a model mentally (e.g. move one of the atoms in the
crystal) to explain the behaviour of the real mechanism or
process under different conditions, and

• can be used to account for observations or make predictions.

ACTIVITY

Think about the use of models in your discipline. Select one

model and compare it and its uses to what has been described
above. Does the model you describe serve the same purposes?

FD12A 79
 Science and the imagination

Much of what we have discussed would lead you to believe that all
theories are logically derived from facts and laws. This is not always
the case. In fact, many theories are the results of imaginative
insights that are subsequently developed by careful, conscious
thought. One of the best examples of a theory that was not derived
from any experimental data at all is Einstein’s theory of relativity.
He proposed this theory when no supporting experimental data
were known; in fact, most of the experimental evidence appeared to
refute it for many years. As time passed efforts were made to test
the predictions of the theory. The results supported Einstein’s
theory and disproved competing theories.

Explanations and justification

A science is expected to do more than just describe some aspect of

the natural world. A science usually offers explanations. These
explanations can have practical uses. From an explanation of why
something took place it may be possible to (i) predict that a similar
event will occur in similar circumstances, or (ii) to produce such an
event, or (iii) to anticipate its occurrence and so take precautions to
avoid undesired consequences. For instance, with appropriate meteo-
rological data, the paths of hurricanes can be predicted (roughly!)
and so we can take the precautions needed. Our knowledge of the
properties of gases when they are heated leads us to warn
consumers not to burn “empty” spray cans.

A scientific theory provides an explanation of particular facts, laws

and observable phenomena. It should also enable new phenomena
to be predicted and give a sense of understanding of the facts and
laws it explains. In practice no theory can accommodate all observa-
tions within its domain and at any time there are usually some
observations that cannot be satisfactorily explained. The history of
science shows that theories grow to accommodate new evidence
more fully as it becomes available. Both the claims and the methods
of science continue to be challenged and debated and it is important
that you are part of that debate.

80 FD12A
 THE METHODOLOGY OF SCIENCE – A SUMMARY

So far in this unit, we have tried to give you some insights into the
ways of science and scientists. The main focus has been on the
methodology of science. However, this has been presented against a
historical and philosophical background so that you can appreciate
how and why the methodology developed as it did.

You should now be able to identify two common aspects of any human
endeavour that claims to be scientific: its aim and its methods.

1. Its aim is the discovery, description and understanding of facts

about the natural world, both living and non-living, whether on
a large or small scale.

2. Its methods are based on combinations of observation,

experiment, and reasoning.

In science, observations, experiments, and reasoning are inextricably

intertwined with laws and theories and lead to predictions and
explanations. The results of observations and experiments provide a
starting point for formulating new hypotheses, models, and theories.
New observations and experiments again test these hypotheses,
theories, and models. From this process we come to realise that
science does not offer certainty. The generalisations are theories that
are retained only as long as they are consistent with the known
facts of nature or as long as they are useful in making sense of the
world. We can assume that some day a number of the present scien-
tific theories, in which we place such great faith, will seem as
absurd as “cylindrical objects burn” in our earlier story.

Thus an idealised scheme of scientific method could be described by

the following:

1. Scientists use systematic observations and quantitative

measurements to supplement everyday experience. In most cases
instruments are necessary to detect signals that human senses
cannot detect or analyse adequately.

FD12A 81
 2. Predictions based on the theories are tested by experiments
designed specifically to check whether a predicted effect exists
or not.

3. Scientific investigations are characterised by the careful control

of variables while making systematic observations and
measurements.

4. Evidence obtained in this way is recorded and analysed. The

aims are to discover regularities and patterns and, if possible, to
suggest a theory that explains the observations.

5. Sometimes the results of such tests and experiments require

rejection of a theory and consequently a paradigm change. More
often they provide additional data for refining or modifying the
theory.

In this section of the course it has also been argued that observation
is a complex process involving the active participation of the brain.
What we perceive is influenced by our previous experience and by
what we expect to see.

Furthermore, facts are theory-laden statements made after observa-

tions, and even the act of observing assumes some theory. Progress
in science is popularly considered to consist of adding more and
more facts to existing theories. Our discussion has indicated the
falseness of this belief by showing that “facts” and the resulting
theories may change and evolve.

We have considered a variety of approaches to science and have seen

that scientific progress involves changes in the:

(a) findings (the facts) of science;

(b) concepts, laws, and theories;
(c) methods of reasoning.

There is no universally accepted scientific method. This does not

mean that scientists have no rigorous methods. It means that the
nature of the methods chosen depends on the particular circum-
stances, on what is being considered, on the theoretical knowledge
that is available, and on the techniques and equipment available.

82 FD12A
 The success of science at predicting events suggests that there are
patterns in reality that we can discern. These patterns may, or may
not be, unchanging, but our representations of them, such as facts,
laws and theories, will always be tentative because they depend on
assumptions that we may change.

We first infer scientific theories as educated guesses that work to

“explain” observed patterns in the world. Then we test such models
for their ability to predict new observations. If such a theory, model
or explanation accurately predicts the observations made in a wide
variety of tests, it is held to be “verified”.

Clearly the capability of a scientific theory to predict observations

cannot be a test of its ultimate truth. Science can only argue to the
best current explanation. Scientific methods may help us to test our
observations and theories but the findings, theories and explana-
tions are always provisional – open to clarification and correction.
If a scientific model is consistent and easily integrated into the
existing body of accepted theories, there is mutual reinforcement.
However, occasionally a new model or theory may provide a supe-
rior explanation of existing observations and accurately predicts
fresh ones but is inconsistent with accepted theories. In that case
the new theory becomes a challenger to the accepted body of theory
and a scientific crisis and/or revolution may follow.

It is important to reiterate that scientific explanations, at best, give

provisional knowledge. They themselves are based on “faith” in
science and consequently there is always room for reasonable doubt
and debate.

FD12A 83
 REFERENCES

Avison, John H. Physics for CXC. Surrey: Thomas Nelson and Sons,
1988.

Jackson, Barry, and Whiteley, Peter. CXC Physics. Wesley: Addison;

Harlon: Longman, 1996.

Lambert, Norman, and Mohammed, Marvin. Chemistry for CXC.

Oxford: Heinemann, 1993.

84 FD12A
 Unit 3
Science and Technology

INTRODUCTION

It is almost impossible to imagine life without telephones, comput-

ers or motor vehicles of any kind. Much of the respect and awe with
which we regard science is due to our perception that science is the
driving force behind these and other technological improvements in
our lives. Indeed, it is not too hard to point to examples of scientific
breakthroughs that, through technology, have had positive impacts
on our lives.

Advances in biochemistry have allowed the invention and produc-

tion of better drugs improving both life expectancy and the quality
of life, at least for those able to afford them. As a result of a better
understanding of physics, buildings and bridges can be engineered
more reliably than they could even 50 years ago. An improved
understanding of aerodynamics and the behaviour of different mate-
rials under different conditions have made it possible to build larger,
faster, and more reliable aeroplanes which in turn has changed travel
and tourism dramatically. Perhaps the most outstanding technologi-
cal advance of the twentieth century is in computer and telecom-
munications technologies and their integration, which has brought
us the Internet. Some commentators have even spoken of the
“Death of Distance”1 as a result of these improvements.

FD12A 85
 For many, the advances in technology that have influenced our lives
so deeply are the hallmark of science. The average citizen does not
make any great distinction between science and technology, and the
activities of scientists and engineers. However, scientists themselves
do not share this view. They differentiate between the two, although
they admit that the two are closely interrelated. We must therefore
ask what the difference between science and technology is, and what
the relationship is between the two. There are many aspects of the
discussion we hope you enjoy exploring them here and afterwards.

OVERVIEW

In this unit of the course, we examine the difference between science

and technology and the complex set of relationships that exist
between the two. We shall see that the nature of the relationship
between science and technology has changed over the last 50 years.

Not all technological innovations have been useful. Some of the tech-
nologies, or some uses of them, have been harmful. This raises the
question of whether the people involved in the development of these
technologies – pure or applied scientists, engineers or technologists –
have any responsibility for ensuring the positive use of their work,
and if so, what this responsibility is. We turn to these questions in
the second part of this section. Module 2 of the course will examine
more examples of how both science and technology have changed
the way in which societies are organized.

LEARNING OBJECTIVES

After completing this unit, you should be able to:

1. Distinguish between science and technology

2. Discuss the complex relationships between science and

technology

3. Describe, using examples, the extent to which these relationships

have changed over the last 50 years or so

4. Discuss the extent to which scientists and technologists are, or

86 FD12A
 should be, responsible for how the technologies derived from
their work are used

READINGS

• The Turbine. FD12A, Module 2 History, Section 3 pp 33 – 34 (end

of paragraph 2).
• Microscope and Telescope. FD 12A, Module 2 History, Section 3
pp 36 – 37
• The Nature of the Relationship between Science and Technology
(p 88)
• Aching, Richard. Perspectives on Patenting the Steelpan. News.
Government Information Services Government of the Republic
of Trinidad and Tobago, June 5, 2002.

NOTE

1. Cairncross, Frances. The Death of Distance. Boston, USA: Harvard

Business School Press, 1997.

FD12A 87
 Figure 3.1 Science and technology – their nature and relationship

88 FD12A
Session 3.1
The Relationship between Science
and Technology

What is technology?

Technology can be defined as the set of tools and techniques for

controlling and changing one’s environment. These technologies
come in all shapes and forms. They may be weapons with which to
hunt more efficiently or to kill one’s rivals more effectively, shelter
to protect oneself better from the elements, or agriculture, to ensure
a more consistent food supply. A simple sewing needle is as much
an example of technology as a digitally controlled sewing machine.

How is science different from technology?

Previously, we saw that the aim of science is the discovery, descrip-

tion, and understanding of facts about nature, whether on a large or
small scale, about things living or otherwise. Science can be regarded
as one attempt to satisfy the innate human need to understand
things. Science is about building theories that allow us to explain the
behaviours of the things around us and to make predictions about their
behaviours under different circumstances. Science thus, at least poten-
tially, fulfils two deep-seated human desires. The first is the desire
to understand our environment, the second, our need to manipulate
it to suit our needs and desires. We can attempt to control our envi-
ronment because science allows us to predict what will happen
when we make certain changes to one or more of its components.
Technology is about applying that understanding to the construction of
objects and procedures in the service of man.

Technology is as old as civilization

Our dependence on science nowadays suggests that scientific break-

throughs have to come before any technological innovations.
However, there are many examples of civilizations knowing that

89
 certain things work and knowing how to do things, without know-
ing why they work. Technologies have existed from the dawn of the
human race; it was not until fairly recently that scientific explana-
tions for why these technologies work became available. Indeed in
some cases they are still outstanding.

For example, many ancient cultures have left impressive buildings

and edifices, whose construction would have been impossible with-
out a high degree of technological sophistication. The ancient
Egyptians built their pyramids more than 3,000 years ago. More
than 1,000 years ago, the Native Americans of Central America,
such as the Aztecs and the Mayas, were highly sophisticated
masons and constructed impressive buildings. Other impressive
feats of construction include the Great Ruins of Masvingo in
Zimbabwe, which were constructed more than 1,000 years ago, and
the mediaeval cathedrals in Western Europe, many of which were
constructed around the same time.

The first wheels were

Moreover, the advanced technologies were not restricted to
found in Mesopota- construction. One can argue that one of the most useful inventions
mia dating back 5000
years ago. Although
of the human race was the wheel. Try to imagine life without
the Mayas used wheels! The wheel made it possible to transport heavy loads over
wheels on toys they large distances, thereby making the construction of large edifices
did not seem to have
recognized its less cumbersome. Interestingly, the Aztecs and Mayas did not use
significance. this piece of technology, which makes their elaborate constructions
even more amazing. Pulleys were another technological invention
employed in constructing ancient buildings.

Figure 3.2

90 FD12A
 Another important set of technologies involved the ability to extract
iron from iron ore and techniques for shaping iron into more
powerful tools and stronger weapons. The Chinese civilisation had
very advanced iron technology before the fifth century BC. Initially,
in the Western world the technologies used for extracting iron were
relatively primitive but they became highly sophisticated with the
evolution of furnaces and so on. Also, towards the latter part of the
eighteenth century they learned that by mixing iron with certain
other elements, such as carbon, they could make an even stronger
material called “steel”. The invention of steel allowed humans to
construct stronger and more reliable structures, such as bridges and,
a little later, sky scrapers, whose skeletons are constructed from steel.

Ancient Egyptian mummies provide another good example of a

sophisticated technology. The bodies that were mummified have
shown little sign of any decomposition more than 3,000 years later.
Recent research has established that those responsible for preparing
mummies used a complex combination of plant and other oils along
with other elaborate techniques to preserve the bodies of pharaohs
and other Egyptian nobles. There is no evidence that they knew
why these procedures worked but they must have discovered that
they did.

A final example of technologies that are worth mentioning is musical

instruments. Almost all human cultures have developed musical
instruments. Often they were used in religious ceremonies, although
they were also used for entertainment as well. Did these ancient civi-
lizations know anything about the nature of sound waves?
Apparently not!

ACTIVITY

Quickly review the above section and then answer the questions
below.

1. Give THREE examples from the passage above of

technological developments that did not depend on
knowledge of science.

2. Give one additional example you know.

FD12A 91 91
 3. For each of the examples you have provided, state which
branch of science could now offer explanations of how they
work. (Consider Biology, Chemistry and Physics. You may
suggest one or more than one for each example.)

Science can explain why some ancient technologies worked but

not all

It is clear that a wide range of technologies have been around for a

very long time. None of the feats of engineering mentioned above
relied on any scientific theories of the type discussed in the previous
section. There is no evidence of attempts to understand why these
various technologies worked. People seemed to be satisfied with the
mere fact that the technologies worked and had no desire to deter-
mine why they worked. Perhaps their religious faith did not lead
them to question the nature of things.

We know now that the oils used in the mummification process had
a number of anti-microbial properties that prevented the decomposi-
tion of the bodies covered in them. The priests and their helpers
who were responsible for mummifying bodies obviously knew that
these oils would preserve the bodies but not why they did. Indeed,
the discovery of microbes and their role in decomposition did not
take place until more than 2,500 years later. Similarly, the world had
to wait for the genius of Sir Isaac Newton, who lived from 1642 to
1727, to explain why the wheel allowed one to transport heavy
loads more easily, even though it had been in use for at least 10,000
years.

Does this suggest Even today there are many technologies that we know work but we
that science is not still do not know why they work. We know that certain animals,
necessary for human
progress? such as cows, pigs, chickens, camels, and yaks, can be domesticated
relatively easily and humans have been using this knowledge for the
last 10,000 years. What makes it possible to domesticate a horse
while a zebra (which does not look very different) is impossible to
domesticate? Perhaps we will never know the answer.

92 FD12A
 To what extent does modern technology depend on scientific
findings?

Although many technological innovations used to take place with-

out any intervention of science, this is no longer the case. Most
technological innovations these days, whether in information tech-
nology, medicine or agriculture, are a direct result of technologists
applying scientific theories. Technological advances now tend to
follow scientific breakthroughs, although not in all cases. It was
only after some important progress was made in physics in general
and aerodynamics in particular some 80 to 90 years ago, that it
became possible to design better and more reliable aeroplanes.
Another breakthrough in physics some 60 years ago allowed the
development of the nuclear bomb and nuclear power stations. These
advances would have been impossible without progress in physics.
We will return to this example later.

This trend has accelerated over the last 10 to 15 years. In the phar-
maceutical industry, progress in biochemistry and an increased
understanding of the chemical processes taking place in the human
body have made it possible to develop different and more powerful
drugs. Further developments in genetics are likely to lead to a better
understanding of how drugs can be tailored to an individual.
Similarly, a better understanding of HIV structure and how it
manages to undermine the body’s immune system have made it
possible to develop a wide range of anti-HIV drugs. These drugs
have significantly prolonged life for AIDS sufferers and those
infected with the virus, provided they can afford them. Many
modern technologies do not come cheap!

Other examples of breakthroughs in science leading to important

technological advances can be found in the field of computing and
telecommunications. A better understanding of optics has led to the
development of fibre optic cables and an explosion in the use of
computer networks such as the Internet. Also, breakthroughs in
electronics have made it possible to develop more sophisticated
musical instruments such as synthesizers.

Despite these examples of the links between science and technology

it should be noted that many modern technological advances are
made without any great breakthroughs in science. Good examples

FD12A 93
 are various kitchen gadgets, many of which make life considerably
easier for us but do not rely in any way on elaborate scientific
theories.

Technology does not always follow scientific breakthroughs

On the other hand there are examples where the basic science is
understood and the difficulty is in applying the scientific knowledge
to build useful technologies. The structure of DNA, the famous
double helix, has been known since the early 1950s. Crick and
Watson published the paper describing the structure of DNA in
1953, nearly 50 years ago. This knowledge offers exciting potential
for genetically engineering new foods and medicines but this poten-
tial has still not been fulfilled. Genetic engineers are still struggling
to find reliable ways of using this knowledge. (We will consider this
in more detail in Module 2.)

Sometimes science follows technology

An interesting Caribbean example of a technological breakthrough,

in the absence of scientific knowledge, is the steel drum, alleged to
be the only new harmonic musical instrument developed in the
20th century. The steel drum was developed in Trinidad by musi-
cians who could not even read music. They liked its sound and
learned to manipulate steel to produce a wide range of tones and
notes although they lacked any theoretical knowledge of the science
of harmonics. Indeed, the basic theory behind the steel drum is still
to be fully elucidated. Apart from the obvious theoretical interest,
such work would allow “pan tuners” to develop a more precise
system to tune this instrument. At present this is done purely by
ear. Research in this area would help to improve the manufacture of
the instrument. It is interesting to note that although the steel
drum was invented in the Caribbean, most of the work on the
science behind the instrument is taking place outside the region. In
fact, a patent has already been granted in America for one method
of manufacturing a steel drum. Research into the physics underlying
the sound quality and the properties of the metal of steel drums
started at the University of the West Indies St Augustine campus in
the early 1970s, but unfortunately was never completed.

94 FD12A
 ACTIVITY

1. From the passage above, give examples of modern technol-

ogy that depended on scientific findings in each of the
following areas: physics, biochemistry, genetics.

2. Describe briefly one modern technological advance that did

NOT depend on a scientific breakthrough.

3. Some important scientific breakthroughs have not produced

the great levels of technological development expected
although they would be of great value. Suggest why this
may be so. (You might like to use the example given in the
passage to support your reasons.)

4. Steel bands are highly developed musical instruments. Do

you think it is a waste of time trying to find out how they
work? Of what value could these scientific findings be?
(Consider contributions to music, education and economic
factors.)

Technology as an enabler of science

The relationship between science and technology is not one way.

Many of the advances in physics, astronomy and biology made in
the seventeenth and eighteenth century were made possible by the
invention of new instruments such as telescopes and microscopes.
In his groundbreaking work on the structure of the solar system,
Galileo relied heavily on observations that he made through a tele-
scope, a relatively new invention at that time. In other words, an
advance in technology was an important factor in an advance in
science.

Science has continued to rely on instruments to make its observa-

tions. Indeed, the reliance of science on technology has increased
significantly over the last 20 or 30 years. For example, virtually any
scientific observation made today relies on the use of computers, at
some stage.

This reliance on technology for scientific observation and experi-

mentation also points to questions about the reliability of these

FD12A 95
 observations, an issue that was discussed in the previous section in
connection with Galileo’s work. (See Module 1 Unit 2, Session 2.5.)
You may recall that Galileo only gained acceptance for his observa-
tions when he distributed telescopes and instructions for their use

Disagreements about the instruments that are used to gather obser-

n Find out about the
modern electron vations are still very much with us, especially in some of the social
microscope and its sciences. Consider the reaction of the general public or amateur
contribution to
science. Consider political analysts to the findings of surveys or polls because they
the magnification and have no faith in the instruments (the questionnaires) used to collect
what advances in
science it made the opinions of the public. Within the biological sciences there is
possible still much debate about the reality of some of the detailed structures
found in cells. Some argue that these structures do not exist in
living cells but have been created by the methods used to kill and
prepare cells for viewing under electron microscopes.

Technology and paradigm shifts

Technologies and instruments for making observations often play a

role in so-called paradigm shifts in science. Accepting a particular
paradigm implies acceptance of the methods used to collect the data
on which the paradigm is constructed. This in turn would include
accepting the instruments or technologies used to make the required
observations.

In the early 1910s most psychological research was conducted by

the use of introspection. The methodology involved psychologists
performing certain mental tasks, such as arithmetic or the composi-
tion of a poem, while simultaneously observing their own mental
activities. The basic data used to build psychological theories were
the reports written after these introspective sessions. J. B. Watson, a
prominent psychologist of the day, argued vigorously that this
“technology” was unreliable and that psychology needed to follow
the natural sciences and use more traditional scientific experiments.
While J. B. Watson made many other claims as well, some of which
have been subsequently rejected, his insistence on using directly
observable empirical data, rather than data obtained from introspec-
tion, has become part of the current psychological paradigm.

96 FD12A
 ACTIVITY

Discuss the inter-relatedness of technology and science. In your

discussion consider the following aspects of the relationship
between the two:

1. Technological advance in the absence of scientific knowledge

2. Science promoting new technological developments

3. Technology stimulating scientific research

4. Technology enabling scientific advances

5. Technological advances promoting paradigm shifts

CRITICAL THINKING ACTIVITY

To what extent do you think modern scientists have become

overly dependent on technology at the expense of using their
scientific imaginations to develop new ideas?

FD12A 97
98 FD12A
Session 3.2
The Use of Technology and
the Scientist’s Responsibility

Some ethical considerations

Technology can be misused

At 8:15 a.m. on August 6, 1945, the Enola Gay, an American B-29

bomber, dropped an atomic bomb weighing 9000 pounds over the
Japanese city of Hiroshima and nearly 140, 000 people were killed.
Three days later, another bomb was unleashed on Nagasaki killing
73,884 people. The fierce blast winds, heat rays reaching several
thousand degrees and deadly radiation generated by the explosion
levelled an area of 6.7 million square metres. By the end of the
following year several more thousand citizens that had been injured
in the blast had died from radiation related illnesses or their injuries.
All told, nearly a quarter million people were killed. Which scientists
developed the theories that allowed such a bomb to be built? Who
developed the technology required to build the bomb and the
bombers? Who made the decision to use the bomb?

Who is responsible?
The story of the atomic bomb really starts with a physicist, Albert
Einstein. His famous equation, E = mc2 (and several other less
simple ones), provided the scientific information that made the
bomb possible. The Hungarian physicist, Leo Szilard was perhaps
the first to realize that the advances made in physics could be
applied to building a super weapon. In 1939, Szilard, who by that
time was living in the United States, persuaded Einstein to write to
President Roosevelt making him aware of the possibility of
constructing the nuclear bomb. It was President Roosevelt, who
decided to establish the so-called Manhattan Project with the
explicit mandate to construct an atomic bomb.

Szilard also took the initiative to circulate a petition among scien-

99
 tists working on the Manhattan Project urging President Truman,
Roosevelt’s successor, not to use the bomb. The petition argued that
the United States should not use the bomb against Japan because of
the devastating effect that it would have. However, the petition
never reached Truman and on his orders, the bomb was dropped.

One can draw a number of lessons from this story. The decision to
build and indeed the decision to drop the bomb were political, not
scientific, decisions. Some people believe that the scientists working
on the Manhattan Project were responsible for the annihilation of
Hiroshima and Nagasaki. The scientists disagreed. They saw a clear
demarcation between their responsibilities and that of government.
They accepted the responsibility of having used what they knew
about nuclear physics to construct the atomic bomb but they
believed that it was the responsibility of the government of the
United States to decide whether or not to use the bomb.

The issue of secrecy

A second lesson can be drawn from Szilard’s behaviour after the

War. Szilard insisted on making the implications of using the atomic
bomb public. Although he had insisted on secrecy before the War, on
the obvious grounds of national security, he believed it was his
responsibility to publicize the implications of the scientific and tech-
nological breakthroughs that had been made during the Manhattan
Project. Many scientists today would agree with Szilard’s position.

Most modern scientists are of the view that it is not the responsibil-
ity of scientists to decide how the technologies that can be devel-
oped, based on their scientific discoveries, should be used by society.
However, they accept responsibility for making the public aware of
the likely consequences of the use or abuse of these technologies. It
is then up to the politicians, who, after all, in democracies, are the
representatives of the people, to decide whether to use the technolo-
gies and, if so, how to use them.

Should the general public have a say?

A further question arises: To what extent should the people in a

democratic society be able to influence the decisions made by the
politicians that represent them? The importance of having a scien-
tifically informed and scientifically literate population is pertinent
100 FD12A
 here. Very often scientists have neither the inclination nor the
talent, to present their cases in public. Journalists or other commen-
tators with experience in public relations usually do this. Although
they often do a much better job at presenting a position than a
scientist, they themselves may be biased in one way or another.
Frequently, they win debates about the implications of scientific
research hands-down even when their position is scientifically less
valid. In the absence of an informed public the real facts though
published elsewhere remain “secret”.

An equally important issue is debate and disagreement within the

scientific community which is sometimes influenced by political
and economic policies. In a recent paper presented at the School of
Continuing Studies Country Conference in Montserrat, it was
pointed out that volcanologists of the Seismic Unit of the UWI, St
Augustine Campus had warned the government of Montserrat of
the likelihood of an eruption over 10 years ago. They suggested that
after Hurricane Hugo in 1989 the opportunity be taken to rebuild
the capital in the north of the island which is relatively safe. These
warnings were ignored in favour of the opinions of non-Caribbean
scientists because of cost and other considerations.

Should there be restrictions on scientific enquiry?

Another controversial debate surrounds the issue of using genetic

engineering techniques. Concerns about the possible misuse of these
technologies have overshadowed many of their possible benefits.
Many individuals and governments have expressed reservations
about the wisdom of encouraging further scientific research in this
area. They are concerned as to whether scientists take sufficient
responsibility for the technologies that can be constructed from
their research efforts. Scientists are seen as meddling with nature in
irresponsible ways and so highly motivated by the challenge of
making new discoveries that they forget to consider the social and
ethical implications of their work. In addition, much modern scien-
tific research is funded and controlled by large and powerful corpo-
rations that are largely motivated by profit. The recent debate in the
United States about stem cell research and cloning provides a good
illustration of these and other concerns about science.

FD12A 101
 Genetically modified foods – a case for caution?

The notion that scientists should take some responsibility for the
outcomes of using their discoveries might seem reasonable but it
raises other problems. Scientists do not always agree about the
implications of their theories. A good example of this is the continu-
ing debate on genetically modified (GM) foods. An increasing
proportion of corn and soy beans in the United States is grown
from seeds that have been genetically modified. The genetic makeup
of these plants has been changed artificially in ways that benefit
farmers and consumers and in some cases the plant. In Jamaica,
experiments are taking place at this moment with genetically modi-
fied papaya (paw-paw) plants. These papaya plants are grown from
cells that have a gene inserted into them to make the plants
immune to the papaya ring spot virus that affects the appearance of
the fruits.

Some scientists argue that genetic modification is nothing new.

They argue that selective breeding techniques used by dog owners
or flower growers have led to significant genetic modification and
that genetic engineering is merely a way of speeding up the selective
breeding process. Other scientists disagree because genetic engineer-
ing does more than just “speed up” selective breeding. Genes can,
and are, inserted from other species. For example, Brazil nut genes
are put into soybean plants, forming what can be considered new
species of plants. Since we cannot be sure what this new “species”
may turn out to be they urge caution when it comes to planting
and growing genetically modified foods. (For more on GM foods and
biotechnology see Module 2 Unit 5).

Who decides?

Despite the obvious problem with the position that scientists

should be responsible for making the implications of their discover-
ies public, and leave the decision on how to use the resulting tech-
nologies to the public at large or their representatives, the
alternatives are probably even less desirable. This could mean leav-
ing the decisions of what to do with technologies up to scientists
which is clearly inappropriate. Not all scientists and technologists
seem to be aware of the moral and ethical concerns of others.

102 FD12A
 This is well illustrated by the activities of some researchers in France
and Italy who are insisting on cloning a human being using the
techniques that allowed veterinarians in Edinburgh, Scotland to
clone Dolly the sheep. They persist in their right to this research
path despite major moral objections from large parts of the popula-
tion. Presumably they will proceed in secret but what are the conse-
quences of allowing such individuals to do their work in secrecy?

Keeping scientific discoveries secret is likely to retard scientific

progress. Typically, science progresses by scientists building on
earlier work in their field of interest. Obviously, if such work were
kept secret, it would be much harder to achieve scientific progress.

The importance of sharing scientific information among scientists

serves a very useful purpose. By publishing their work in journals,
participating in conferences, and publishing their dissertations scien-
tists (and all other researchers) are presenting their findings and
ideas to the wider academic public for criticisms and suggestions.
This review of work by their peers is an essential component of
academic progress. It keeps scientists “on their toes”, so to speak,
and gives them ideas for carrying forward their work. There are
some problems with the peer review process, however, not the least
of which is the unacknowledged use of other people's ideas and
destructive criticism, both motivated by competitive interests.

Finally, it would obviously be good if political decisions were made

on the basis of well-informed opinions. The decision whether to
allow the planting of genetically modified crops can only be made
responsibly if the people and their representatives have access to as
many of the relevant facts and scientific theories as possible. Clearly,
this requires that this knowledge be made public. It also requires a
public capable of understanding the information they receive.

The position that scientists make the consequences of their discov-

eries public but the public decides how to use the technologies made
possible by these scientific discoveries is fraught with problems.
However, like democracy, although far from perfect, it is probably
the best alternative we have.

FD12A 103
103
 ACTIVITY

Clearly the above discussion is not final. There are different

ways of looking at the issues discussed. You probably have your
own views on the matter.

Prepare BOTH sides of a debate on one of the following moots:

1. Scientists have no responsibility for what is done with their

work.

2. Governments have the responsibility to make decisions on

behalf of the people as to how technology is used.

3. The average citizen should not be concerned with the uses

of science and technology because they do not know enough
about them.

Suggestion: Arrange a debate with fellow students or colleagues.

If they are not following this course, share what you know with
them, to help them prepare for it.

SUMMARY

In this unit the following points were raised:

n Technology has had an important impact on our daily lives.

Much of modern technology is based on the results of scientific
research.

n Science and technology are not the same. Science is a search for
understanding how the world around us works, it seeks to offer
explanations for natural phenomena and build theories from which
predictions can be made. Technology can be defined as a set of tools
and techniques for controlling and changing the environment.

n Modern science and technology are interdependent. Sometimes

technology advances because of science and other times technology
provides the tools or the stimulus for scientific breakthroughs.
However, technology sometimes advances without any help from

104 FD12A
 science (as it did in ancient times) and putting some scientific ideas
to work has proved problematic.

n In discussing the responsibility of scientists and technologists it

was agreed that they are responsible only for making the implica-
tions of using their work public. The final decision as to how
science and its applications are used rests with the public and their
representatives. However, to discharge this responsibility effectively
the public must become scientifically literate.

FD12A 105
 Unit 3
Health and Disease in the Caribbean

INTRODUCTION

Good health is central to a good quality of life for all of us. It is also
essential for the economic and social stability of a country or nation
as ill health on a large scale reduces productivity and increases the
cost of health care.

According to certain statistics, health in the Caribbean has improved

in recent decades. Life expectancy has increased. More people are
living longer, shifting the balance in the distribution of age groups in
the population. The proportion of the population over 60 years is
increasing while the proportion under 15 years is declining as the
birth rate decreases (CAREC, 2001). This sounds good but it raises a
serious issue; in years to come there will be fewer people of working
age to support increasing numbers of elderly citizens. Many debili-
tating diseases in the elderly result from years of poor eating habits
and lifestyle choices. The importance of maintaining a healthy life
style while we are young cannot be over emphasized.

Another improvement is the reduced incidence of many communi-

cable diseases, but the increasingly rapid rate of the spread of
HIV/AIDS infection is of grave concern. Added to this is the fact
that chronic nutrition-related diseases are increasing as our life
styles change. Diseases like heart disease, diabetes, and hypertension

FD12A 159
 are now the leading causes of death in the region. We hope that
after completing this Unit you will have a better understanding of
these health issues and a new awareness of what is required of us to
improve and maintain the health of the region. Good health
concerns us all.

OVERVIEW

There are three sessions in this Unit. After introducing the concepts
of health and disease we begin with a brief review of some of the
common diseases of the region. These include non-communicable
disorders associated with poor nutrition and/or life styles and
communicable diseases, the ones we “catch”. Particular attention is
paid to AIDS because of its increasing incidence in the region. This
session also includes a short discussion on substance abuse, because
of its association with sexually transmitted infections and other
causes of ill health.

In the second we consider the changing patterns of nutrition in the

Caribbean and some of the attendant problems, including obesity.

The final session of the unit begins with a brief review of the
genetic basis of inheritance then describes three inherited disorders.
Biotechnology and gene therapy are mentioned only briefly as they
are covered in more detail in Unit 4.

LEARNING OBJECTIVES

After completing this unit, you should be able to:

1. Identify the main diseases prevalent in the Caribbean

2. Explain the importance and difficulties of controlling HIV/AIDS

in the Caribbean

3. Outline nutrition trends in the Caribbean and discuss their

implications

4. Analyse the links between diet, lifestyle, and the pattern of

chronic diseases prevalent in the region

160 FD12A
 5. Comment on substance abuse and its implications for regional
health and productivity

6. Describe the causes of some genetic diseases

7. Discuss the possible implications of disease for regional health

and productivity

8. Discuss the importance of understanding the causes of disease as

exemplified by the diseases included in this Unit

9. Discuss the importance of reasoned behavioural lifestyle choices,

which will promote good health

FOR THE STUDENT

You should focus on the ways in which knowledge of a disease

affects the ability to prevent or treat the disease rather than details
of the disease itself. Consult the learning objectives for guidance as
you go through the Unit.

READINGS

• Bajaj, Jasbir S. Emerging epidemic of diabetes mellitus. West

Indian Medical Journal, 50 (Suppl. 1): 15–16, 2001.

• Caribbean Epidemiology Centre (CAREC). Overview of health in

the region. 2001. http://www.carec.org/overview_health.htm.

• Douglas, Ken-Garfield. Drugs among our children. The Gleaner, p.

B6, September 19, 2001.

• Figueroa, J. Peter. World Aids Day Press Conference. The Gleaner,

p. A1, November 25, 2000.

• HIV/AIDS in Africa. UNAIDS Fact Sheet. December 2000.

• Introduction and General Considerations. Recommended dietary

allowances for the Caribbean. Kingston, Jamaica: Caribbean Food
and Nutrition Institute Mona, 1994.

• Mackoon, Lindsay. 360,000 living with AIDS in the Caribbean.

The Gleaner, p. A1, November 1, 2001.

• Novel Gene Therapy Approach for Cystic Fibrosis in First

FD12A 161
 Human Trials. ScienceDaily Magazine. Source: University
Hospitals of Cleveland, 2002.

• Roberts, Michael, Michael Reiss, and Grace Monger. Cancers in

Biology. Thomas Nelson and Sons Ltd., pp 564–566.

• Terms of reference of expert group on Caribbean food and

nutrition surveillance system. Recommended dietary allowances for
the Caribbean. Kingston, Jamaica: Caribbean Food and Nutrition
Institute Mona, 1994.

• The editorial. Cajanus, 33(1): 1–3, 2000.

162 FD12A
 Session 3.1
Some Diseases Common
in the Region

Introduction

How do we know when we are sick or well? The concepts of health

and disease are not as easy to define as they appear to be. According
to the World Health Organisation (WHO) health is “a state of
complete physical, mental and social well-being not merely the
absence of disease or infirmity”. To be healthy a person must feel
well in body and mind and all our organs and systems must be func-
tioning efficiently. Given this definition, are you sure you are
healthy? Disease is even more difficult to define as there are a
number of serious conditions that cannot really be called “diseases”,
for example, broken bones. However, a good working description
might be “any disorder of any bodily or mental function”.

Disease can be broadly categorised into two groups. Communicable

diseases include all diseases caused by other living organisms. These
organisms may be transmitted from one person to another either
directly or indirectly, causing them to spread. In our first session we
will look briefly at a few examples of communicable diseases,
including AIDS, in some detail. This will be followed by a discussion
of some non-communicable diseases. Non-communicable diseases
cannot be “caught” from the external environment. They have their
origins within us. We cover diabetes, hypertension, heart disease,
and cancer, at present the four most important “killers” in the
Caribbean. They are of interest not only because of their heavy
social cost but because they are largely preventable or controllable.
Substance abuse is also included here because of its connection to
AIDS, other STDs and other conditions of ill health.

FD12A 163
 Communicable diseases
A brief look at incidence in the region

The incidence of many communicable diseases in the region has

been reduced. With few exceptions, those that have the potential to
be fatal are on the wane. This can be credited to the health services
of the region and a reasonable basic standard of living compared to
many other developing countries. A few countries are free of
malaria. Nevertheless, we remain vigilant as travel to sources of
infection can cause its return. Cholera, yellow fever, and typhoid are
mostly confined to specific areas.

Successful vaccination campaigns have eliminated many vaccine-

preventable diseases. Smallpox and poliomyelitis have been eradi-
cated, and we are the first region in the world to have got rid of
indigenous measles (CAREC, 2001). High rates of childhood vaccina-
tion, higher than in the United States, have been responsible for
this. Vaccinations against diptheria, whooping cough, tetanus and
polio are required for acceptance into public schools in some territo-
ries.

Dengue fever remains a problem. Outbreaks of this mosquito borne

viral disease have increased in frequency and intensity over the past
ten years. The mosquito that spreads the disease, the Aedes aegypti,
is present throughout the region. In 1998, there was an outbreak in
Jamaica, and in the following year, Trinidad and Tobago had its first
major outbreak of dengue haemorrhagic fever which is potentially
fatal.

Tuberculosis is also of concern. After years of decline, the incidence

level began to increase in the early 1990s. Figures of 37.5, 25.4, and
22.7 per 100,000 in the population are estimated for Guyana,
Bahamas, and Trinidad and Tobago, respectively. In Haiti and the
Dominican Republic, the figures are much higher. Some of this
increase is no doubt associated with the increasing incidence of
HIV/AIDS. But in addition to this is a weakening of the infrastruc-
ture to deal with the disease. There has been a reduction of funding
and trained staff because it was felt that tuberculosis was no longer
a cause for concern in the English speaking region.

164 FD12A
 ACTIVITY

How would you describe the health status of the Caribbean

with respect to communicable diseases, excepting STDs?

(Hint: Comment on the overall picture for the region. Mention

exceptions by disease and country and in concluding briefly
touch on prospects for the future.)

Sexually transmitted diseases (STDs)

Many of the traditional sexually transmitted diseases (STDs) have

declined in recent years. These include the bacterial diseases syphilis
and gonorrhoea and the viral disease Herpes genitalis (Herpes simplex
virus 2 or HSV2) which causes genital sores. However, about 10 to
15% of sexually active women have been shown to have the bacter-
ial infection Chlamydia (CAREC, 2001). The rate of infection with
these diseases is important, since their presence in individuals may
make infection with the AIDS virus easier.

Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome (AIDS)

AIDS is caused by infection with the human immunodeficiency

virus, HIV-1. The time between infection and the appearance of
symptoms varies, and may sometimes be years.

Incidence in the Caribbean

In terms of the percentage of Table 3.1

the population infected with
% Population with HIV
HIV-1, the Caribbean now ranks
second only to sub-Saharan
Africa. The following table Haiti 5.17
Guyana 2.13
shows the percentages of the Cuba 0.02
population in the 15–49 years Barbados 2.89
old age group infected with Dominican Republic 1.89
HIV-1 in the Caribbean, as of Belize 1.89
December 1997. Jamaica 0.99
Bahamas 3.77
Trinidad & Tobago 0.94
On the surface these figures
may not seem alarming (UNAIDS Report 1998, cited in World
compared to the figures for Bank Study 2001)

FD12A 165
 some of the African countries which run as high as 35.8% in
Botswana and 20% in South Africa. The important point is that
they are increasing, not decreasing, as they should. More AIDS cases
were reported in the Caribbean in the three years between 1995 and
1998, than in the 15 years since the beginning of the epidemic in the
1980s. A 1999 estimate put the number of people living with HIV or
AIDS in the region at 360,000. Some 85% of these cases are in Haiti
and the Dominican Republic. Cuba has relatively few cases.

The infection is now moving into the younger age groups. The
majority of diagnosed cases are between the ages of 25 and 34. This
means that the infection probably occurred between the ages 15 and
24, if time is allowed for the infection with the virus to develop into
AIDS (the incubation period). The increase in this particular age
group is a major concern as they represent our future labour force
and their health will impact significantly on our social and
economic well being in years to come.

HIV transmission in the Caribbean

The predominant mode of transmission in the region is by hetero-

sexual intercourse (60%). As a result of this, the number of women
with the disease is rising and with that the possibility for infection
of children before or at birth, or through breast-feeding. Infection
through blood products is less than 3%, but this is not good enough.
We must improve the safety of our supplies still further throughout
the region. Sharing needles by substance abusers is not a common
source of infection but high crack-cocaine use seems to be associated
with high risk of HIV, as shown in the Bahamas, Trinidad and
Tobago and Jamaica (CAREC, 1999). This association may result
from impaired decision making, as in the case of alcohol and mari-
juana users. For example, it is highly likely that persons under the
influence of a drug will have unprotected or indiscriminate sex,
sometimes to support their habit.

Populations at high risk provide a pool of infection for further trans-

mission of the virus. In addition to substance abusers, other high-
risk groups include:

• young people (they may be unprotected by condom use,

especially as sexual activity tends to begin early)

166 FD12A
 • male homosexuals
• newborns of HIV-positive mothers
• pregnant women (Cuba has no sign in this group)
• commercial sex workers
• persons with a history of STDs. (As at 2000, some 39% of AIDS
cases in Jamaica had a history of other STDs (Figueroa, 2001).)

Treating AIDS

In the English-speaking Caribbean, AIDS is the largest cause of

death in the 15–44 year group (63% in 1996). The high rate is due to
many factors, including lack of access to drugs to treat HIV, and to
medicines to deal with the secondary infections, like tuberculosis.
The absence of strategies to prevent mother to child transmission
(vertical transmission) is another factor. Both of these are linked
with the inability of governments and/or people to afford the
required drugs.

n Anti-HIV drugs are A programme to help prevent vertical transmission is now in place
especially expensive.
Zidovudine (AZT) in Jamaica where one in 100 pregnant women are HIV infected, and
costs US$3,000 per one child so infected is born every week. There is free voluntary
year per case. Newer
treatments are even testing of pregnant women. Women found positive are given two
more expensive at tablets of Nevirapine at the onset of labour, and the child a single
US$1,000 per month
per patient. dose of the drug within the first 72 hours of its life. Breast-feeding is
Nevirapine discouraged in these mothers, since the virus may be passed on in
(Viramune) may be
as good as AZT in this way, and mothers are provided with a substitute formula. The
reducing vertical programme started in four parishes and is being extended to cover
transmission, and is
fortunately cheaper the entire island. Vertical transmission has been reduced consider-
at about US$4.00 per ably in the industrialized countries by providing drug assistance for
child.
the mothers. We can do the same.

The social cost

One enormous challenge associated with the AIDS epidemic is the

plight of children of parents with the disease, whether or not the
parents are alive or the children are left as orphans. A second is our
economic inability to treat and care for patients properly. A third is
the adverse effect the epidemic is having on our economy from three
angles:

FD12A 167
 • The enforced reduction of our labour force leading to decreased
productivity.

• The burden it creates on our health systems: UWI/CAREC

estimates are that some 3.5% of our gross national product could
be spent on AIDS over the next 20 years, and we still shall not
have spent enough.

• The effect it will have on our tourism and foreign investment:

We are perhaps the most tourist-dependent region in the world,
and tourism is very sensitive to disease.

Preventing AIDS – what needs to be done

The emphasis has to be on preventing the disease. Public understand-

ing of the disease and how it is spread is not good enough at pres-
ent. As with the nutrition-related diseases, the situation calls for
aggressive educational programmes. These need to be geared to
reach all ages and levels, but especially the young. In the Caribbean,
sexual activity sometimes starts at the ages of 10 and 11 so school
populations below and above these ages need to be targeted. School
dropouts and street children must also be reached.

Further research is also needed, but this is not likely to be very

successful if cases are not reported. HIV/AIDS, by law, is a notifi-
able disease only in Jamaica, St Lucia, and Belize. Perhaps this
should be standard throughout the region. Should there be manda-
tory testing of rapists as happens in the Bahamas and Bermuda?
These are issues that must be addressed at the level of the policy-
makers. The presence of a CARICOM-led task force on HIV/AIDS
which has developed a Caribbean Regional Strategic Plan of Action
for HIV/AIDS, 1999–2004 is evidence of some recognition at the
policy level of the seriousness of the situation.

As the director of the Medical Research Foundation in Trinidad is

reported to have pointed out very recently, the HIV virus is the
cause of AIDS, but is not the cause of the pandemic. It has spread
rapidly because of certain contributing factors (Mackoon, 2001). We
need to publicise and eliminate these factors if we are to succeed in
stemming the spread of the disease.

168 FD12A
 ACTIVITY

Self-check: Answer the following questions to find out how

much you remember. Find the answers for those you have
forgotten in the passage you have just read.

1. What causes AIDS?

2. What are the main ways in which it is transmitted?

3. Which country in the Caribbean has the lowest incidence of

AIDS?

4. Which countries have the highest incidence in the English-

speaking Caribbean?

5. Which age group is now at greatest risk of becoming

infected and why is this cause for concern?

6. What is vertical transmission and how can it be reduced?

7. What is the most important reason for our inability to treat

and care for those with AIDS?

8. What measures should form part of an HIV/AIDS preven-

tion plan?

CRITICAL THINKING ACTIVITY

The incidence of many communicable diseases, including other

STDs, has been reduced. Why do you think HIV/AIDS has
remained a serious problem for such a long time?

Non-communicable diseases

Non-communicable diseases include a wide range of disorders. They

include the so called “human-induced” or self-inflicted diseases such
as lung cancer and alcoholism, inherited diseases, mental illness,
nutritional disorders, and metabolic disorders, some of which are
also linked to nutrition. There are no rigid boundaries between the
different groups. Non-communicable, nutrition-related diseases such
as diabetes, heart disease, and hypertension along with cancer, now
rank as the leading cause of death in the region. Between 1984 and

FD12A 169
 1989, 24–57% of all deaths in the region were due to these diseases.
Malnutrition and infectious diseases accounted for only 2% to 7% of
deaths over the same period.

Some of these nutrition-related diseases are influenced by hereditary

factors. They seem to “run in families” (see Session 3.2, The Basis of
Inheritance), although the disease itself is not inherited. The precise
genetic linkages are not known but such families seem to be pre-
disposed to developing the disease. Diabetes, hypertension, and heart
disease all fall into this group. What they also share in common is
that they can be prevented, delayed or controlled by changes in
lifestyle such as diet, exercise, and stress relief and abstention from
smoking and excessive use of alcohol. It is important to note that
changing lifestyle after being diagnosed with any of these diseases is
not nearly as effective as taking preventive measures. (As they say in
one of our islands, “You better take in front before in front take
you”!)

Diabetes mellitus

In diabetes mellitus, blood levels of glucose (the simple sugar that

our bodies use as a source of energy) are higher than normal, because
the body either does not produce, or does not use insulin efficiently.
Insulin is a hormone (secretion of a gland that goes directly into the
blood stream) produced by special cells in the pancreas. Insulin
promotes the uptake of glucose from the blood into cells for use or
storage, thereby lowering blood sugar. Blood sugar levels between 70
and 110 milligrams per decilitre are considered normal. In most
persons the level rises after a meal, but goes back to normal after
about two hours. This does not happen naturally in diabetics. Excess
stays in the blood, unavailable to the cells that need it, and is
excreted in the urine.

In persons with Type I (insulin dependent diabetes mellitus (IDDM))

the insulin-producing cells in the pancreas have been destroyed.
These diabetics develop the disease at an early age, usually before 30.
To survive, they must take insulin injections. Not many people have
this type of diabetes.

Most diabetics have Type II (non-insulin dependent diabetes mellitus

(NIDDM)). In these diabetics, normal levels of insulin may be

170 FD12A
 secreted but the cells that should, do not respond to it. Some young
people have this type of diabetes but it tends to develop in older age
groups. Type II diabetes may be controlled by a diet and exercise
regimen, or by using oral drugs along with this. In some cases, it
may become necessary to use insulin.

Diabetes may cause several long-term complications. Heart attacks

and strokes are more common. Damage to the blood vessels of the
eye can cause poor vision. Poor blood supply to, and damage to the
nerves of the skin reduce sensitivity, making injuries more likely,
and wounds heal slowly. More women than men have diabetes.
This may be linked with the fact that more women than men are
obese, obesity being an important risk factor.

The high rates of diabetes and its complications exert a heavy toll
on hospital services in the Caribbean. The estimated cost of medica-
tion, treatment in hospital for amputations of infected limbs, eye
disease, and other related services for diabetics is in excess of US$30
million annually. A study recently co-ordinated by the
Commonwealth Caribbean Medical Research Council (CCMRC)
showed that in Trinidad’s Port-of-Spain General Hospital, diabetic
patients occupied approximately 26,659 bed days per year. This cost
the hospital over US$1.8 million.
n Think about it: In
how many different In Trinidad and Tobago, the average cost of one diabetic admission
ways might having a
family member with
was calculated as approximately US$516. This sum would cover the
severe diabetes cost of treating up to nine diabetics in a government primary care
affect other family
setting for one year. We can only imagine what it will cost 10 years
members?
Given the cost to the from now if preventive action is not taken seriously. Many of these
society, should admissions would be avoided with better preventive management in
testing and
attendance at these primary health care settings (cited in Henry et al., 1997, from
primary care clinics Gulliford et al., 1995).
be made mandatory?

Hypertension
n MmHg, a unit of Hypertension (high blood pressure) is a condition in which the pres-
pressure equal to
that exerted by a sure of the blood in the arteries is persistently abnormally high.
column of mercury 1 Mostly, the cause is not known, but excess fat in the diet, long-term
millimetre high under
standard gravity. smoking, excessive alcohol intake, and obesity seem to be among the
Normal atmospheric contributory factors.
pressure is
760mmHg .

FD12A 171
 When we check our blood pressure, we measure the pressure of the
blood against the walls of a large artery. Two figures are recorded.
The higher is taken when the heart contracts (systole) and the other
when it relaxes between beats (diastole). For example, a reading of
120/80 (mmHg) means that the systolic pressure is 120, and the
diastolic 80 mmHg. Blood pressure differs with age, activity and
time of day. Normal figures for an adult range between about
120/80 mmHg and 130/85 mmHg, but the characteristic is very
individual. Persistently higher readings may suggest to the doctor a
need for monitoring, depending on the individual and other factors.

A diet with severely reduced salt intake is believed to improve the

condition, as does exercise and measures to relieve stress. A low-fat
diet is often recommended as well. Various kinds of drugs are used
to control blood pressure; some are expensive and others have
unpleasant side effects in some people.

Studies on Caribbean populations show that on average, 30% of

adults have hypertension, compared to 12–15% of adults over 35
years, who have diabetes mellitus. In the Bahamas the prevalence of
hypertension in males increased from 8.6% in the 20–40 year old
group, to 23.1% in the 40–60 age group, and 32.7% in the 60+ age
group. The trend in females was similar. So the disease, whilst most
common in the elderly, is not limited to this group.

Heart disease

Hypertension and heart disease are on the increase in the Caribbean.

This increase parallels, as it does in other parts of the world, an
increase in the quantity of fast foods, junk foods and other lifestyle
changes regarded as modern. The glamorous but stressful lifestyle of
the busy executive who attends numerous cocktail parties and does
not get enough sleep or exercise is a recipe for developing hyperten-
sion and heart disease. At equal risk is the underpaid night watch-
man who eats starchy foods with lots of greasy gravies or the
stressed out, overworked, overweight housewife who snacks all day.
A recent report (CAREC, 2001) puts heart disease first in a list of
leading causes of death in the region (strokes, diabetes, cancer and
injuries are the others in that list).

High levels of fat in the diet are known to contribute to heart

172 FD12A
 disease. Fatty deposits in the coronary artery which supplies the
heart muscle with oxygen and food, can obstruct the flow of blood
to the muscle. With exertion, or when the artery becomes
completely blocked, the blood supply may become insufficient, caus-
ing weakening or death of the heart muscle from lack of oxygen.
This is accompanied by intense pain and the weakened heart muscle
may fail to pump adequate amounts of blood either to itself or to
the brain and other tissues. It may then cease to function altogether.
This is what has happened when someone is said to have had a
massive heart attack. When small branches of the coronary artery
are blocked only a part of the heart muscle is affected and a person
may experience pain for a short time and have a mild heart attack.
This warning is sometimes ignored. There is little data on blood
cholesterol levels in the Caribbean population.

In order to prevent these nutrition-related chronic diseases, healthy

lifestyles should be acquired early in life. As a region, this depends
on education campaigns based on the most recent scientific
evidence. The success of these educational efforts will depend on the
entire population, that is, on each one of us.

CRITICAL THINKING ACTIVITY

1. Think carefully. How much of the foregoing information

have you heard before? List what you knew.

2. Have you ever given serious consideration to changing any

aspects of your lifestyle as a consequence of what you knew
before? Would you consider it now?

3. Do you think that governments should have a specific policy

in place to help prevent these diseases or should it be left to
personal choice?

4. What other methods, besides education, might be effective?

Cancer

There are probably few people in the Caribbean who have not lost a
relative or friend to cancer. Although much more is known about
the disease than was known 20 years ago it is still in many ways a

FD12A 173
 mystery. There are many different kinds of cancer. What they have
in common is that they are all uncontrolled growths that if left
untreated invade normal tissues to their detriment.

The relationship between nutrition and cancer is a complex one.

The most obvious link is perhaps the occurrence of carcinogens
(cancer-promoting agents) in some foods. However, these various
carcinogens may only form a small part of the link between diet and
cancer. Besides, not all persons exposed to them develop cancers.
Research in this area is continuing but it seems likely that dietary
components such as fibre, fresh fruits and vegetables, and foods
such as garlic and onions, may play a protective role against the
development of some cancers. Other dietary factors seem to have a
negative impact. These include high intake of fat (especially satu-
rated fat) and cured or smoked foods such as ham, bacon, pig tails,
smoked herring and so on.

A comparison of the mortality rates for malignant neoplasm in the

Caribbean with the rates in Canada and the USA shows that the
rates in some of the countries of the sub-region are almost as high as
the rates for North America (World Health Organization, 2000) (see
Figure 3.1).

Figure 3.1 All cancer mortality by country – 2000

140

120

100

80
Deaths / 100,000

60

40

20

0
ca s lize ad e
ados Jamai ahama Be Trinid urinam Guyan
a n USA anada
rb bbea C
Ba B S Cari

174 FD12A
 The problem has increased over the years. Between the 1960s and
1990s the increase in mortality from nutrition-related cancer among
the countries of the region ranged from a low of 1.3% in Belize to
12.9% in St Vincent, with the figure in Jamaica showing an increase
of 5.7%. Cancer was the third leading cause of death in Jamaica
(82.2/100,000 population in 1990). The increase coincides with the
change in dietary patterns over the same period.

CRITICAL THINKING ACTIVITY

Chronic nutrition-related diseases are more prevalent in the

elderly. With increasing life expectancy, the proportion of this
group in the population is growing.

1. What are the implications of these facts for family life and
the health services in your territory?

2. Can our resources stretch to adequately provide treatment,

prevention, and care, for all age groups?

3. Should preference be given to any particular age group if

there is not enough to go around?

Substance abuse

Substance abuse and its related health problems fall into the cate-
gory of self-inflicted diseases. Despite this, they include effects that
are caused by changes in the functioning of the nervous system
making them very difficult for the affected individual to control.
The social and economic effects of substance abuse go far beyond
those of most other diseases, for example, an increase in crime. One
of their many health-related effects is their association with the
spread of HIV/AIDS and other STDs.

Many of those admitted to our psychiatric institutions are

substance abusers. In addition risk-taking behaviours, motor vehicle
accidents, homicides and suicides are linked to substance abuse. The
most frequently abused substances in the region, in descending
order of frequency are alcohol, tobacco, marijuana, cocaine, and
some psychotropic drugs. The habits begin young – at school.

FD12A 175
 Alcohol and tobacco are socially acceptable, and this makes the
temptation to use them much harder to resist. Alcohol abuse has
been associated with road fatalities, violence, family disputes, sexual
abuse, and poor job performance. Long term use causes liver damage
that may be eventually fatal. Smoking tobacco is associated with
lung cancer, heart disease, bronchitis, and emphysema. Emphysema
is caused by the gradual breakdown of the thin walls of the tiny air
sacs in the lungs. Eventually this results in decreased surface for
gaseous exchange. People affected with emphysema show severe
breathlessness and in later stages have an uncontrollable racking
cough. It has also been shown that children living in homes where
parents smoke have a higher incidence of diseases such as sinusitis,
tonsillitis, and other bronchial diseases.

Marijuana (ganja, “herb”) is used in most Caribbean countries and

has been for a long time. Its use has been associated with deteriora-
tion in mental function and with behavioural disorders (Mahy and
Barnett, 1997). Smoking ganja also affects the lungs just as smoking
tobacco does. However, marijuana has been shown to be of thera-
peutic use in some areas. One use that is well recognized is the
reduction of the pressure within the eye. The extract Canasol, devel-
oped by Caribbean researchers, Manley West and Albert Lockhart, is
registered and used in the treatment of glaucoma (National
Commission on Ganja, Jamaica 2001).

Many of our young people experiment with alcohol, tobacco, and

marijuana, according to surveys done among them in Jamaica,
Trinidad, and Belize. According to Garfield Douglas (2001) very few
people begin to use alcohol and tobacco as adults – first use has
occurred usually by the end of high school. He also suggests, that
cigarettes, alcohol, and marijuana are likely to act as “gateways” to
using other drugs like cocaine. Clearly, prevention of the larger use
of drugs should focus on the young, to delay the onset of tobacco
and alcohol use.

176 FD12A
 CRITICAL THINKING ACTIVITY

1. What do you think should be done about decriminalizing

marijuana?

2. Does the scientific evidence help you to make up your mind?

3. What are the arguments for and against such a step in the
Caribbean?

The debate on whether the use of ganja should be decriminalized

continues. Sympathisers point to the easing of restrictions in several
European countries. Others feel it is no more dangerous than alcohol.
Some fear the repercussions on trade with the United States, which
is openly against the idea.

The use of cocaine and crack-cocaine is also growing among adoles-

cents (Mahy et al., 1997). Unfortunately, Caribbean countries are
increasingly being used as transshipment points for drugs, increasing
the likelihood of greater substance abuse in the region.

QUICK REVIEW
Some important points to remember

l Non-communicable disease – breakdown in the functioning

of the body, cannot be transmitted from person to person.

l Types of non-communicable diseases – human induced,

mental, metabolic, nutritional, and genetic disorders.

l Leading causes of disease related deaths in the region –

hypertension, heart disease, diabetes, and cancer.

l Incidence of hypertension and heart disease reduced by a

low fat diet, increased exercise, limiting alcohol intake and
smoking, and reducing stress.

l Cost of treating results of hypertension, heart disease, and

diabetes is very high. Primary preventive care costs compara-
tively little.

l A key factor in preventive management of nutrition-related

disease is education.

FD12A 177
 l Causes of cancer still not well understood. High intake of
saturated fats and cured/smoked foods suspected. Some
foods may contain carcinogens, others appear to be protective.

l Throughout the region (and worldwide) increased incidence

of these diseases coincides with changes in eating habits
away from the traditional diets.

l Substance abuse associated with increases in HIV/AIDS and

other diseases.

l Substance abuse has many social effects, including destruc-

tion of family life, crime, abuse, and poor job performance.

l In all cases prevention is cheaper and more effective than

attempts at cures and treating the effects.

CRITICAL THINKING ACTIVITY

1. Substance abuse is associated with unemployment, loss of

productivity, upsetting family life and other personal rela-
tionships, and with the spread of HIV/AIDS.
(a) What measures do you think would most effectively help
to curb it, especially in our young people?
(b) Can science and medicine help? How?

2. We are the most tourist-dependent region in the world

(CAREC, 2001).
(a) What effects do you think (a) the communicable diseases
and (b) substance abuse in the region are having on our
tourism industry?
(b) To what extent might these conditions be the result of
our extensive tourist industry?
(c) What suggestions do you have for dealing with any
adverse effects you see?

178 FD12A
 Session 3.2
Nutrition and Associated Problems

Introduction

Over the past four decades or so, nutrition in the Caribbean region
has undergone a major transformation. Traditional diets tended to
be low in animal protein, high in complex carbohydrates (e.g. yam
and sweet potato) and fibre, with “reasonable” amounts of fat. The
more modern diet that has come with urbanization and so-called
development is high in animal protein and fat, processed refined
carbohydrates, and little fibre. The fast food culture has not helped.
Salt preserved foods, such as salted codfish, have always formed part
of the Caribbean diet. These are still commonly used in addition to
the new sources of salt: fast and junk foods. This transformation in
our diet has lessened some old problems but brought new ones
which are proving more difficult to deal with.

What we eat is our choice. However that choice can be skilfully

manipulated by marketing specialists. Glossy photographs of
chicken and chips look much more inviting than a dead fish in a
glass case which you will have to go home and prepare yourself.
Similarly, canned foods are advertised as “full of goodness” that
cannot be compared to the vitamins and minerals available in fresh
fruits and vegetables.

In this section, we shall look briefly at the nutritional status of the

region, considering food consumption trends, and food availability
and accessibility. After this session we hope you will make better
decisions about what to eat and be able to contribute to the debate
on policies that encourage importation and consumption of large
quantities of foreign foods to the detriment of local agriculture and
our health.

FD12A 179
 Food consumption trends

For many years, the most important nutritional concern for the
region was energy-protein malnutrition. Many children were getting
neither the total calories, nor the protein supply they needed to
develop properly, both before and after birth. So we focused our
efforts on increasing the overall calorie and protein supply available
to our country’s populations.

Recent reports on food availability in the region suggest that we

now have a sufficiency, or over-supply, of energy and nutrients to
meet the nutritional needs of the population. On average, all coun-
tries in the region have available more than the 2,250 calories and 43
g protein requirement per person suggested by the Caribbean Food
and Nutrition Institute (CFNI) (Figure 3.2.a).

We achieved this increased supply largely through enhancing the

availability of foods from animals, fats and oils and refined sugar.
Over the past 40 years, for example, average fat availability in the
region has moved from 50 g to 80 g per person per day. Caribbean
populations consume far more fat than recommended by CFNI
(Figure 3.2.b).

Figure 3.2
(a) Energy availability in the Caribbean: (b) Fat availability in the Caribbean:
Calories/person/day 1961–1994 Grams/person/day 1961–1994

(Heavy horizontal lines indicate recommended daily allowance, RDA, levels. Courtesy of
Dr. Fitzroy Reid, Caribbean Food & Nutrition Institute, CFNI)

But while we met calorie and protein needs, we ate fewer cereals,
fruits, vegetables, legumes, roots, and tubers. As a result, what we
now have is a very significant decline in under-nutrition rates, but

180 FD12A
 an enormous increase in the incidence of chronic diseases that might
more properly be thought of as related to a kind of “over-nutrition”.
These diseases include diabetes, hypertension and heart disease, and
some nutrition-related cancers. At the same time, iron deficiency
anaemia remains a problem, especially in pregnant women and pre-
school children (Cajanus, 2000).

We now face a very complex challenge. We must maintain the over-

all gains in nutrition levels, but make our populations more aware of
how to select their diets in order to avoid or delay the chronic
diseases mentioned above. To meet this challenge, we need to collect
information in each territory on the factors that determine what
people choose to eat. This includes availability of foods from each
food group, access, patterns of consumption in different communi-
ties, and existing beliefs about food. With these findings in hand we
would be able to make informed decisions and develop appropriate
policies and plans to improve our nutrition status.

Based on a diet supplying 2,250 calories per person per day, CFNI
has recommended that staples (cereals, roots, and tubers) should
supply 45% of that energy; legumes, nuts, fruits, and vegetables
25%; food from animals 15%; fats and oils 10%, and refined sugar
only 5%. In order to stay healthy we should:

• aim to meet those nutrient goals

• decrease our dependency on imported foods
• discourage the growing popularity of those fast foods that are
high in fat, animal protein, and refined carbohydrates

This requires early and continuing education of a quality that can

successfully counteract the effects of the marketing techniques that
target our populations. Collaboration at the regional level is essen-
tial, since Caribbean countries are similar in many ways. But our
ethnic and economic differences demand that each country must
work out its own specific solutions.

FD12A 181
 ACTIVITY

1. Summarise the main trends in nutrition in the Caribbean at

present under the following heads: overall calorie and
protein availability, types of foods consumed, and specific
problems. (You may check the upcoming section titled
“Nutrition problems” for additional information.)

2. Outline the activities required to improve the eating

patterns of our citizens.

Food supply

We need to ensure that food is not only available to all the people all
the time, but that such food provides the nutrients needed for
people’s full development, both physical and intellectual. Further,
we should be able to do this on an on-going basis. What we do now
should not put in jeopardy the natural resources needed to ensure
future generations the same advantage. In other words, the food
supply must be sustainable (available over time).

The two most important factors that determine whether or not

people do get the food they need are availability and accessibility.
We noted earlier in the section that adequate calories and protein are
available in the region. Whether adequate supplies of the right foods
are accessible to all is another matter. The fact that some under-
nutrition exists side by side with obesity in the region suggests that
the distribution of available food supplies needs to be examined.

182 FD12A
 Although living conditions have improved greatly in most
Caribbean countries, poverty still persists throughout the region.
Food may be available but not affordable for those people living
below the poverty line. In 1995 it was estimated that 38% of the
total population was living in poverty. Levels varied throughout the
region – ranging from 65% in Haiti to 5% in the Bahamas.

The following data show differences in access to food for those who
earn the least in our society. Minimum wage earners in Barbados,
Belize, Montserrat, and St Kitts and Nevis in 1993–1994 needed to
use between 15% and 28% of their earnings to have a well-balanced
2400 kilocalorie per day diet. In Grenada, this figure was between
43% and 34%, while in Guyana costs went from 80% in 1993 to
63% in 1994. Figures varied widely in Jamaica for the period. In
December 2000 the cost of feeding a family of five adequately for
one week was estimated at J$1,828 (US$40). The present minimum
wage in Jamaica is only J$1800 per week.

We also need to consider a third factor with regard to food supply.

Even if food is available and accessible, is it being assimilated so that
the body can use it effectively? Infestation by worms may prevent
absorption or badly prepared food may inhibit the absorption of
certain nutrients. If minerals that are needed in very small quanti-
ties are not being assimilated for any reason, deficiencies will
continue even though enough food is being eaten.

ACTIVITY
1. Distinguish between the terms “available” and “accessible” as
applied to food supply.

2. What other factor determines whether citizens receive an

adequate supply of food?

FD12A 183
 Nutrition problems
Deficiency problems

Problems with deficiency diseases seem, for the most part, to be

localized. In Jamaica, for example, high prevalence of marginal vita-
min A deficiency, wasting, and anaemia varied in different regions
(CFNI, 1998). Data from nutrition risk mapping, also in Jamaica,
suggest that rapid urbanization and the consequent stress on infra-
structure, together with poverty, are associated with the presence of
some pockets of persistent malnutrition. In countries with indige-
nous populations, there is some evidence of greater prevalence of
nutrition deficiency among those groups.

Energy-protein malnutrition (EPM)

The term energy-protein malnutrition means just what it says – a
deficiency in the diet of the calories and protein needed for good
health. Children are particularly prone to this type of malnutrition,
as Dr. Cicely Williams of Westmoreland, Jamaica, discovered. Dr.
Williams, who qualified in 1923 with the first group of women
admitted to Oxford University Medical School, found in her work
in Ghana (then the Gold Coast), West Africa, that many children
had symptoms she had noticed in Jamaican children while she was
growing up. They had swollen bellies, diarrhoea, fever, and were
very weak and listless. She discovered that giving children a diet rich
in protein and calories could reverse the condition.

Figure 3.3 (left) Child suffering from

kwashiorkor. The child’s legs show oedema
(accumulation of fluid), healing of infected
lesions, and “crazy pigment skin”
characteristic of zinc deficiency. The child is
apathetic when undisturbed and irritable
when touched.

Figure 3.4 (right) Child suffering from

marasmus, characterised by no oedema,
severely reduced muscle mass and marked
irritibality. The child is receiving an
intravenous drip for severe dehydration and
has a nasogastric tube inserted. Hands are
taped to prevent removal of the tubes.
(Both photographs courtesy of Professor Terrence Forrester, Tropical Metabolism
Research Institute, UWI.)

184 FD12A
 She therefore called the condition protein-energy malnutrition
(PEM), and the disease it produced kwashiorkor, the term used in
West Africa (meaning the disease the old baby gets when the new
one comes – in other words when the baby is weaned). In the
Caribbean, we also see “mirasmi” babies – babies with marasmus,
which is another way in which this type of malnutrition shows
itself.

Much research into this type of malnutrition has taken place since
Dr. Williams’ original discovery. Whereas the original emphasis in
treatment was on the protein in the diet, more emphasis is now
being placed on the energy aspect. So the term now used is energy-
protein malnutrition (EPM).

Throughout the region, the incidence of EPM has declined signifi-

cantly over the past 25 years. Since the late 1980s and early 1990s,
levels of undernutrition in pre-school children have declined to less
than 5% in nine countries. Rates between 5 and 10% have been
reported in six others, and only one country had a level higher than
10% (cited in Henry et al., 1997, p.192: original source Sinha D.
1995). Severe forms of EPM like kwashiorkor and marasmus are no
longer a problem, but chronic low level EPM remains. It shows up
as stunting, the child’s height being below the average for healthy
children of the same age.

Food and nutrition surveys show this decline in EPM. In Grenada,

surveys conducted by the Food and Nutrition Council showed a
decline in undernutrition in children 3–5 years old, from 39.6% in
1985 to 8% in 1990. Hospital data from Jamaica, 1994, showed that
2.3 % of the 0-59 month old admissions were diagnosed with EPM,
as compared to 5% in 1993. (National Survey by the Planning
Institute of Jamaica).

The survey also showed that the 0–5 months and 6–11 months age
groups had the largest proportion of admissions for malnutrition –
38.8% and 50.8% respectively. This is surprising since EPM levels
tend to increase with age between ages 0 to 5 years. The feeling is
that, as the Ghanians observed, this is associated with poor weaning
practices. The figures suggest a need to re-emphasise the importance
of breastfeeding.

FD12A 185
 Iron deficiency

Iron deficiency anaemia affects between 6 and 65 % of pregnant

women throughout the countries. The Turks and Caicos Islands
(65%), Guyana and Belize (52%) and Jamaica (51%) register the
highest proportions of pregnant women so affected. National
surveys carried out in five countries by CFNI, indicate that among
children under 5 years old, between 34 and 57 of every hundred
have this type of anaemia. Among adults (15–60 years) in Guyana,
42% were anaemic. Among this group, females were more than
twice as likely to be affected as males.

These deficiency levels are believed to result from insufficient iron

in the diet and inability to use what is taken in. To reduce these
deficiencies four strategies have been adopted: iron supplementa-
tion, dietary modification, iron fortification, and the control of
intestinal parasites. In Jamaica, for example, since 1984 flour forti-
fied with iron has been available. Barbados, Belize, Grenada,
Guyana, and St Vincent and the Grenadines also currently have iron
fortification programmes.

All English-speaking Caribbean countries have in place iron supple-

mentation programmes aimed primarily at pregnant women and
infants. Their impact is not yet clear. Infrequent and delayed (late in
pregnancy) attendance at clinics and unwillingness to follow the
programme have been problematic.

Vitamin A deficiency

CFNI surveys over the period 1996–1998 have identified vitamin A

deficiency in small sections of the population in Antigua, Dominica,
Guyana, Jamaica, and St Vincent. Severe deficiency was identified in
less than 1.3% of the population. Marginal deficiency was, however,
identified in 1.1% – 10.6% of preschoolers, school children, and preg-
nant women. The picture in Jamaica was noticeably different, with
58.1% of children 1–4 years old, 18.8% of school children, and 33.6%
of pregnant women recorded as marginally deficient in this vitamin
(CFNI, 1997a, b; 1998).

Iodine deficiency

Iodine deficiency is not generally regarded as a problem in the

Caribbean. However a study done in Guyana identified levels of

186 FD12A
 42.8% in pregnant women and 27.6% of female children, and 26.1%
of male children 5–14 years old. In 3.9% of the female and 2.5 % of
male children, the deficiency was regarded as severe (CFNI, 1997b).
Iodine can be supplied as iodized salt. The latter is available in most
countries.

CRITICAL THINKING ACTIVITY

1. The data on deficiency diseases presented in this section

makes comparisons difficult. Why is this so?

2. Select any one country mentioned above and write a short

paragraph on some aspects of the deficiency problems of
that country.

3. What aspect of malnutrition do you think requires the most

urgent attention in the region? Explain why you hold this
opinion.

Problems of nutrient over-intake and choice

Obesity

We have already noted that there is more than enough food calories
available in the region to satisfy our nutritional needs. We now need
to be concerned, not by undernutrition but overnutrition. The real
cause for concern is no longer how much we eat but what we eat,
that is, the type of nutrients consumed. The trend towards more
animal, fatty, and refined foods, including sugar-based types, is not
good. In addition, as the region “develops”, we have adopted a more
sedentary lifestyle. These are important contributors to obesity.

Even casual observation suggests that much obesity is present in the

n Body mass index
is calculated as
Caribbean. Recent studies of obesity among adults of 20+ years
weight in kilograms suggest that some 30–32% are overweight, and 19–21% are obese
divided by height
squared, in metres
(CFNI unpublished data). When does overweight become obesity?
(kg/m2). Early World Health Organization (WHO) standards categorize persons
studies used different with Body Mass Indices (BMI) of 25 and over as overweight. Among
measures e.g. weight
for height charts, these, persons with a BMI 25 to 29 are regarded as pre-obese and
making comparison persons with BMI 30 and over are regarded as obese. Within coun-
difficult. WHO
recommends the use tries, geography, level of education, and gender seem to be associated
of BMI. with differences in obesity. Females consistently show higher

FD12A 187
 proportions of obesity than males as shown by studies done in
Dominica, Guyana, Trinidad, and Jamaica. Among Jamaicans, over-
weight is more frequently associated with lower education levels.
More rural residents than urban are pre-obese but there seem to be
no urban/rural differences at higher levels of BMI. In Trinidad,
however, more rural residents are obese, compared with residents in
the city or towns.

Several studies worldwide have suggested that obesity is the major

link to the development of nutrition-related chronic diseases which
now rank as the leading cause of death in the region. Refer to
Session 1 of this Unit where the link between nutrition and these
diseases was discussed in more detail.

Dealing with the problem

Any effective strategy for dealing with the nutrition problems of the
Caribbean must take into account

l the need for an effective public health campaign,

l training health professionals to use a more client-oriented
approach to the care and education of their clients, and
l enlightened regional and national health care policies based on
up-to-date research

Public education

The following comment was made about Jamaica, but it could well
be said of the whole Caribbean region:

Many of the risk factors affecting the health of Jamaicans are

either not perceived by the population as such or they are only
superficially understood. These include obesity/overweight,
cigarette and/or marijuana smoking, heavy alcohol intake, a
fatty, high salt diet with lots of refined sugars, sedentary
lifestyle, failure to adequately treat hypertension and diabetes,
multiple sex partners and poor health-seeking behaviour.
(Figueroa 2001)

Only education can improve this superficial understanding. People

must be taught how lifestyle factors affect health, and what steps
should be taken to preserve health and well-being. Early in life, we

188 FD12A
 should encourage careful attention to diet and involvement in regu-
lar physical activity. We should try to ensure that citizens with
family histories of nutrition-related diseases have regular medical
checks, hopefully delaying or avoiding altogether the onset of these
diseases. Smoking and substance abuse should be discouraged.

To be effective, however, the educational process must be interactive

and participatory. As Garcia (1999) points out in addressing the
problem of diabetes education in Cuba, conventional health care and
education focuses on the illness rather than the individual. “It is
assumed that doctors and nurses know everything while people with
diabetes know nothing.” Patients are mere objects when this is the
approach. Education has to move away from just giving information
to providing positive support, based on patients’ own life experiences.

ACTIVITY

1. Do you agree with the statements above about the way

many health care professionals view their patients?
(Consider experiences that you have had with health care
professionals that made you feel ignorant and undereducated
in health matters or guilty).

2. Write out a short “conversation” between a public health

nurse and a group of patients to show what you consider to
be a more productive approach to dealing with people.
(Select as your topic information from one of the diseases
covered in this session.)
You might like to consider including the following:
l A suitable greeting
l A period for allowing patients to get to know each other
or talk about themselves
l Allowing patients to share experiences with each other
and ask questions as you talk

Health-care policies

Some important gains have been made with respect to health-care

policies. Regional governments and policymakers are conscious of
the role of food and nutrition in the achievement and maintenance

FD12A 189
 of good health. This issue was a key component of the Caribbean
Co-operation in Health (CCH) initiative, launched by the CARI-
COM Ministers Responsible for Health as far back as 1986. The
overall goal was to “prevent malnutrition in all its forms and
prevent and control those diseases conditioned by nutrition practice
and behaviour”. CARICOM Ministers at a 1991 meeting, approved
the goals and targets of the CCH. Targets set for CARICOM coun-
tries to develop were:

1. National food and nutrition policies

2. Food and nutrition strategies

3. Nutritional surveillance systems

4. Programmes and activities for preventing the most prevalent

nutritional disorders

5. Nutrition component to health education programmes

6. Regional policy for training in nutrition

7. Reduced health risks from food contamination

A report to the 1992 meeting of the CARICOM Ministers

Responsible for Health, indicated that all countries had by then
developed some form of nutritional surveillance system. Satisfactory
progress was also being made in several countries in developing
national food and nutrition policies, strategies, and preventive activ-
ities in relation to anaemia, EPM and obesity, as well as in the devel-
opment of educational materials for use by teachers (Henry et al.,
1997). Later reports out of PAHO/WHO show that this trend has
continued (PAHO/WHO, 1998).

CRITICAL THINKING ACTIVITY

1. How can we improve our food production and distribution

systems to ensure that the poorest among us can obtain the
needed nutrients, without either encouraging a culture of
“hand-outs” or suppressing human dignity?

2. Can genetically manipulated (GM) foods help? (See Unit 4.)

190 FD12A
 But national plans for health care are enormously affected by
economic constraints. Treatment and care costs are high, and for
each individual who has a chronic disease (diabetes, hypertension or
heart disease), a lifetime of such costs is often involved. Therefore,
the best approach is an integrated one that emphasizes preventive
and health promotion measures, while supporting treatment and
care. All programmes and plans should reflect these two considera-
tions. The aim is to cover all stages of life – pregnancy, early infancy,
childhood, adolescence, and adulthood.

For example, care and nutrition in pregnancy need special attention.

These are crucial stages of growth and development. Research has
shown that nutrient deficiencies during pregnancy affect the foetus
and may have detrimental effects that last a lifetime. Breastfeeding
needs to be actively encouraged and child growth monitored contin-
uously even in countries where malnutrition is reduced. This will
lead to early identification of those with deficiencies and those most
likely to develop nutrition-related diseases (high risk). These individ-
uals can then be targeted for treatment when it will be most effec-
tive.

The preventive and monitoring activities suggested above should be

given priority in health-care budgets. Together they cost much less
per person than treating those who are already ill. We need to
support policies that advocate these measures so that we can reduce
expenditure on expensive equipment that can care for only a few
persons at a time, after they have fallen into crisis.

This brief treatment of the status of nutrition in the Caribbean and

its associated problems raises a number of questions. Some of these
are suggested below. You may think of others. They need to be
considered carefully if we are to reach our goal of adequate nutrients
for all and a healthy society.

In this context, it is important to note the enormous contributions

of the Caribbean Food and Nutrition Institute and the Tropical
Metabolism Research Unit of the UWI to research and understand-
ing of nutrition and its problems, and to public education in the
region.

FD12A 191
 ?
? CRITICAL THINKING

1. Fast foods are popular because they are convenient and

satisfying.

(a) Are they better or worse than our traditional foods?

(b) Suggest how we might change the character of the
present fast food offerings to make them more nutritious
but still tasty?

2. To move from our present focus on treatment of disease, we

need to actively promote health. Should governments assist
this effort by placing some restrictions on the types of foods
sold in certain places e.g. schools, government canteens etc.?

(a) Would you consider this encroaching on your individual

freedom?
(b) What other measures can we use to effectively educate
the most needy sections of our populations?

3. As we seek to satisfy our own food needs, what steps should

we take to conserve the natural resources that future genera-
tions will need to help feed themselves?

Will GM foods provide a solution or hinder this cause? (See

Unit 4 for more on GM foods.)

192 FD12A
 Session 3.3
Genetic Diseases

Introduction

Sometimes persons are born with an illness or a disability and there

is nothing we can do about it. In some cases, it is in their genes. In
the same way that they inherit a dimple from a father, an unusual
hairline from a mother, hair texture from both of them and a
crooked first finger from a grandfather, they have inherited the
disorder from one parent or both or perhaps a grandmother. Other
nutrition-related or lifestyle disorders seem to depend on genetic
factors to a certain extent. There is little we can do about genetic
diseases at present but genetic engineering offers some hope for the
future and in some cases the symptoms and signs can be treated
successfully.

Despite our inability to cure genetic diseases, understanding how

they are inherited is important. People can make informed choices if
they can find out whether or not they carry the genes for certain
diseases and what the chances are of passing them on to their chil-
dren. Couples may opt not to have children, but if they do choose
to have children, they will be better prepared to deal with any
disabilities caused by a genetic disease.

A number of ethical issues surround inheritance and the more we

know the better we will be able to contribute meaningfully to
debate on these issues. As a society, we should support parents in
their efforts to obtain improved benefits and facilities for the treat-
ment or training of affected children so that as adults they are less
dependent on the state. A better understanding of these disorders
should also reduce the prevailing prejudice and fear of accepting
persons with genetic disabilities as legitimate members of our
society.

FD12A 193
 OVERVIEW

Before we consider genetic disorders or diseases, we need to under-

stand how we inherit our characteristics from our parents.
Understanding this is also important for dealing with some aspects
of the unit on biotechnology that follows this one. In the first
section of this session we shall deal with the basis of inheritance.
The way genes store information and control the functioning of our
cells and our bodies and how they pass on that information is dealt
with in some detail. We then look at two examples of inherited
disorders that are common in the region; sickle cell anaemia and
Down’s syndrome. Two other inherited disorders are treated briefly
before the final section on biotechnology and genetic diseases.

FOR THE STUDENT

It is not intended that you learn to describe the detailed structure

of DNA but you do need to take some time to understand it so that
the rest of the section makes sense. Similarly, understanding of how
different diseases are inherited is important but you need not learn
how to replicate the genetic diagrams included.

194 FD12A
 The basis of inheritance

Each cell of an organism carries within it a full set of the genetic

instructions that define its characteristics. These instructions (or as
they are commonly called, genes) are carried on structures called
chromosomes within the nucleus of each of the estimated 50 tril-
lion cells in your body. A chromosome is a long, spiral strand of a
material called deoxyribose nucleic acid (DNA). We will deal with
this in an upcomig section of this session. This intricately and
precisely folded molecule, carries on it all the information required
to make your body and control its every function. Chromosomes
also have segments that regulate the activities of the chromosomes
themselves.

Figure 3.5 Chromosomes from a human male cell stained to show

certain characteristics more clearly.

Source: W. Ganong, 1997. Review of Medical Physiology, Appleton & Lange,

Connecticut, USA.

For each kind of organism, there is a specific number of chromo-

somes. In humans this number is 46, made up of 23 pairs (see
Figure 3.5). Human chromosome pairs are numbered 1 to 23 accord-
ing to their length, shape and banding pattern as revealed by
specific stains. The 23rd pair (XY) determines the sex of the individ-
ual. Note that this “pair” does not really match. Can you see the
difference? The dark bands are characteristic segments of the DNA,
not genes.

Chromosomes pass on instructions for development, growth, and

general functioning, from generation to generation by means of

FD12A 195
 special reproductive cells called gametes, for example, sperms and
eggs. Most organisms have male and female gametes. How are the
instructions passed on? This is done in two ways. The astonishing
thing is that the basic mechanism is the same in all organisms.

Cell division for growth (mitosis)

For growth to take place, one cell divides into two, two into four,
and so on. The new cells increase to the size of the one from which
they came, before they themselves split into two again. Each new
cell has the same number of chromosomes and the exact number of
genes in the same order on the chromosomes as the cell from which
it came (the parent cell). This number is the number for the species.
This is the way cell division takes place in almost every part of your
body (with one exception). It is termed mitosis (Figure 3.6).

Figure 3.6 Mitosis – cell division for growth

Parent cell – 4 chromosomes

present in pairs (in this case, F M
M F
2 pairs): one of each pair from
father (F); one from mother (M)

Each chromosome replicates to

FM
form two identical strands of
M F
DNA (chromatids) in prepar-
ation for division.

Cell divides into two:

one strand from each
chromosome goes to
each daughter cell

The cells grow, but the

DNA strand in each
chromosome will not
replicate into two
strands unless the cell
is going to divide

If the cell is dividing over and over how does the number of chromo-
somes remain exactly the same? Before mitosis each chromosome
makes an exact copy of itself to form a chromosome with two
strands held together at a single point. Each strand in the double-
stranded chromosome is called a chromatid.

196 FD12A
 Cell division for gamete formation (meiosis)

In mitosis you get back exactly what you start with! A cell divides
to form two exact copies of itself. Cell division for gamete forma-
tion is somewhat different, (the exception mentioned above).
Gametes are reproductive structures, in our case, the male sperms
and the female eggs. Remember that our body cells have 46 chromo-
somes. Sperms and eggs have only 23 chromosomes i.e. half the
number found in body cells. There is a very practical reason for that
which should be fairly obvious if you think about it. Cells with the
capacity to produce gametes divide in a two-step process.

Figure 3.8 Meiosis – reduction division

Step 1: One cell becomes two, but each daughter cell gets one of
each chromosome pair, and so has 23 unpaired chromosomes. Note
that one will get the X and the other the Y chromosome (see
above). This step is called a reduction division because of the halv-
ing of the chromosome number.

Step 2: These two cells divide to become four, each with 23 chromo-
somes. In a male, these four cells become the gametes (sperms), half

FD12A 197
 having X chromosomes and half Y.

The process is called meiosis (see Figure 3.7). By convention, we

represent this half or haploid number as n, and the full diploid
number in the body cells as 2n. The haploid number of humans is 23
and the diploid number is 46, thus we have n chromosomes in our
gametes and 2n in all our other body cells.

Interestingly, in females Step 1 in meiosis starts in the ovaries of the

foetus i.e. before birth, then stops. About 1 million of these “pre-
eggs” survive until after birth, remaining dormant until puberty
when the process restarts. Then one is selected for release at ovula-
tion each month. In her lifetime a woman will release only some
400–500 eggs. The rest degenerate.

Passing on the instructions to the next generation

What happens to the chromosomes after fertilization?

When a new individual is formed, there is fusion of the male and

female gametes. We say that the sperm fertilizes the egg. At fertil-
ization both gametes join together to form a zygote with 46 chro-
mosomes. Of this number, 23 are paternal chromosomes from the
sperm and 23 are maternal chromosomes from the egg. The process
of meiosis ensures that the diploid number of chromosomes (2n)
remains constant from one generation to the next.

Also important is the fact that sperms may have either an X or a Y

chromosome. All eggs have X chromosomes. After fertilization, if
the sperm had an X the child would be female. If it had a Y chromo-
some the child would be male. Can you complete the diagram in
Figure 3.8 to show how sex is inherited?

The zygote divides repeatedly by mitosis to become multicellular.

We refer to it as an embryo, and later, once recognizable organs
begin to form, as a foetus.

198 FD12A
 Figure 3.8 The inheritance of sex

Male Cell Female C ell

XY XX
MEIOSIS

X GAMETES
X

FERTILIZATION

XY

How do chromosomes carry instructions?

Chromosomes contain DNA (deoxyribose nucleic acid). DNA carries

the instructions for proteins to be made by the cell (cells are mostly
protein). In 1952, Cambridge University scientists James Watson
and Francis Crick, proposed that the DNA molecule is shaped like a
double helix. The molecule is double stranded, and the two strands
are twisted on each other into a spiral or helix (see Figure 3.9a, next
page). Each strand is made up of alternating phosphate and sugar
(deoxyribose) units. The two strands are linked together by pairs of
bases, adenine (A), thymine (T), cytosine (C), and guanine (G).
There are differences in the size and shape of the bases, such that
adenine is always linked to thymine, and cytosine to guanine
(Figure 3.9b).

FD12A 199
 Figure 3.9

(a) The DNA double helix with two “backbones” of sugar-phosphate

linkages – see (b). Each sugar has an organic “base” attached (A, T, G
or C). (b) The two “backbones” are held together loosely by linkages
between complementary bases, so that two identical replicas of the
original (old) molecule are produced, with a matching sequence of base
pairs. This sequence determines the sequence of amino acids in the
proteins coded for by the particular DNA sequence – successive triplets
of base-pairs code for particular amino acids.

Source: (a) from: J.D. Watson, 1968, The Double Helix. The New American Library, Inc.,
USA.)

Here is the key to the mystery of how these chemicals are able to
carry so much information. The sequence of the bases on each DNA
strand forms a code that directs the production of specific proteins.
Each DNA strand is therefore a list of different instructions for
making different proteins that the cell needs to carry out its specific
functions. To understand this fully, we must first describe the struc-
ture of proteins. Proteins make up most of the cell structures, and
enzymes that control what each cell does are also made of protein.

Each protein is made of hundreds or thousands of smaller molecules

called amino acids, arranged in a particular way. A succession of
three bases on the DNA strand codes for one amino acid. The
sequence of these triplets, as they are called, gives the sequence for
linking specific amino acids together to make a particular protein.
Proteins are not made inside the cell nucleus but outside in the cyto-
plasm. DNA does not leave the nucleus so a messenger molecule,
mRNA, copies the code from the DNA and takes it from the nucleus
into the cytoplasm. Structures in the cytoplasm called ribosomes

200 FD12A
 then follow the instructions and assemble the protein. A length of
DNA that codes for one protein is called a gene. Genes give us our
characteristics.

How we inherit our characteristics

Genes are carried from parent to offspring in the gametes. So each

of our body cells has two genes for each character – one gene
coming from the male parent, and the other from the female parent.
We can look at the inheritance of sickle cell anaemia to see how the
process works. Haemoglobin is a complex protein molecule found in
red blood cells. It gives the blood its red colour but more impor-
tantly, it carries oxygen around the body so cells can use glucose for
energy.

A segment of the DNA at a particular point along chromosome

No. 11 of both parents codes for (determines the sequence of amino
acids in) one chain of the haemoglobin molecule (it has four) (see
Figure 3.10). This is the gene for the haemoglobin A protein chain
(HbA).

Figure 3.10 Simple diagram of the structure of haemoglobin

In most people both of the genes for HbA in the maternal and
paternal chromosome 11 will be identical. In the Caribbean and else-
where, some people have a different haemoglobin. A single base pair
in the entire sequence coding for HbA is different. Thus, a different
amino acid is substituted into the haemoglobin chain. This slightly
different haemoglobin is termed haemoglobin S (HbS), and behaves
differently from normal HbA, causing sickle cell anaemia. We will
explain this further in a later section of this session.

FD12A 201
 Each variant of a gene is called an allele; HbA and HbS are alleles of
the Hb gene. Let us take this single characteristic – the haemoglobin
molecule, and work out the possibilities for the offspring from
parents with different alleles for this gene. To do this, we need to
understand the terms dominant and recessive as they apply to
alleles. Sometimes one allele of a gene compensates for and masks
the effects of the other allele when they are present together. In this
case the allele A (coding for HbA), will mask the effect of the allele
S (coding for HbS), preventing its effects from showing up in a
person. When this is so, we say the allele A is the dominant allele,
and S the recessive allele. We call the alleles (variants of genes) in
the cells, the genotype for the characteristic.

In this case the possible combinations of genotypes for haemoglobin

are AA, AS and SS. What shows up on the outside, that is, whether
the person has the symptoms of sickle cell anaemia or not, is termed
the phenotype. Figures 3.11 and 3.12 show how you can work out
the probable phenotypes for children born to parents with certain
genotypes.

Figure 3.11

n Can you explain

why all the children
of this couple are
normal although
there are two
different genotypes
shown?

Probable phenotypes of children of a father with sickle cell “trait” (see

the section on biotechnology and genetic diseases) and a mother with
normal genotype. Note that the diagram also shows that fertilization
takes place randomly; any sperm has an equal chance of fusing with any
egg. So we look at both possibilities.

202 FD12A
 Figure 3.12 Probable phenotypes of children of a father and mother,
both with sickle cell “trait” (AS genotype).

n How many ways

are there to get
children carrying the
alleles for sickle cell
anaemia?
If you were
counselling these
parents, what would
you tell them about
their chances of
having a normal
child?

The inheritance of sickle cell anaemia represents the simplest situa-

tion. Sometimes more than two alleles (variants) for one characteris-
tic may exist in a population. Each gamete will still have only one
allele and each body cell two. For example, there are three alleles for
human blood groups, A, B and O, but A and B are both dominant to
O, so there are four possible blood groups (phenotypes); Group A,
Group B, Group O and Group AB. How many different genotypes
are possible? Some characteristics are determined by the interaction
of several genes as with skin colour or height, but that is a very
complex matter.

Some genetic “accidents” and the conditions they cause

Genetic “accidents” are mutations

Normally in nature, the DNA instructions are passed on accurately.

Sometimes, however, there is an accident or mutation. For example,
in meiosis the separation of the paired chromosomes may not be
perfect. If for example, one pair does not separate, some of the
resulting gametes will have 24 chromosomes instead of 23 and
others only 22. At other times, the number of chromosomes may be
right, but the molecule of DNA itself is affected. Bases may be left
out, or the sequence may be changed, so that proteins with altered
characteristics are formed, as in the case of HbS above.

Any gene can undergo a mutation, and there are about 30,000 genes
in humans. So, theoretically, thousands of genetic diseases are possi-
ble. But many embryos formed from gametes with genetic defects

FD12A 203
 die, either before birth (in a miscarriage) or shortly after. Others live
with the conditions or diseases caused by the mistakes. These condi-
tions may show varying degrees of severity. We look briefly at four
of these conditions. One of these, Down’s syndrome, involves a
whole chromosome. The other three involve single genes.

Down’s syndrome

The condition is named after the English physician who first

described it just over 130 years ago. The cause, however, was not
known until the microscope and staining technology became avail-
able. In 1959, a French physician Lejeune, showed that individuals
with Down’s syndrome had three copies of chromosome 21, not
two as is normal.

In Down’s syndrome, one gamete, usually the egg, has 24 chromo-

somes, because during meiosis, instead of separating into different
daughter cells, both maternal and paternal copies of chromosome 21
go into one daughter cell. The matching cell with 22 chromosomes
has no copy. When a sperm with 23 chromosomes fertilizes the egg,
the child formed has 47 chromosomes instead of 46, three copies of
chromosome 21 instead of two. Embryos formed with fewer chro-
mosomes than normal usually die.

Individuals with Down’s syndrome show abnormalities of the face,

eyelids, hands, and other body parts. Typically they are short, with
relatively small skulls, and a flat, rounded face. They are mentally
retarded, sometimes severely. They also tend to be susceptible to
infections, especially of the respiratory tract and ears. The incidence
of Down’s syndrome increases markedly with the mother’s age.
Estimates given are of a risk of 1 in 2,000 at age 20, 1 in 900 at age
30, 1 in 100 at age 40, and at age 44, 1 in 40 (Taylor et al. 1997, p.
865).

Sickle cell anaemia

The mutation causing this condition is a recessive variant of the

gene for making haemoglobin (Hb), situated on chromosome 11.
Haemoglobin made by the allele with the mutation (HbS), differs
from normal haemoglobin (HbA) by one amino acid only.

204 FD12A
 Figure 3.13 Scanning electron
micrograph of blood from a sickle
cell patient. The blood is placed in
a low-oxygen medium to induce
sickling then quick frozen. The
normal red blood cells are disc-
shaped, sickled cells are
distorted.

(Courtesy of Professor Graham Serjeant,

Sickle Cell Trust)

Normal red blood cells with HbA are disc-shaped. In the lungs, Hb
combines with oxygen. This it gives up to cells that need it. The red
blood cells then return to the lungs where Hb picks up more
oxygen. The process is continuous. To get through very small blood
vessels, the red cells bend and flex. When there is not much oxygen
the red blood cells with HbS change shape and become fragile and
stiff. (Some of them become sickle-shaped, hence the name.) The
abnormal shape slows the flow of blood and causes blockages in
small vessels. This can cause tissue damage and severe pain, often in
the joints and stomach.

Normal red blood cells last about 120 days in the circulation. Those
with the sickle shape seem to last only about one tenth of that
time. Individuals therefore become anaemic because of the rapid and
continuous breakdown of the cells. Treatment includes pain relief
measures, drug therapy, and transfusions. Exposure to certain condi-
tions can trigger these crises. In Jamaica, cold and/or wet conditions
have been observed to do this. Where these triggers are known,
affected individuals can avoid them.

Sickle cell disease is present throughout the Caribbean region. An

estimated 10% of the population of African ancestry, are carriers.
Fortunately, the Sickle Cell Centre at the Mona campus of the
University of the West Indies has for over three decades carried out
extensive and world renowned research into the disease. There is an
on-going programme of monitoring, treatment, follow up and
education for patients. Health professionals from several other coun-
tries including the United Kingdom, Brazil, and Uganda visit to

FD12A 205
 learn from the experiences the Centre provides. Staff is actively
involved in sickle cell projects in these countries.

There is a common misconception that sickle cell occurs only in

“black” people. The mutation causing sickling seems to be present in
a large percentage of persons in populations in parts of Africa, Saudi
Arabia, Italy, Greece, Turkey, and India. It is true to say, however,
that in North and South America, Europe and the Caribbean, sickle
cell is usually found in people of African descent. The Caribbean, in
fact, has a special “connection” since the first reported case in the
West was a Grenadian, studying in Chicago between 1904 and 1907.

An interesting twist to the survival and distribution of the gene is

its association with malaria. The populations mentioned above
come from regions where there is a high incidence of malaria. People
with the normal genotype AA tended to succumb to malaria, many
of them dying. Individuals with genotype SS often died early from
the complications of sickle cell disease. Those with one allele for
HbS and one for HbA (genotype AS – carrying the “trait”) were
found to be more resistant to malaria than those with normal
haemoglobin. Persons carrying the “trait” (AS) therefore had an
advantage over those without it (AA) and were protected from the
scourge of malaria. These individuals lived longer and were more
likely to reach reproductive age than either the sicklers or those with
both normal alleles.

If you look back at Figures 3.11 and 3.12 you should be able to see
how malaria and sickle cell worked together to develop and main-
tain a pool of individuals of the HbS genotype. This is one instance
where the mutation could be said to have had a good, as well as a
bad effect. Where malaria is no longer common, we can expect a
gradual reduction in sickle cell anaemia as persons with the AS
genotype no longer have an advantage over others although the SS
genotypes are still at a disadvantage.

Cystic fibrosis

Cystic fibrosis is the most common genetic defect of Caucasian chil-

dren. It is caused by a mutation on the recessive allele of a gene
located on chromosome 7. Individuals with cystic fibrosis carry two
recessive alleles with the mutation. If you look back at the way in

206 FD12A
 which we worked out genotypes and phenotypes, you will note that
both parents would have had one recessive allele, for their child to
have two. Each parent is said to be a carrier. In their genotype,
they have one recessive allele (which may be passed on to a child),
but they themselves do not show the disease in their phenotype.
Why not?

The gene concerned in cystic fibrosis regulates the movement of

chloride ions in and out of the cells responsible for producing
mucus. When the gene does not function, the mucus formed gets
sticky. These abnormal secretions are produced especially in the
respiratory system. Because the mucus is thick and sticky, it builds
up, blocking small passages in the lungs and providing a breeding
place for bacteria. The bacteria and the poisons they produce attack
the surrounding tissues. This leads to repeated bouts of pneumonia
and other complications. Heavy secretions of mucus in the pancreas
and liver cause other problems. The pancreas develops patches of
fibrous tissue, called cysts (hence the name of the disease), and the
passage carrying bile from the liver to the gut may be blocked.
Heavy mucus in the intestines causes digestive problems and proba-
bly obstruction. In addition, the individual may be infertile, espe-
cially the males.

Treatment includes giving antibiotics to control bacterial infections,

and daily physical therapy to clear the respiratory passages.
n Find out why
some people are Treatment with an enzyme that breaks down the mucus also helps.
albinos although their Even with such treatment, sufferers tend to die young and without
parents are not.
treatment, they die in infancy. Gene therapy may provide an answer
What are the effects for the symptoms of this disease. Some interesting research is in
of albinism?
progress at this time.

Huntington’s disease

In Huntington’s disease, it is the dominant allele of chromosome

4 that bears the mutation responsible. The condition causes severe
mental and physical deterioration. There are uncontrolled muscle
spasms, personality changes, and sometimes insanity.

Every child of an affected individual has a 50% chance of being

affected and of passing on the gene to his or her offspring. There are
no carriers. Can you work out why this would be so?

FD12A 207
 The unfortunate thing is that onset of the disease takes place
between ages 35 and 50. So individuals may have had children
before knowing that they had the allele. Life expectancy from the
onset of symptoms is about 15 years, and no effective treatment is
yet known.

Biotechnology and genetic diseases

Genetic diseases are particularly distressing because we cannot cure

them. We can, so far, only relieve the symptoms. Gene therapy, in
which the abnormal gene is replaced by a normal one, offers some
hope but its practical applications have not yet been realised. In
addition, the research being done and the techniques proposed by
gene therapists make some people uncomfortable. It raises many
questions of ethics, some of which will be discussed in Unit 3 of this
Module.

One particularly contentious issue concerns efforts being made to

improve the treatment and care of persons with defective genes.
The successful treatment and survival of haemophiliacs provides a
good example of the controversy. Haemophilia, the so-called
bleeder’s disease, was very rare because the few individuals who
inherited the condition, usually died before they reached reproduc-
tive age. Nowadays, by taking injections of certain blood products,
they can live almost symptom-free lives, grow to adulthood and
reproduce. Some people question the wisdom of preserving, and
allowing the passage, through reproduction, of defective genes,
which would normally be eliminated from the gene pool.

It is possible to avoid passing on these diseases by receiving genetic

counselling. Potential parents provide counsellors with a history of
the occurrence of a particular disease in their family. Counsellors
work out the probability of their having an affected child and they
then decide whether to take the risk or not. Techniques now exist to
examine the DNA of the couples so they can be told for sure
whether they are carrying certain defects. These techniques can also
detect abnormalities in the early foetus and a decision can then be
made to terminate a pregnancy. Knowing about inheritance allows
couples to make what they feel is the best decision but presents
other ethical issues. If, in the face of the evidence, couples choose to

208 FD12A
 have a child, at least they would be better prepared to deal with the
consequences of the disorder. (For more information on gene ther-
apy and pre-natal diagnosis, see Unit 4, Session 1.)

QUICK REVIEW

1. See if you remember the meanings of the following terms

then go back and check them in the text.
Gamete Mitosis DNA
Chromosome Meiosis Mutation
Gene Zygote Genetic counselling
Allele Embryo Gene therapy

2. Use the following outline to review the information you

have covered in this Session. Check the text for further
details when necessary.

• Chromosomes are found in the nucleus of the cell. They exist

in pairs; one of each pair is from each parent.
• Genes are found on the chromosomes.
• Genes control the characteristics of all organisms.
• Genes are made of DNA.
• Genes have variants called alleles.
• Chromosomes and the genes they carry are passed from
one generation to the next, i.e., inherited from both parents.
• Sometimes chromosomes or genes have defects called
mutations.
• Mutations cause changes in the traits that the genes control.
• Some genetic disorders are caused by inherited mutations.
• Genetic diseases cannot be cured but symptoms can be
treated.
• Examples of genetic disorders include Down’s syndrome,
sickle cell anaemia, cystic fibrosis, and Huntington’s disease.

3. Discuss the following statement with a friend or prepare it

for an informal debate between members of your group.

“Since genetic disorders are considered incurable there is

little point in learning so much about them.” (You may
wish to consider genetic counselling, new advances in
gene therapy, treatment of symptoms).

FD12A 209
 4. Explain to a friend why a person may have a characteristic
which neither parent has.

SUMMARY

In Session 1 we looked at some diseases that are common in the

region, both communicable and non-communicable. Communicable
diseases are caused by living organisms. Many dangerous ones have
been eradicated from the Caribbean by vaccination campaigns or
controlled by public health measures. Dengue and tuberculosis
remain problematic. The incidence of HIV/AIDS continues to
increase mainly by heterosexual intercourse, putting many women
and children before and after birth at risk. Treatment of HIV/AIDS
is expensive; prevention is therefore very important. Substance
abuse is prevalent in the region, contributing to the incidence of
sexually transmitted diseases and other social problems such as
crime.

The non-communicable nutrition-related diseases, diabetes mellitus,

hypertension, and heart disease, as well as cancer are the leading
causes of death in the Caribbean region. There is some genetic
predisposition to these diseases; nevertheless, they can be prevented
or controlled by changes in lifestyle such as diet, exercise, stress
relief, and abstention from smoking and excessive use of alcohol.

Session 2 covered nutrition and nutritional disorders. Changing

patterns of food consumption were discussed. There is now an over
supply of energy and nutrients but these are not distributed
between the different food groups, as they should be. The trend is
towards increased consumption of fats, oils, and refined sugars and
away from cereals, fruits, vegetables, legumes, roots, and tubers that
used to constitute traditional diets. In addition, what is available is
not always accessible to all citizens on an equitable basis.
Consequently, deficiency diseases still exist in some areas in the
region, largely due to poverty.

EPM, iron, iodine, and vitamin A deficiencies were discussed.

Problems of nutrient over-intake are of greater concern because of

210 FD12A
 their links to the non-communicable diseases mentioned in Session 1.
The Caribbean Co-operation in Health (CCH), an initiative of the
CARICOM health ministers, shows an awareness of the nutritional
problems of the region and willingness to deal with them.

In Session 3, we dealt with genetic diseases. First we looked at how

genes carried information encoded as sequences of triplets of bases
on chromosomes and how these were transmitted from cell to cell
during cell division and reproduction. The processes of mitosis and
meiosis were described in outline. Mutations were introduced as
accidents involving whole chromosomes or parts of particular chro-
mosomes. Examples covered were Down’s syndrome, sickle cell
anaemia, cystic fibrosis, and Huntington’s disease, each of which
exemplified a different kind of genetic mistake. The importance of
genetic counselling and the possibilities for gene therapy were
discussed briefly.

FD12A 211
 REFERENCES

A World Bank Country Study 2001. HIV/AIDS in the Caribbean:

Issues and options. The spread of HIV/AIDS in the Caribbean. pp.
9–21. Intensifying action against HIV/AIDS: Key challenges for
Caribbean countries. pp 23–38. Washington, DC: The World
Bank: 2001.

Bajaj, Jasbir S. Emerging epidemic of diabetes mellitus. West Indian

Medical Journal, 50 (Suppl. 1): 15–16, 2001.

Taylor D.J., N.P.O. Green and G.W. Stout. Biological Science 1 & 2.
Cambridge, Cambridge University Press. 1997.

World Health Organisation. http://www.who.int.

Caribbean Food and Nutrition Institute. Micronutrient study report –

A three-country survey. Vitamin A, E, beta-carotene, and iron status in
the Caribbean. PAHO/CFNI/97.J2; 1997.

Caribbean Food and Nutrition Institute. Micronutrient study report –

Guyana. An assessment of the vitamin A, beta-carotene, iron and
iodine status in the Caribbean. PAHO/CFNI/97.J5; 1997.

Caribbean Food and Nutrition Institute. Micronutrient Study Report –

Jamaica. An assessment of the vitamin A, E, beta-carotene, and iron
status in Jamaica. PAHO/CFNI/98.J1; 1998.

Figueroa, J. Peter. Health trends in Jamaica: significant progress and

a vision for the 20th Century. West Indian Medical Journal, 50
(Suppl. 4): 15–22, 2001.

Henry F., Morris A. and S. Anderson. Food and nutrition: Health

conditions in the Caribbean. Scientific Publication No. 561,
PAHO/WHO, 190–203, 1997.

Johnson, Anthony. Great Jamaicans. Book II – Scientists. Kingston,

Jamaica: Teejay Ltd., Kingston, 2001.

Editorial. SCN News, 22: 2, July 2001.

212 FD12A
 Unit 4
Biotechnology and Society

INTRODUCTION

What do rum, beer, and wine have in common with bread and
cheese? They all depend on the activity of living organisms so small
that they cannot be seen with the naked eye. Similar types of organ-
isms are responsible for the yoghurt that has been enjoyed in places
like India for thousands of years. In Module 1, we introduced tech-
nology as “the set of tools and techniques for controlling and chang-
ing one’s environment”. In biotechnology, these tools and
techniques are based on the processes and products of living things.
Although the biological science behind the techniques may not have
been fully understood, clearly, biotechnology is not new.

Farmers have used cross-breeding to improve yields and enhance the

useful characteristics of their animals and plants for over 9,000
years. All the staple foods in our diet have been developed in this
way. Corn, wheat, rice, and sugar cane have been bred for higher
yields and disease resistance. Cattle and pigs have been improved
with respect to milk and meat production. Most farm animals are so
different from their ancestors that they would not be able to survive
in the wild for a week. Many have become highly specialised “facto-
ries” that make products for human use. Until recently this kind of
cross-breeding was limited to closely related animals or plants;
modern biotechnology has changed that.

FD12A 213
 Modern biotechnology no longer limits itself to the use of whole
organisms. There are now techniques that allow scientists to manip-
ulate genes directly. Genes can be moved from a human to a
bacterium and then into a cow! Genetic engineering, as this is
called, has alarmed many but mostly those who know little about
it. We hope that when you have finished this unit you will have
learned enough to make a more enlightened contribution to the
ongoing discussion on the possibilities offered by this new technol-
ogy and the controversies surrounding certain aspects of its use.

OVERVIEW

In this unit, we examine different aspects of modern biotechnology.

We also recall some of the older type of biotechnology. There are
four sessions in the unit. The first three deal with some of the appli-
cations of biotechnology in medicine, agriculture, and industry, in
that order. Several terms used in biotechnology, which may be new
to some of you, are introduced and explained in Session 1.
Contributions to these fields are noted and some of the ethical and
legal concerns voiced with regard to this area are also introduced.
The fourth and last session of the unit summarises some of the
issues and unanswered questions that concern biotechnology as a
whole. The implications of biotechnology and its applications for
both global and Caribbean society are also discussed.

LEARNING OBJECTIVES

At the end of this unit, you should be able to:

1. Explain the meaning of the term biotechnology and related

concepts
2. Give examples of ways in which biotechnology has impacted on
medicine, agriculture and industry

3. Recall some Caribbean contributions to these fields

4. Discuss the implications of biotechnology for global and

Caribbean society

214 FD12A
 5. Discuss in an informed manner some of the ethical issues arising
out of biotechnology

FOR THE STUDENT

In Unit 3 you were introduced to information on the basis of inheri-

tance. This information is important for a full understanding of
much of this Unit. It would be wise to review it before starting this
one. You should recall the structure of the genetic material (DNA),
and the meaning of terms like chromosome and gene. You will need
to be familiar with these concepts to get the most out of this Unit.

READINGS

l Betsch, David F. DNA fingerprinting in human health and

society. National Health Museum, 1994.
http://www.accessexcellence.org/AB/BA/DNA_Fingerprinting_Basics.html
l DaSilva, Edgar J. and Mary Taylor. Island communities and
biotechnology. http://www.ejb.org/content/vol1/issue1/full/1/bip/
e.dasilva@unesco.org maryt@samoa.net
l Irving, Dianne N. Stem cell research: Some pros and cons.
Canadian Physicians for Life.
http://www.physiciansforlife.ca/stemcellproandcon.html
l McLaren, Lyndon. A life dedicated to the local dairy and beef
industries. Red Poll Supplement. The Gleaner. November 14, 2002,
p. 17.
l Roberts, Michael. Fingerprinting the future of chocolate in
Trinidad. The Courier, no. 176 July-August 1999.
l Smith, Wesley J. Cloning reality: Brave new world here we come.
National Review 1/31/01.
http://www.nationalreview.com/comment/commentprint013101a.html
l Status report on transgenic organisms. Virginia Cooperative
Extension. http://filebox.vy.edu/cals/cses/chagedor/97microbes.html
l The new eugenics: Genetic engineering.
http://www.ulm.edu/~palmer/NewEugenics.htm
l Twenty years of test-tube babies. Minnesota Public Radio 1998.
http://news.mpr.org/features/199711/20_smiths_fertility/part7/section1

FD12A 215
 l Tennant, Paula. Crops of agricultural biotechnology. The Gleaner,
November 7, 2002, p. B10.
l Wellington, Karl. The Jamaica Red Poll story. Red Poll Supplement.
The Gleaner, November 14, 2002, pp. 2, 16.

216 FD12A
 Session 4.1
Biotechnology and Medicine

Introduction

New techniques in biotechnology have opened up many new

avenues for the prevention, treatment or possible cure of various
diseases. Benefits include the production of safer vaccines against
communicable diseases and the production of medications such as
insulin. There is even the possibility that defective genes that cause
incurable conditions like sickle cell anaemia or cystic fibrosis could
be replaced with normal genes. We shall look at some of the
processes involved, and suggest some of the questions and issues
raised even as we acknowledge the benefits.

Techniques affecting reproductive capacity

In humans, mating is nature’s way of introducing sperm into a

woman’s reproductive tract, so that egg and sperm can fuse to
produce a child. Sometimes this process that normally takes place
very easily (too easily at times!) does not happen though both
sperm and egg appear to be normal. In other cases a woman may
want to have a child although she has no male partner. Two tech-
niques that were first used in livestock breeding programmes are
now commonly used to relieve childlessness in humans, whatever
its cause. These techniques are artificial insemination and in-vitro
fertilization

Artificial insemination

A woman may be artificially inseminated using sperm from her

partner, if he is impotent for some reason, or she may use sperm
from a donor as an alternative to adoption, if she is fertile and her
partner is not. In this process, medical personnel place sperm in the
reproductive tract of a woman. Semen is collected from a partner or
a donor depending on the circumstances of the case.

FD12A 217
 There are registered human sperm banks, where donors leave semen
specimens. In some cases donors are paid for their contributions. In
reputable facilities, donors are screened for their suitability and their
medical and social histories recorded. A physical description and
biography is also recorded so that women or couples using the bank
can select a donor with characteristics of their choice. For example,
if a man is infertile, the couple may want to use donor sperm from
someone similar to him in appearance, ethnic group, and educa-
tional background. Application and screening processes vary in the
strictness of their requirements, but the insemination procedure is
not guaranteed to result in an embryo.

In vitro fertilisation

Normally, in mammals, fertilisation takes place in a protected envi-

ronment inside the body. It is possible, however, to fuse sperms and
eggs outside of this environment, in a glass dish (a petri dish) in a
laboratory. This is in vitro (literally in glass) fertilisation.

In humans fertilisation normally takes place in the tubes that carry

the eggs to the uterus (womb). Sometimes for different reasons this
is not possible, although both sperm and eggs themselves are
normal. For example, the tubes may be blocked by scar tissue from
an old infection so the eggs cannot pass down the tubes. In vitro
fertilisation offers a solution to this problem. A woman wishing to
undergo in vitro fertilisation is first given medication that causes her
to produce many mature eggs at one time. These are collected from
her, then fertilised in a glass dish with sperm from her partner (or
from a sperm bank if necessary). Two to five days later, two to four
of the embryos that are developing from the fertilised egg cells are
returned to the mother’s womb, to develop in the normal way. At
this time, they are smaller than a pin-prick. The hope is that one or
two embryos will grow to term, giving single births or twins.

Unused embryos are quickly deep-frozen in liquid nitrogen for possi-

ble future use. The success rate is about 20% so most couples have
to try more than once. In that event, two to four of their fertilised
ova are removed from storage, thawed out, and the implantation
process repeated. The rest of the embryos remain in storage.

218 FD12A
 ?
? CRITICAL THINKING ACTIVITY

1. In your opinion what should be done with surplus embryos

from in vitro fertilisation attempts, if parents have no use for
them?

2. Should in vitro fertilisation be made available to childless

couples in developing countries such as ours?

Genetic engineering and gene cloning

All living organisms are made up of cells. In each of our cells is a

nucleus with chromosomes on which there are genes that instruct
the cell what to make or do. Genes therefore control the characteris-
n Enzymes are tics of an organism. Genetic engineering is a technique by which
protein molecules genes from one organism can be inserted into the chromosomes of
produced by living
cells for a variety of another organism of the same or different species. These chromo-
purposes. Each somes now carry different information than before and will issue
enzyme type has a
specific job. Each of
different instructions to the cells that contain them. The process
the enzymes involves using specific enzymes to cut out short pieces of the DNA
mentioned here, can
cut DNA strands at
from one chromosome and then removing it. The recipient cell’s
different points, i.e., DNA is cut and the short piece of DNA spliced into it (see figure
between certain
bases.
4.1). This sounds easy! It is not. It is a very complex process that
takes place in many steps.

Figure 4.1 Genetic engineering: some steps in the process

FD12A 219
 When DNA from two different sources are joined together it is
called recombinant DNA. Another related technique that is very
important for the practical applications of genetic engineering is
gene cloning. The foreign gene is inserted into the DNA of bacter-
ial cells. Bacterial cells reproduce very rapidly. Each cell simply
divides in two, making exact copies of itself. This is repeated over
and over and in a short time there are thousands of exact copies of
the original cell all containing the recombinant DNA strand.
Whatever the clones now produce can be isolated and collected for
sale or used in other research areas. The importance of this tech-
nique is that large quantities of a useful product can be manufac-
tured very quickly and relatively cheaply.

Where do we go from here? Research is now being directed at creat-

ing animals and plants that can produce larger quantities of useful
products or produce products that they do not normally make.
These organisms are called transgenic organisms when the new
genes they carry are from a different species. We will now look at
some of the ways in which the technology described above has been
applied in the field of medicine.

Think about it! What thoughts do you have about using genetic
engineering to change the genetic makeup of a species? Write them
down for further consideration at the end of Session 3.

The production of hormones

In our bodies there are special glands that secrete substances directly
into the bloodstream. They are transported in the blood to the
organs or cells where they have an effect. These substances regulate
the growth or functioning of specific organs or tissues in the body.
For example, the hormone insulin, produced in the pancreas, helps
to control the level of glucose in the blood by stimulating liver cells
and other cells to remove excess glucose from the bloodstream.

The use of recombinant DNA techniques has made possible the

large scale production of hormones like insulin. Escherichia coli, a
bacterium which normally lives in the gut, is used as a host organ-
ism for the human genes that control the production of specific
hormones. The gene for human insulin is introduced into

220 FD12A
 Figure 4.2 Genetic engineering for large scale production

1. DNA strand removed from human cell and gene removed,

e.g. gene for making insulin
2. Gene inserted into bacterial DNA

3. Bacterium with recombinant DNA strand cultured

4. As cells multiply, a large clone of recombinant bacterial cells form

5. Clone used for further research or large scale production

6. For commercial purposes, bacteria grown in large sterile vat
containing nutrient medium
7. Product, e.g. insulin, extracted from fermenter and purified

FD12A 221
 E. coli bacteria which are then cloned. Large quantities of the altered
bacterium can be grown in a large vat called a fermenter where they
will produce the hormone. Before this technology became available,
insulin was obtained from the pancreas of slaughtered pigs and
cattle. Some patients were allergic to insulin from these sources and
only small quantities were found in each pancreas. Insulin was
therefore extremely expensive and many persons could not afford it
at all.

Insulin, now produced using a synthetic gene, is used to treat

diabetes mellitus. Two other hormones produced using these tech-
niques are human growth hormone and erythropoietin. Growth
hormone is produced in a special gland in the brain. It regulates
overall body size. A deficiency results in dwarfism. Growth
hormone is used to treat dwarfism in children. Erythropoietin is
needed for the production of red blood cells in the bone marrow. It
is normally made in special kidney cells, but many patients with
damaged kidneys cannot make the hormone themselves and so
become anaemic.

A mutant strain of E. coli, which can only survive under laboratory

conditions, is now used in research. This is a precautionary measure.
In the unlikely event of “escape” from the laboratory, the bacteria
would die and not be a threat to humans.

Find out (or suggest) what traits the mutant strain of the bacteria
used in research might have so that they cannot survive in the open.

Manufacture of vaccines

Most of us have been vaccinated against a number of childhood

diseases. What is a vaccine? To answer this question we need to
know something about how the body normally defends itself
against disease. One way in which the body does this is by produc-
ing compounds called antibodies.

l Antibodies are made by special white blood cells called B cells

when foreign substances enter the body.
l They fight against these foreign substances and their effects.
l Each B cell produces only one type of antibody.

222 FD12A
 l Each antibody is specific to the foreign substance that
stimulated its manufacture. Thus, antibodies against measles
will have no effect on chicken pox germs.

Disease organisms (pathogens) are “foreign”. If we have an attack of

a disease, for example, measles, after we recover, some of our B cells
“remember” the attack. If we are infected again by this pathogen,
the cells very quickly stimulate the production of large amounts of
the required antibody. More than likely, this will mean that we will
not get the disease again. We have become immune to that particu-
lar disease.

Vaccines mimic the action of this first infection. Each vaccine

contains a specific amount of killed or weakened forms of a particu-
lar pathogen. These are introduced into the body orally or by injec-
tion. The body responds by producing some antibodies. If the same
organism in its active form later infects the body, there is the same
effect on antibody production as described before. Large quantities
of the specific antibody are quickly made and the pathogens
destroyed before we get ill. In this way, vaccines make the body
immune to the disease.

It is now known that the substance (termed an antigen) which

stimulates the production of antibodies is in the outer surface of the
pathogen. Through recombinant DNA techniques, the genes
controlling the pathogen’s surface characteristics can be inserted
into a harmless organism. The resulting recombinant organism then
produces the antigen from the pathogen and can then be used as the
vaccine. This type of vaccine is referred to as a recombinant vaccine.
This procedure removes the risk of an active form of the organism
being introduced, perhaps during the preparation of the vaccine.
Vaccines against smallpox, influenza, Herpes simplex type 1 (cold
sores), and hepatitis B, have been prepared by this method. More
commonly used are subunit vaccines. This is where the antigen
alone is isolated and used as the vaccine.

Prenatal diagnostics

Genetic abnormalities may be detected either during development of

a baby before it is born (foetal development), or during adult life. In
order to detect such abnormalities in the foetus, amniocentesis

FD12A 223
n THINK ABOUT IT! may be used. In this process, a fine needle attached to a syringe is
Do parents really inserted into the amnion or protective fluid-filled case in which the
have the right to
choose the baby is developing. Some of the fluid, in which there are cells from
characteristics of the embryo, is withdrawn. These cells are grown in special media
their children? until enough are available to carry out the required tests. The
numbers of chromosomes, as well as the chemical structure of the
genes can be determined in these tests. The tests show whether or
not the sequence of the bases on the chromosomes is normal (see
Module 2 Unit 3). Amniocentesis is particularly useful in those situ-
ations where disorders like haemophilia already exist in a family, or
for late pregnancies where the risk of abnormalities developing is
greater than in younger mothers. It allows parents to make
informed decisions as to whether to continue or terminate a
pregnancy.

Other diagnostic tests

Another way of getting large amounts of an antibody is to use

hybridomas. This is done in vitro by fusing a B cell, the special
antibody producing white blood cell, with a cancer cell. Cancer cells
have the ability to multiply rapidly and indefinitely. A B cell
normally makes small quantities of antibody, and lasts only a few
days. However, when it is fused with the cancer cell, the hybrid cell
continues to multiply. The new cell can also be cloned. Many new
cells can be produced that are genetically identical with the parent
cell and with each other. So large amounts of antibody can be
produced from these multiple hybridomas.

Antibodies prepared by this technique have been used for various

diagnostic tests. The specific antibody is brought into contact with
some substance carrying the antigen with which it will react. The
reactions cause a change that can be detected in some way. The
speed with which results are obtained is an advantage. Some of the
tests are:

(a) Pregnancy tests. These are based on recognition of a hormone,

the human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG) by the appropriate
antibody. Within a few days after conception, a signal is sent
from the developing placenta to the ovary to produce the
hormones which will prevent the mother from menstruating

224 FD12A
 and so losing the baby. This signal is carried by hCG. Within
about two weeks after conception, hCG can be detected in the
urine. The pregnancy test uses antibodies to detect hCG in a
sample of urine. The results are ready in five minutes.

(b) Differentiating between chlamydia and gonorrhea infections in

the female genitals. The results are available in 15 to 20 minutes,
as against days, if routine culture methods were used.

(c) Recognition of herpes simplex type 1 virus, which causes cold

sores, and herpes simplex type 2 virus, which causes genital
herpes. Results are known in 15 to 20 minutes.

(d) Diagnosis of streptococcus throat infections: This is immediate.

Forensic medicine

DNA fingerprinting has been popularised by the exposure it receives

in court cases and crime stories on television. The technique is
useful in forensic medicine as it allows minute quantities of body
fluids or tissues to be identified accurately even several years after a
crime has been committed.

The DNA of each of us is as unique as our fingerprints. In order to

prepare DNA “fingerprints”, DNA is treated with enzymes to break
it up into fragments of various sizes. The pattern of sizes of DNA
fragments is unique for each family line. Except for identical twins,
each person has different combinations of the genetic material from
the mother’s egg, and the father’s sperm. So the pattern of frag-
ments can be used as fingerprints for identifying individuals
precisely. In practice, scientists look at several DNA regions and use
the information to create a DNA profile. The likelihood of finding
anyone else with the same profile for a particular set of regions is
remote. The patterns are recognised by DNA probes. These are
molecules labeled with a radioactive isotope, dye or enzyme, which
will highlight a particular sequence on the DNA molecule.

DNA fingerprints from blood or semen stains on a victim may be

compared with fingerprints from the blood of suspects. In this way,
guilt or innocence may be established. DNA fingerprinting can be
used to identify the remains of missing persons by comparing a

FD12A 225
 tissue sample with one obtained from the belongings of the person.
In cases of disputed paternity prints of the child, the mother and
the alleged fathers are compared for similarities. The technique is
also useful in transplant programmes for matching organ donors
with persons needing to receive the organs.

Medical research
Transgenic animals with human genes

Plants or animals with recombinant DNA are termed transgenic or

genetically modified organisms. Transgenic organisms can now be
patented. These organisms have been of immense value in medical
research as there are limited possibilities for conducting experimen-
tal research in disease on humans. One example of this is a trans-
genic strain of mice that was created and used extensively in cancer
research. These mice carry genes for certain types of cancer and
researchers can study these diseases and possible cures without
taking risks with human patients.

Transgenic animals have been reared to produce in their milk rare

and expensive proteins for use in medicine. For example, in the
United Kingdom, sheep have been engineered to produce AAT
(alpha-1-antitrypsin) in their milk. AAT regulates the breakdown of
elastic fibres in the lungs. Where the gene for producing AAT is
defective, too many fibres are broken down and patients develop
emphysema. Obtaining AAT from sheep’s milk opens up an avenue
for developing effective treatments.

ACTIVITY

Discuss the following with a friend.

Do you think it is morally acceptable to produce transgenic

organisms? (Include in your considerations possible effects of
“foreign” genes on these plants or animals.)

Research is also being directed at the possibility of manipulating

special cells in the body’s defense system in such a way that they
destroy cancer cells without damaging normal cells and tissues.

226 FD12A
 Preventing rejection of transplants

There are also possibilities for using genetic engineeering to prevent

n THINK ABOUT IT!
Is using hybridomas the rejection of transplants. Transplanted tissues are recognised as
in biotechnology foreign by the body’s immune system. Antibodies react to molecules
wise? Give reasons
based on what you on the cell surface membranes, treat them as antigens and destroy
have read in this the transplanted tissue. Research is being done to produce pigs that
module about the
basis of inheritance do not carry the antigen. These pigs will carry a human gene for a
and the readings on cell surface membrane molecule that would prevent attack by one
cancer.
of the body’s defence systems. These transgenic pigs could then be
bred to supply material for transplanting into humans. This is still
in the future.

Gene Therapy

One of the most exciting and controversial areas of medical research

n Most gene therapy
that is approved for using genetic engineering techniques is in gene therapy. This area of
clinical use is done research offers the possibility of curing genetic diseases and defects.
on children or adults,
not embryos. The It relies on the in vitro fertilisation methods that allow access to
genetically sperms, eggs, and embryos before or immediately after fertilisation.
engineered normal
genes are delivered
The intention is to replace a defective gene with a healthy one. The
to target organs e.g. healthy copy of the gene will be passed on to all other cells of the
lungs in cystic
fibrosis, muscle
embryo as it grows by mitosis and since it will form part of the
tissue in muscular genetic makeup of the adult it can be inherited by future genera-
dystrophy or blood
cells in SCID
tions of that parent. The controversy relates to the perception that
(Severe combined geneticists are tampering with nature.
immunodeficiency).

This technology offers hope for the genetic disorders such as those
described in Unit 3. Go back and look at the effects of sickle cell
anaemia, cystic fibrosis and Huntington’s disease. Now you can
understand the excitement of the possibilities offered by gene
therapy!

FD12A 227
 ACTIVITY

1. How far should we go in the matter of gene therapy? Should

nature’s mistakes be corrected?

2. Mutations, that is, accidental changes to genes or chromo-

somes of reproductive cells, can result in inherited disorders.
Many of those afflicted die young before they reach repro-
ductive age and can pass on the defect. When we correct
such defects, are we “playing God”?

Stem cell research

There are about 220 different types of cells in the human body, for
example, muscle cells, blood cells and bone cells. Early in the devel-
opment of an embryo, cells are present which have the potential to
become the various types of specialised cells. These “primitive” cells
are called stem cells. In the orderly development of the embryo, cells
like these from different regions of the embryo will mature into
particular types. The aim behind stem cell research is to harvest and
grow these immature cells and use them to replace tissues lost by
injury or incurable diseases such as diabetes, Parkinson’s disease,
multiple sclerosis, Alzheimer’s and others.

The technique for harvesting stem cells and maintaining their

growth in the laboratory is now available. To mid-2001, they have
been used to produce about 110 different kinds of cells. Embryos
used for this research are obtained from stored unused embryos left
from in vitro fertilisation procedures. The problem is that harvesting
the stem cells results in the death of the embryo. In any case, this
source of embryos is not nearly enough for the desired scope of stem
cell research. Embryos would have to be deliberately produced for
this specific purpose. Are there any other possibilities?

There are within our bodies, sites at which new cells are being made
all the time and from which stem cells can be harvested. They have
been obtained from the brains of cadavers, from living bone marrow,
and from human placental tissue. However, extracting the cells from
these sources is difficult and supplies fewer cells of limited potential.
For example, stem cells which will produce cardiac cells or pancreatic

228 FD12A
 islet cells have not yet been found in adult tissue. (The special
patches of tissue that make insulin in the pancreas are known as the
islets of Langerhans.)

The difficulty of obtaining useful stem cells in sufficient quantity to

increase the pace and range of stem cell research has given rise to
another controversy: the cloning of human embryos. In cloning,
new individuals are produced from a single “parent”, without the
fusion of gametes. These individuals therefore have a genetic make-
up that is identical to the one “parent” and to each other if several
of them are made. (When we make several cuttings from a favourite
plant to get many plants, all of which have the same characteristics
of the original “parent”, we are also producing a clone).

Adult mammalian cells do not have the capacity to grow into

complete new organisms on their own. However, scientists have
discovered that transferring the nucleus from an adult cell into an egg
cell, after removing its nucleus, will produce a cell that is able to grow
into an embryo. When the cell starts to multiply, the new cells can be
separated and each one continues growing, multiplying the number of
available embryos. Stem cells from these embryos would then be avail-
able in larger quantities for research. An animal that is a replica of the
parent that donated the nucleus can develop from each embryo.

Britain has been considering making this source legal, with the
proviso that all such embryos must be destroyed after 14 days. This
precaution would prevent the development of cloned foetuses or
babies. One consideration driving the British interest in this proce-
dure is the possibility of using it to produce replacement tissues that
are of the correct genetic makeup of a patient that needs these
tissues. If the patient’s own DNA were to be placed in an egg cell
stripped of its DNA, and the stem cells from this embryo then used
in the patient’s treatment, there would be little risk of rejection,
since stem cell and patient DNA would be identical. Therapeutic
cloning is the term being used to describe the process. Many people
have reservations about these procedures. Those against the use of
embryonic stem cells from whatever source regard the unavoidable
destruction of the embryo in the process as taking a life. This
brought research in the United States to a standstill for some time.
However, limited permission to continue the work has been granted
by the present administration.

FD12A 229
 Figure 3.1.3 Gene cloning

Medicine has already reaped many benefits from biotechnology, and

the potential is there for many more. But the use of the techniques
and products poses many questions and raises many issues. You
should now have enough information to form your opinions on the
issues surrounding this topic.

230 FD12A
 ?
? CRITICAL THINKING ACTIVITY

1. In your opinion, is it acceptable to clone human embryos for

research?

2. In stem cell research, embryos have to be deliberately

destroyed, for the good of another person. Is it morally right
to do this?

3. What are the implications of human cloning from adult

cells?

The Human Genome Project (HGP)

What is a genome?

A genome is simply all the genetic material, the DNA, of an organ-

ism. If you have forgotten about DNA or its description this would
be a good time to revise it.

We are reminded from Unit 3 that the DNA molecule is made of

two strands of phosphate and sugar units twisted together into a
spiral. The two strands are linked together through a sequence of
four special substances – adenine, thymine, cytosine, and guanine.
Each link is made up of a pair of these substances. But adenine is
always linked with thymine (A-T or T-A), and cytosine with
guanine (C-G or G-C). The sequencing of the pairs is precise, and
acts as a code for the making of a particular protein. The arrange-
ment of these pairs is unique for each species. In other words, it
differs from one species to another. That is why species differ!

The human genome is believed to have about three billion of these

pairs. Genes are portions of DNA molecules. It is estimated that
there are about 30,000 to 35,000 genes in humans. (How many base
pairs are there in one gene?)

Objectives of the project

The Human Genome Project aims to identify all the pairs and genes
in the human genome and use this information to create a genetic
map that would allow researchers to locate a particular gene, when
necessary. (Producing this map could take more than one lifetime! It

FD12A 231
 has become possible by developing super computers programmed to
sequence genes.) At the same time, they intend to address the ethi-
cal, legal, and social issues which may arise from the project. Non-
human organisms commonly used in research, are also to be studied.
These include the bacterium Escherichia coli, commonly found in the
gut, the fruit fly, and mice.

Participants and the timeframe

The Project is international. Participating countries include

Australia, Brazil, Canada, China, Denmark, the European Union,
France, Germany, Israel, Italy, Japan, Korea, Mexico, Netherlands,
Russia, Sweden, the United Kingdom, and the United States.
Originally scheduled to last 15 years from 1990, the expected
completion date is set at 2003. In June 2000, the first working draft
of the genome was published (See Nature, February 15, 2001 and
Science, February 16, 2001.) It should be noted that this is not the
only project in the race to map the human genome.

Possible applications

The research has applications for molecular medicine. For example,

clearer identification of the genes associated with genetic disorders
should lead, not only to improved diagnosis, but also to greater
control in gene therapy. Can you think of any other possibilities?

232 FD12A
 ?
? ACTIVITY

For each of the procedures listed in the table, consider the

applications to which it could be put and possible drawbacks of
using the techniques involved or the resulting implications for
humans. You may include practical, biological or ethical
considerations .

Procedure Possible Possible

applications drawbacks

Artificial
insemination

In vitro fertilisation

Production of
hormones using
recombinant DNA

Manufacturing
vaccines using
recombinant DNA

Gene therapy

Stem cell research

Mapping the human

genome

FD12A 233
234 FD12A
 Session 4.2
Biotechnology and Agriculture

Plant and animal breeding

The story is told of a European explorer in South America who had

heard legends of great treasure hidden in caves by one of the
Amerindian tribes of the region. He and his group went to great
lengths to find this treasure and were sorely disappointed when it
turned out to be large jars of seeds. What he did not appreciate was
that these seeds were the result of years of work. They had been
carefully selected from the most productive plants season after
season and were indeed a treasure. Plant and animal breeding is not
new. Farmers have been using these biotechnological techniques to
improve their crops and animals for thousands of years. Deliberate
cross-breeding was introduced much later. Farmers sought to
produce plant crops that were more resistant to disease, or animals
that gave more milk.

In Trinidad and Tobago at the Cocoa Research Unit (CRU) of the

University of the West Indies (UWI) is the world’s most important
gene banks for cocoa plants. The CRU are keepers of the interna-
tional Cocoa Germplasm Collection, preserving some 2,500 genetic
varieties from all over the world. Collection started in the 1920s by
the Imperial College of Agriculture, which in 1962 became the
Faculty of Agriculture of the UWI. Professor John Spence headed the
unit for many years. The plants are carefully nurtured and main-
tained as a source of breeding material for researchers, plant geneti-
cists and commercial breaders. Cross-breeding in cocoa in Trinidad
and Tobago has resulted in the production of much sought after
hybrids that are resistant to some diseases, but maintain a high
flavour. Within recent years, modern biotechnological approaches
are being used to maintain and upgrade the collection, for example,
the collection is now being genetically fingerprinted.

Also in Trinidad and Tobago, selection and breeding from different

breeds of water buffaloes (not by crossing cows and buffaloes as is

FD12A 235
 commonly thought) over many years have produced the Buffalypso.
This buffalo type is much in demand as it produces good quality
beef and milk on very poor quality feed, making it ideal for coun-
tries that spend large sums importing animal feed or beef. Similarly,
in Jamaica, work by Dr. Thomas Lecky gave rise to the Jamaica
Hope breed of cattle, a great milk producer and all round animal
that is well suited to tropical conditions such as ours. Both these
types of cattle have been exported to many different countries in
the world.

Tissue culture

Another biotechnological technique of great interest, is tissue

culture. Using this technology, very small portions of a plant can be
stimulated to produce hundreds of new plants that are all of the
same quality as the original parent plant? What is most interesting
about this method is that complete plants can be grown from a few
cells from virtually any part of a plant: stems, roots or leaves!

These techniques were developed in the 1930s with the knowledge

that all cells have a complete set of genetic information to make a
whole animal or plant of the same species. Normal cells usually
confine their activities to whatever the particular set of tissues to
which they belong, should be doing. Muscle cells for example, make
new muscle cells and use energy to contract. The rest of the genetic
information is switched off and lies dormant for the rest of the
organism’s life. Researchers found out that they could switch on the
rest of the genes in many plant cells by using a careful mix of water,
minerals, sugars, vitamins, and plant growth substances (sometimes
called plant hormones). Tissue culture is carried out under sterile
laboratory conditions where light and temperature are also
controlled.

In order to produce enough food for a growing world population

and to make agriculture commercially viable, farmers have tended to
cultivate staple crops, over extensive areas. This is how bananas,
sugar, and coconuts are grown on estates in the Caribbean. This is
termed monocrop agriculture, in contrast to the mixed cultivation
that is characteristic of small farmers and home gardeners who
often grow many different crops together, which is how plants
grow in nature.

236 FD12A
 n FIND OUT MORE! One of the problems of monocrop cultivation is obtaining a suffi-
What are the ciency of young plants for crops that do not reproduce from seed.
additional
advantages of One answer has been to use tissue culture techniques. The tech-
growing crop plants nique makes it possible to get large numbers of the same plant easily
by using tissue
culture methods?
and quickly. Dr Lloyd Coke of the then Botany Department,
University of the West Indies, Mona, Jamaica, in the early 1960s
made a significant contribution to the successful use of this tech-
nique for obtaining banana plants. At the St Augustine Campus
Professor Julian Duncan did similar work until very recently.

?
? QUESTION

Are the products of tissue culture procedures clones?

Newer methods of obtaining new plant varieties

Genetic engineering is now used in agriculture to make direct modi-

fications of the DNA molecule. This means that scientists are now
working at the molecular level. Traditional cross-breeding is at the
level of the whole organism, and tissue culture at the cell level. It is
now possible to enhance the characteristics of food crops by intro-
ducing copies of genes for desired traits into the DNA of the plant.
This has several advantages:

l Plant breeders can now develop varieties that were not possible
using traditional cross-breeding methods because genes can be
copied from different species of plants, from animals, and
microbes. Traditional cross-breeding was between varieties of the
same species.

l There is greater control over what is copied. The gene that is

copied is usually one with characteristics that are well
understood. Transferring single genes is superior to cross-
breeding as it is highly selective. With cross-breeding, it is
possible that both desirable and undesirable traits would be
inherited since whole chromosomes are involved in fertilization.

l New varieties of crops can be developed more quickly. Older

methods of cross breeding could take many years or even
decades.

FD12A 237
 These new techniques have already been used to develop food crops
that:

l are more resistant to pests, disease, and poor soil and weather
conditions,
l tolerate chemical herbicides better,
l can be processed more easily,
l exhibit improved nutritional content,
l have better physical characteristics such as appearance, texture,
and size.

The tomato plant has been injected with a gene for an insecticidal
protein, with the result that when an insect eats the transgenic
plant, the protein is released and the insect dies.

?
? CRITICAL THINKING ACTIVITY

New strains are produced very quickly by genetic engineering.

As a result, fewer field trials are done. This means less time to
evaluate plant/environment interactions.

1. What effect might this have on the stability of ecosystems

in the regions where these plants are used?

2. What might be the consequences of upsetting ecosystem

stability?

The Biotechnology Centre on all three campuses of the University

of the West Indies (UWI) has been making valuable contributions to
agriculture. For example, work done in Barbados was effective in
bringing back into economic production in that island and in several
others belonging to the Organisation of Eastern Caribbean States
(OECS), onions, tomatoes, peppers, and yams which had declined as
a result of disease. Genetic engineering techniques were used to
produce disease-resistant varieties. In Jamaica, farmers were faced
with the problem of drastically reduced yields of papaya due to the
prevalence of ringspot, a virus disease. At the Mona campus
Biotechnology Centre, genetic engineering techniques were success-
fully used to develop a variety of papaya which is resistant to the
virus.

238 FD12A
 ?
? CRITICAL THINKING ACTIVITY

Parasites that cause plant disease become tolerant to pesticides

very quickly. This necessitates using more and more
concentrated or new pesticides all the time.

Do you think the parasites will become tolerant to the toxins in

GM plants and if so, what next?

At the St Augustine campus, there is a project underway which is

aimed at using bioengineering to modify bloom colours in one
species of anthurium, as well as to produce disease-resistant strains
of the plant. The anthurium is an attractive export ornamental
crop, and the production of novel colours in plants that are highly
resistant to disease can boost significantly the foreign exchange
earnings of Caribbean anthurium growers. In addition, the
Biotechnology Centre is poised to mass propagate anthurium plant
materials. These can be sold to Caribbean anthurium growers at
reduced cost. These are only examples of the work being done at
UWI. You might like to find out more about these and other
programmes, especially those on the campus to which you are
attached.

ACTIVITY

1. For each of the crop improvements mentioned above give

one reason why it would be beneficial to the farmer and or
the environment.
2. Using genetically modified plants raises a number of ques-
tions. Consider the ones asked below and any others that
come to mind.

(a) Should we be concerned about the unknown effects of

introducing “foreign” genes into crops?
(b) What would happen if they spread through pollen to
nearby plants, making them resistant as well, or killing
useful insects?
(c) Is it possible that we could produce “super-weeds” by
accidentally cross breeding weeds with resistant GM
plants?

FD12A 239
 Developing substitutes for existing plant products

For several years now the sugar industry has been in crisis through-
out the Caribbean. As wages and transport costs increased locally
the market price for our sugar became less attractive. However, this
is not the only reason. Countries that used to purchase our sugar
can now make their own sweeteners, thanks to genetic engineering.
Corn-based fructose sweeteners are now available cheaply and have
all but killed the market for the sucrose produced from sugar cane
and beet. This research was spearheaded in the first world countries
that previously provided us with markets. Perhaps we need to
consider using genetic engineering to develop a new variety of sugar
cane that can produce a different and more marketable product.

A MATTER OF CONCERN

In the past, farmers were basically responsible for producing

good quality seeds to be used in subsequent crops. Now, large
corporations own patents for the genes of improved varieties.
The seeds carrying these genes often come at a high price,
making it difficult for small farmers to afford them. In addition,
they are sometimes genetically engineered to ensure that the
seeds from the next generation of the crop cannot grow. Thus
farmers must purchase seeds every season, as they cannot use
from their own supply. This shift in ownership to the large
corporations and the resulting disempowerment of small
farmers are viewed as negative spin-offs of the genetic
engineering revolution. The large corporations respond that
they spend large sums developing the new varieties and must
protect their investment. What is your opinion of this
situation?

Developing animal varieties

The emergence of genetic engineering has also impacted signifi-

cantly on animal production and animal health. As is the case with
plants, the technology can be used to improve the quality of animal
stock. In the traditional forms of breeding, only animals that are
closely related could be cross-bred. Mention was earlier made of the
Buffalypso and Jamaica Hope cattle, bred for meat and higher milk

240 FD12A
 production respectively. Selection and cross-breeding took place at
the level of the whole animal.

The new technology allows for individual genes to be swapped

between unrelated species, the exchange taking place at the molecu-
lar level. The resulting transgenic animals carry desirable genes that
were not initially part of their make-up. For example, transgenic
pigs have been produced which have a higher growth rate and better
quality meat than previously.

The gene of the growth hormone, bovine somatotropin (BST) from

cattle has been inserted into bacteria which then reproduce, making
large quantities of BST. In this case the bacteria are the transgenic
organisms. The hormone is then extracted and injected into cows to
stimulate greater milk production.

?
? CRITICAL THINKING ACTIVITY

Cows treated with BST have a higher than normal

concentration of BST in the milk they produce. Some people
have expressed concern about a possible association between the
use of milk with the hormone, and uterine and prostate cancer.
In addition, recent studies show that cows given artificial BST
are 79% more likely to get the disease mastitis. What is your
reaction to this information, given the benefits mentioned
above?

The health of animal stock can be improved with the help of geneti-
cally engineered vaccines. Microbes are made to produce large
amounts of the specific antigens associated with particular diseases.
Vaccines are then made from these antigens (see Session 1). In
Australia, animal vaccines have been produced to counteract diar-
rhoea in piglets and parasites that affect sheep.

Genetically modified foods

The first genetically modified food (GMO) to be sanctioned by the

Food and Drug Administration in the United States of America was
the “Flavr Savr” tomato. It was sanctioned in May 1994. The
tomato has been genetically designed so that it does not soften

FD12A 241
 easily and can, therefore, be left on the plant until ripe. This ensures
that its flavour is properly developed. This contrasts with “natural”
tomatoes which must be picked at the onset of ripening to prevent
softening; such tomatoes do not stay on the tree long enough to
develop their full flavour.

It has been estimated that gene-altered corn and soybean products

are being used to make about 4000 food products that are sold in
American supermarkets, including corn flakes, potato chips, veggie
burgers, fresh garden produce and cooking oil with reduced satu-
rated fat. It is highly likely that many of these products can be
found on the shelves of any Caribbean supermarket.

Concerns and issues

Many individuals see the development of foods that have been

genetically modified as the route to providing large yields to meet
the world’s demand for food. Farmers and produce merchants also
benefit commercially and there are others who think this is the driv-
ing force behind the research. Concerns about the safety of geneti-
cally modified foods have been expressed all over the world. Recent
standards adopted in the USA for labelling foods as organically
grown include certifying that they do not contain products from
genetically modified organisms.

The concerns that have been expressed include the following:

l Food that contains products from GMOs does not always carry
labels that would alert the public to its nature and/or method of
preparation. Policies for labelling GMOs are not uniform. The
European Union and countries such as New Zealand and
Australia are pursuing mandatory labelling of these products.
However, the United States is using a system of voluntary
labelling as the main strategy. In the Caribbean, both Jamaica
and Trinidad and Tobago have begun drafting relevant policies
and other territories are now discussing this issue. Should there
be a regional policy?

l Though some testing of genetically modified foods has been

done, the testing is not as extensive as it should be and
appropriate testing procedures have not been developed in
some instances.

242 FD12A
 l Some persons have suggested that the increase in children of
hypersensitivity diseases such as allergies and asthma may be
due to genetically modified foods to which they are exposed.

l Although there are perceived advantages such as tastier fruit,

there may be unintended changes in the plant and if such plants
are cross bred with other varieties, a harmful variety may result.

Clearly, we must inform ourselves so that we can consider these

issues very carefully.

FD12A 243
244 FD12A
 Session 4.3
Biotechnology and Industry

Introduction

Rum has been made in the Caribbean since about 1750. The prepa-
ration of rums, wines and beers is one example of the early use of
biotechnology in industry. The alcohol base of these beverages came
from the fermentation of plant material by yeast, a living organism.
Yeasts, like all other living things, need energy to live. Unlike us
they can survive by obtaining energy from sugar (glucose) in the
absence of oxygen. When they do this they produce alcohol and
carbon dioxide as waste products. We could represent the process
like this:

Glucose à carbon dioxide + alcohol + energy

One important aspect of the new biotechnology is that it does not

only focus on making products for human use; it also focuses on
promoting and maintaining the health of the physical environment.

Some current uses of biotechnology in industry

Preventing and remedying environmental degradation

Chemical industrial processes tend to produce waste materials that

may be hazardous to the environment. In contrast, biotechnology-
based manufacturing tends to produce wastes that are recyclable
and biodegradable. For example, producing the antibiotic
cephalosporin using methods from modern biotechnology instead of
chemical methods is cost effective because less is spent on the meas-
ures previously needed to protect the environment. Similarly, it has
been estimated that there could be energy savings of up to 30%
when biotechnological methods are used to treat wood pulp instead
of thermo-mechanical methods, for example in making animal feed.

FD12A 245
 Besides preventing environmental degradation, biotechnological
methods can also be used to remedy damage that has already taken
place. Living organisms have been used to modify and destroy chem-
ical wastes making them harmless to the environment. Typically,
bacteria or fungi that can digest the waste are genetically engineered
to produce more effective strains that can get rid of the waste
quickly. In the case of oil spills, genetically engineered bacteria have
been produced and used to clean up waterways. This contrasts with
previous methods, for example, using detergents that often did more
damage than the oil spills.

Enzyme technology

Older methods of making cheeses and alcoholic beverages relied on

the enzymes produced by micro-organisms to convert milk or sugar
into the products to be sold. The enzymes can now be made and
extracted from genetically engineered bacteria in large quantities for
use in industry. One familiar use of enzymes is in washing powders.
Believe it or not, the world’s first enzyme detergent was patented in
1913 but it was not very successful. Enzymes from genetically engi-
neered micro-organisms are now used in manufacturing cheeses, in
brewing, making biscuits, and sweets. They are also used in the
textile and leather industries.

Creating new products

In manufacturing, biotechnology has led to the creation of a wide

range of products including biodegradable plastics, biopolymers, and
biopesticides. Also, an additional source of alcohol is now available.
Normally in the manufacture of alcohol, yeast acts on glucose after
it is broken down from more complex sugars like cane sugar. Yeast
now exists in a genetically altered form, which can break down a
different sugar, lactose or milk sugar. Whey, a waste product in the
manufacture of cheese, contains lactose. So this waste product can
now be used for making alcohol.

246 FD12A
 Considering issues in biotechnology

In the remainder of this Session we would like to raise a number of

issues that concern biotechnology as a whole. Many of these issues
arise because commercial interests now provide the driving force for
biotechnological development and many of the concerns are directed
at the use of biotechnology on a large scale. Some of these are legal
issues, others social, environmental or economic. It is at this level
that the average citizen must interface with the technology.

For each issue that is raised there are a number of pertinent ques-
tions. Consider them all carefully and discuss your opinions with a
class member or a friend or at your next tutorial. Use the informa-
tion provided in this and other units to inform your discussion but
your final opinions are personal. Write down your answers to the
questions for future reference.

The ownership of knowledge

Biotechnology has become an industry; it is now big business and

growing rapidly. One of the most contentious issues surrounding
the industry is the fact that most of the research in the area is no
longer in the public domain. This is to be expected. When large
pharmaceutical corporations spend millions on research in the hope
that the outcome will benefit them they are within their rights to
protect their discoveries. However, this goes against all that we have
said about the nature of scientific scholarship. Science has
progressed because researchers across the world have always shared
their knowledge. In this way scientists were able to build on what
others had accomplished. This is no longer the case.

?
? THINK ABOUT IT!

Who should own new knowledge? Is the privatisation of

knowledge to the disadvantage of mankind as a whole?

FD12A 247
 Patenting

In 1980, a patent was granted in the United States for a genetically

engineered “oil-eating bacterium”. The organism was to be used for
cleaning up oil spills. It was said to be a “non-natural man-made
microorganism”. Since then, several patents have been given, for
example, for genetically modified bacteria, viruses, plants, and
hormones. In 1988 a transgenic mouse to be used in cancer research
was patented. Herman, the world’s first transgenic bull was created
in Europe. The issue of patenting Herman’s new genes that would
make his female offspring less likely to get mastitis, has not yet
been settled. Some companies afraid of exposing what they have
discovered to their competitors, refuse to file patents for their
discoveries. They consider them trade secrets.

Already there have been attempts to patent human genes by the

scientists working in the Human Genome Project. Some are of the
view that the scientist who identifies a gene should “own” it.

?
? THINK ABOUT IT!

Is it appropriate to grant patents for living things? Are there

appropriate guidelines for granting these kinds of patents?
Should there be internationally agreed criteria or guidelines to
control research in this area? Is patenting a gene (a piece of
DNA) any different from patenting a particular brand of milk?

Biosafety and environmental hazards

The rate of effects of the new technology

The rate at which new biotechnology processes produce results

allows little time for observing environmental interactions at any
level, molecular, cellular or whole organism. Therefore there is no
time to correct or defuse errors that may have disastrous results.

248 FD12A
 ?
? THINK ABOUT IT!

The rate at which results are produced is one of the greatest

assets of the new technology. Since we do not yet know where
much of it will lead, should we put a brake on development in
this field?

The dangers of release

Many pharmaceutical and other companies use genetically engi-

neered organisms to make their products. There is concern for the
workers in these facilities should these organisms escape. Adequate
safeguards seem to be in place in these fermentation plants. In some
cases the micro-organisms are also genetically engineered so that
they cannot survive outside the specific conditions of the fermenta-
tion vats in which they live.

The greater danger is the use of genetically engineered micro-organ-

isms that are deliberately released into the environment. For exam-
ple, strains of bacteria that can fight certain diseases in crop plants
can be sprayed on them for this purpose. Scientists post materials to
each other around the world. These might escape from a torn pack-
age. The fear is that some previously unknown and dangerous effect
might follow. There is no way to recall or destroy these bacteria
once they enter the environment.

International policy as laid out in the Cartegena Biosafety Protocol,

adopted at a Conference of Parties to the United Nations
Convention on Biological Diversity, 1999, and the Codex Alimentarius
of the Food and Agricultural Organisation (FAO), address these
concerns. These can help to prevent misuse and accidents arising
out of genetic engineering that could have irreversible effects but
they do not remove the danger altogether.

?
? THINK ABOUT IT!

Do these steps put your mind at rest? Even field trials are
hazardous; should we wait until we know more?

FD12A 249
 Competition with natural species

Another concern is that genetically engineered organisms may

escape into the wild and flourish at the expense of natural organ-
isms, wiping out whole varieties. This is a major concern with
respect to genetically engineered plants, many of which are in use
now. Plants spread their genes in pollen grains and seeds that are
difficult to confine to one area.

?
? THINK ABOUT IT!

Is enough being done to assess the risk to the environment? Is

the risk worth taking in order to produce cheaper, more
nutritious foods in greater quantities for a growing world
population?

Social and economic issues

Are genetically modified organisms the new economic weapon?

Developing genetically modified organisms is expensive business.

Large companies with great economic resources stand to gain most
from technologies such as genetic engineering. GMOs can become a
new economic weapon in a number of ways. Patents are being taken
out on genes from tropical crops or plants with medicinal qualities.
Farmers in developing countries will derive no benefit from these
discoveries and stand to lose some of their markets (as happened
with sugar) as the products made by these methods can be cheaper
and more effective, thus more competitive.

?
? THINK ABOUT IT!

Will we have the legal right to continue growing the crops from
which the genes have been patented? Is there any way of
protecting Caribbean countries from these activities? Should we
be doing more of our own biotechnology research?

250 FD12A
 Large companies, because of their economic strength, can force
poorer governments to accept their genetically modified exports,
affecting the livelihoods of farmers and farm workers. Reduced earn-
ings mean a lowering of the quality of life of these individuals and
of the economic circumstances of the countries to which they
belong.

?
? THINK ABOUT IT!

Do Third World countries have laws and regulations that would

protect them from this kind of occurrence? Can any laws on the
labeling of genetically modified foods really be strictly enforced,
particularly since these organisms may be developed in secret?

Can the developing world afford the new technologies?

Cuba has successfully entered the field of biotechnology. An existing

excellent health service is the base on which their enterprise has
been built. The UWI has biotechnology centres on its three
campuses, where research is being carried out and on the university
campus in Trinidad and Tobago the tissue culture facility is commer-
cially viable. It is not impossible or unrealistic for institutions and
governments like ours to follow Cuba’s lead. Although we may not
have individual companies and corporations in the region with the
wherewithal to pursue such research our governments and institu-
tions like the university can work together on selected projects of
mutual benefit.

?
? THINK ABOUT IT!

Can we enter the field of biotechnology successfully? How can

we strengthen the already existing biotechnology centres?
Should the region consider developing appropriate policies to
support work in the area and protect the population from the
less desirable effects of biotechnology? What might be the
prerequisites for developing an economically viable
biotechnology sector?

FD12A 251
 Ethical considerations
The right to modify life

Humans have been modifying living things for hundreds of years.

Many breeds of dogs provide pleasure to their owners no matter
how ridiculous they appear to us. These have all been “created” by
humans. Breeding plants and animals for pleasure or profit has not
raised many questions but many feel the new technology is going
too far.

?
? THINK ABOUT IT!

Do we have the right to modify the genetic material of living

organisms at will, knowing that we do not yet have the
technology to reverse the changes produced?

Lack of privacy in data banks

Scientists working on the Human Genome Project and others in

public and private institutions discover and locate precisely genes
that cause or predispose individuals to certain diseases. As more and
more of these genes are found information is piling up in data banks
that are like libraries. The information is important for other
researchers but use of the banks can be abused. It is feared that
employers or insurance companies, for example, can use information
about a person’s genetic make-up to discriminate against them. An
insurance company may refuse to insure someone with a predisposi-
tion to heart disease. An employer may fire a 23-year-old worker
carrying the gene for Huntington’s chorea although he may not
become ill for another 25 years.

?
? THINK ABOUT IT!

If employers are paying health or life insurance for their

employees, should they have access to the employees’ genetic
records if they are available? This may be one of many
questions that we have to deal with in the future. The future is
not very far away.

252 FD12A
 It should be clear to you that to begin thinking about these ques-
tions at all, people need to have some basic information about what
is going on. We hope you are now in a better position to make more
objective decisions should you be asked to contribute to a debate on
any of the issues raised.

?
? A FINAL QUESTION

Should as many of our citizens as possible, be exposed to this

kind of scientific information?

SUMMARY

Biotechnology is the use of living organisms to make useful products

for humans. Modern biotechnology refers to genetic engineering and
its associated technologies.

Biotechnology and medicine

Techniques covered included artificial insemination, in vitro fertilisa-

tion, genetic engineering, and gene cloning. Some of the uses of
genetic engineering discussed include making safe vaccines, cheaper
production of hormones, prenatal diagnoses for genetic defects in
foetuses, and pregnancy tests. In forensic medicine the use of DNA
fingerprinting was seen to be a useful tool for making positive iden-
tifications and matching tissues of donors and recipients for trans-
plant surgery. In medical research genetic engineering centred on the
development of transgenic animals with human genes making
experiments possible that cannot be done on humans. The contro-
versial areas of gene therapy and stem cell research were also
discussed. The mapping of the human genome and the many possi-
bilities it offered were described briefly.

Biotechnology in agriculture

In this section the main focus was on examples from the Caribbean
of work done to enhance the characteristics of some commercially
important plants and animals. Methods used include plant propaga-
tion by tissue culture and genetic engineering of new varieties. The

FD12A 253
 “old” technologies of plant and animal breeding were also seen to
have made an important contribution to Caribbean agriculture

Biotechnology in industry

In industry genetic engineering has contributed bacteria with genes

for making a wide range of products in ways that are cleaner and
more environmentally friendly than the older technologies. Products
include foods, enzymes for washing powders, and bacteria for clean-
ing up oil spills.

Issues and concerns

Several issues concerning the safety of the new technologies for

humans and the environment were discussed as well as possible
social and economic effects on the developing world. The ethical
issue of “tampering with life” was also raised.

254 FD12A
 REFERENCES

Fransman, Martin. Biotechnology: Generation, diffusion and policy. The

Netherlands: The United Nations University, 1992, pp. 45–78.
Lowe H., Y. Brown, and K. Magnus. Discovering the future: The
emergence, development and future of science and technology in
Jamaica. Kingston: Canoe Press, University of the West Indies,
2000.
Tzotzos, George T. Biological risk assessment: The limits of
scientific certainty. BINAS News 5 (3 & 4), 1999.
http://binas.unido.org/binas/Library/binasnews/99issue3-4.shtml
Umaharan, P. Diverse Perspectives of genetically modified
organisms: Pros and cons and international perspectives on
GMOs. Paper presented at the symposium Genetically Modified
Organisms: Implications for Sustainability. Ministry of Trade,
Industry and Consumer Affairs, Trinidad and Tobago, 15–17
March, 2000.

FD12A 255
 Unit 5
Computer Science
and Information Technology

INTRODUCTION

The way people conduct business, entertain themselves and learn is

changing rapidly as a result of the introduction of information tech-
nology. Computers have affected even the way people see them-
selves. These typically computer-based technologies for gathering,
storing, manipulating and analyzing, and disseminating informa-
tion, is arguably one of the most important and exciting technologi-
cal developments to have hit the world over the last ten to fifteen
years. What comes to your mind almost immediately when you
think about this technology? Probably the Internet that allows you
access to the rest of the world and the cell phone that has increased
your access to families and friends.

Information technology has had remarkable impact on all areas of

many of our lives. We sometimes forget that, as with many other
technological developments, the impact of this technology has not
been uniform across the world or within our own countries. There
is little doubt that information and telecommunication technologies
have affected significantly the ways in which societies in high
income countries are organized, their effects on low income coun-
tries has been far less drastic. It is good to bear in mind, for example,
that there are fewer telephones in the whole of Sub-Saharan Africa
than there are in Manhattan. In the Caribbean there are also signifi-
cant differences in telephone penetration.

FD12A 257
 Until very recently, the number of telephones per 100 households
differed considerably both between countries and within countries.
This is changing rapidly since the cost of cell phones was reduced
but the difference between access to landlines remains. Access to
information technology depends on access to landlines. This differ-
ence in access to information technology is often referred to as the
“digital divide”.

Telephone penetration and access to wider information technology,

is now one of the factors that correlates most highly with the
economic well-being of a country. We cannot be sure which one is
responsible for the other. Are countries that are well off forging even
farther ahead because of this technology? Is it the technology that is
driving the rapid advance? Whichever is true, and maybe both are,
the digital divide greatly worries those who believe that a more
equitable distribution of wealth is a worthy goal for societies and
the international community to pursue.

OVERVIEW

In this Unit of the course, we explore some of the changes taking

place as a result of this technology. First, we look briefly at
computer science, the science underlying information technology.
We then turn our attention to the way in which societies are organ-
ized, as a result of this new tool. We consider the role of the
Internet and possibilities for and limitations on e-commerce in the
Caribbean. This is an important topic for all of us.

LEARNING OBJECTIVES

After you have completed this unit, you should be able to:

1. Define the term “information technology”

2. Explain briefly the basic concepts of computer science

3. Describe the relationship between information technology and

computer science

258 FD12A
 4. Describe some of the impacts of the use of Information
Technology on individuals, organizations and societies

5. Evaluate the potential benefits of information technology for the

economic development of the Caribbean

READINGS

l Computers: History and development. Jones International and

Jones Digital Century.
http://www.digitalcentury.com/encyclo/update/comp_hd.html

l Frazer, Delroy and Lisa Nicely-Peterkin. Over 6 million hits for

Gleaner’s jamaicaelections.com. October, 2002. www.jamaica-
gleaner.com

l Black, Jane. Losing ground bit by bit. From Information rich

information poor. BBC News Special Report. November 1, 1999.

l Some Pros and Cons of E-Business.

FD12A 259
260 FD12A
 Session 5.1
Computer Science
and Informaton Technology

Computer science

Have you never wondered how a computer works? In the same way
that genetics is the science behind genetic engineering, computer
science is the science behind information technology. It may
surprise you to learn that there is an academic discipline named
after an artifact, even if the artifact in question is a relatively
complex one. After all, there is no similarly recognized science
named after, automobiles or refrigerators. What makes this even
more surprising is that, although computers play an important role
in computer science, they are not the central concept and figure
only peripherally in most definitions of computer science. What
then is computer science? To understand this we need to look first
at how instructions are provided to a computer in useable form.

Algorithms

The central concept in computer science is that of an algorithm.

An algorithm is a series of unambiguous executable steps to perform
some task in a finite amount of time. (For non-mathematicians:
a clearly stated set of instructions written in simple steps!) For
example, the following is an algorithm for making a cup of tea:

1. Put some water in a kettle.

2. Put the kettle on the stove.
3. Turn on the stove underneath the kettle.
4. Place a tea bag in a cup.
5. Wait until the water in the kettle reaches boiling point and when
it does, pour the water in the cup.

FD12A 261
 For a sequence of actions to be an algorithm, it must meet a number
of requirements. First, the steps that make up the algorithm must
be unambiguous in that there is no doubt in the mind of whoever is
reading the algorithm what the steps are. Clearly, the above meets
this requirement. Second, the steps in the algorithm must be
executable in the sense that the person performing the algorithm
must be able to perform the individual actions. Again, the above
algorithm meets this requirement for most of us, as most of us will
be capable of performing the actions that make up the algorithm.
Finally, the algorithm must achieve its aim in a finite amount of
time, a requirement that the above algorithm again meets. While
the first two requirements are straightforward, the final one may
need some explanation. By way of explanation, we give an example
of a sequence of unambiguous executable steps that does not termi-
nate:

1. Start with a number

2. Add one to that number
3. If you have reached a number that you cannot add one to, stop;
otherwise add one to the number that you have and go back to
step 3.

A little thought will show that, since there is no largest number, the
above sequence of actions never terminates and therefore is not an
algorithm.

Notice also that the first sequence of steps given above is only one
algorithm for making a cup of tea. We could have performed step 4
first or second or third. In each case, we would have generated a
slightly different algorithm, although all of them would have
resulted in us achieving our goal.

Did you also notice that the above definition of an algorithm is not
entirely clear? After all, it states that an algorithm must consist of a
sequence of executable steps but it does not say what makes a step
executable. Indeed, there may even be some doubt as to what makes
a step executable since there are certainly differences between
people that may prevent execution of a particular instruction. Steps,
such as “bowl a cricket ball at 90 miles an hour”, are executable for
only a few of us. Can we be more precise about exactly what makes

262 FD12A
 a step executable? Also, because we are dealing with algorithms in
the context of computers, we are really interested in steps that can
be executed by a computer.

This question was central in an area of mathematics, called

computational logic, in the 1930s. A number of different mathe-
maticians all came up with precise definitions of what steps would
be executable by a computer. Notable among these were Alan
Turing, Alonzo Church, and Stephen Kleene. Interestingly, although
all three arrived at different definitions, it later turned out that the
three definitions were equivalent. Everything that was a computer
executable algorithm under one definition was also a computer
executable algorithm under the other definition, and vice versa. This
was good reason to believe that these three mathematicians had
defined the notion correctly. It is also important to realize that this
work on algorithms was done before the construction of the first
physical computer. The first computer would not appear until the
1940s. 1

What makes computers such powerful tools is the fact that the
same computer can execute different algorithms. Thus, depending
on the algorithm that it has been given, the same computer can be
used to predict the likely path of a hurricane over the next 24 hours
or to type out a poem. However, before an algorithm can be
executed by a computer it first needs to be translated into a
program written in a programming language and this program
translated into a set of instructions that the computer can execute.
We refer to the translation of the algorithm into a program as the
linguistic realization of an algorithm and the execution of this
algorithm as its mechanical realization.

We already noticed that there are many different algorithms for

making a cup of tea. The same applies to computer algorithms. One
can design different algorithms for achieving the same task, and

1 As in the case of the automobile, there are many discussions about where the first
computer was invented and by whom. Leading contenders are Z3 (built by Konrad
Zuse in Germany in 1941), COLLOSSUS (built in England in 1943) and ENIAC (built
in the USA in 1944). As is the case with the automobile, the reason that people can
have this debate is that there is no clear-cut definition of exactly what a computer is,
or at least no agreement whether Z3 for example would classify as a computer under
whatever definition one prefers.

FD12A 263
 write different programs. However, it would obviously be good if
one could compare algorithms. If we have two algorithms for the
same task, is one better than the other, for example, because it runs
faster?

Bearing all this in mind, we can now define computer science as:

the study of the design of algorithms, their properties, and

their linguistic and mechanical realization.

ACTIVITY

1. Write an algorithm for revising/learning what you have just

read. Use whatever method you normally use to study as a
pattern. Your first steps could be:

Open the book on page 3

Read the first paragraph carefully
Write down …
Compare your algorithm with one written by someone
doing the same course. Use the three criteria in the passage
to determine which of you has written the best algorithm.

2. To what extent is computer sciece different from the natural

sciences discussed in other units? (Consider differences or
similarities in their objectives, methodologies, and the uses
to which findings are put.)

Information technology

As we said earlier, computer science is the science behind informa-

n Find out more
about the early tion technology (IT), and information technology has, at least in
history of computers. those places in the world where the technology is readily available,
significantly changed the way in which societies are organized and
the way in which people do things. In this section, we will explore
some of the factors responsible for this explosion in the use of infor-
mation technology. In so doing, we will describe some examples of
how information technology has changed the shape of societies in
countries with widespread access to the technology.

264 FD12A
 Economics of IT

The first factor responsible for the explosion in the use of informa-
tion technology has been the continuing decline in cost of computer
hardware. Some 10 years ago, George Moore, a founder of one of the
most successful computer processor manufacturers in the world,
Intel, formulated what is now called “Moore’s law”. Moore’s “law”
states that the power of a computer doubles every eighteen months
without an increase in price. Thus, a computer that can do x today
and costs $y, will still cost $y in eighteen months and do 2x. Or, and
equally importantly, a computer to do x will cost only ½$y in eight-
een months time.

The increase in computing power, without an increase in price, has

made it possible to tackle much harder problems using computers.
One reason that weather forecasting has become more accurate over
the last 15 years or so has been the fact that we have been able to
use more powerful computers to simulate the weather. The decreas-
ing cost of computing power has also made it possible to make
greater use of computer technology in existing products. For exam-
ple, all new cars, even cheap ones, have sophisticated computers in
them to control the operations of important elements of the car,
such as its engine. Indeed, the power of these computers is far
greater than early personal computers. Decreases in the cost of
computers have also made entirely new applications feasible. A good
example is the development of the mobile phone, or the use of
computers to create animated movies.

The decreasing cost of computers is only one factor. Another factor

has been the coming together of computer and communications
technologies. Getting computers to communicate over networks
used to be an expensive proposition. This is no longer so. Indeed,
anybody with access to a telephone and a computer with a modem
n Note that these can now connect to one of the most powerful sources of informa-
“laws” are not
comparable to the tion available today, namely the Internet.
scientifically proven
or deducaed laws
mentioned The drop in cost of telecommunications is the consequence of yet
previously. They are
statistical
another law, namely “Gilder’s law” which states that the amount of
observations that bandwidth available globally, i.e. the amount of information that
cannot be verified
accurately.
can be transmitted over any given time period, triples every year.
Clearly, with so much bandwidth available, one would expect the

FD12A 265
 cost of using it, i.e. the cost of transmitting information, to
decrease. It is this drop in the cost of telecommunication, as much
as the drop in the cost of computer hardware that has been behind
the emergence of the Internet. (We discuss the Internet in greater
detail in the next session.)

A final factor that is important in explaining the explosion of the

use of information technology is that many different organizations
have woken up to the importance of information to their busi-
nesses, and the fact that information technology can help them
make their businesses more efficient.

ACTIVITY

1. Write down the three main reasons for the rapid increase in
the use of IT.

2. What evidence is there that the Caribbean society is

involved in the “explosion of the use of information
technology”?

3. What import do you think this has had on our lives?

(Consider your personal life as well as the wider society.)

4. Computers now tackle harder problems, allow greater use of

existing technologies and make new applications feasible.
Identify one example of each of the above from (a) what you
just read, and (b) with which you are familiar.

5. Discuss THREE factors that account for the rapid increase in

the use of information technology. Can you think of other
factors that may have contributed to this explosion?
(Consider other economic factors, the role of advertising,
educational needs etc.)

Different uses of IT in organizations

Information technology can be used in two different ways. First, it

can simply be used to automate the processes already performed in
an organization. Automating processes has many advantages, such
as making the process faster, more reliable and less error-prone, and

266 FD12A
 allowing the organization to deal with many more cases. Unlike
humans, computers do not get tired and, at least if programmed
correctly, do not make mistakes.

Second, information technology can be used by organizations to

completely re-design the way in which they perform their business
operations. For example, some 10 years ago, Wal-Mart, the largest
retail company in the United States and indeed the world, used
information technology to give Johnson & Johnson access to its
sales data of disposable baby nappies. Since disposable nappies are
bulky items that require a lot of warehousing space and warehous-
ing space is expensive, Wal-Mart wanted to reduce its inventory of
disposable nappies. It did so by giving Johnson & Johnson access to
its sales data and asking it in return to re-stock the shelves in its
stores. In other words, Johnson & Johnson could keep track of
nappy sales on a daily basis by retrieving the data from the Wal-
Mart computers. The Johnson & Johnson computers could use these
records to “tell” them when to restock the shelves. Wal-Mart would
no longer need to store nappies in their warehouses. Wal-Mart
completely relied on Johnson & Johnson for making sure that its
stores always had supplies of nappies on their shelves. Clearly,
Johnson & Johnson has a stake in making sure that each Wal-Mart
store stocked a sufficient supply of nappies as Wal-Mart was one of
the largest sellers of this particular product. This relationship
between Wal-Mart and Johnson & Johnson would have been very
difficult to establish in the absence of an electronic link between
Wal-Mart stores and Johnson & Johnson.

More recently, the emergence of the Internet has led to even more
dramatic changes in the way in which companies do business and
the general way in which societies are organized. We discuss some of
these factors in the next section.

?
? CRITICAL THINKING ACTIVITY

1. To what extent do you think this type of link between

suppliers and retailers would be feasible in your country?
(Give at least THREE possible reasons for your opinion.)

FD12A 267
 2. List the advantages of using information technology
described in the passage above. Can you think of any other
advantages?

3. In what ways might the introduction of IT in the Caribbean

be problematic? Have you any personal experience with
these problems?

The Internet
Development and growth of the Internet

Perhaps the most visible example of the information technology

revolution is the Internet. The Internet is a global network of
computers sharing information. The Internet grew out of a project
originally sponsored by the US Department of Defense to build a
network of interconnected computers. Although its origins are
somewhat murky, it is probable that the original motivation was to
build a computer network that would allow the Department of
Defense to remain functional even after a nuclear attack had taken
out a large number of its sites.

n Protocols are
Two factors led to the growth of the Internet, both of which
agreed ways and / or involved the voluntary adoption of a set of standards. The first was
standards of getting adopting a protocol referred to as TCP/IP (Transmission Control
something done.
These protocols are Protocol/Internet Protocol) that made it possible for all types of
sets of rules computers to communicate with each other. The second factor was
governing the
exchange or the adoption of HTML (Hypertext Markup Language) as the stan-
transmission of data dard for providing content for the Internet and the development of
between electronic
devises. TCP/IP the so-called Web browser to display information encoded in HTML.
allows computers to
talk to each other in
an error-free way. Today, the Internet has grown and continues to grow rapidly. By some
HTML is the layout estimates there are over 550 million users (or some 10% of the world
script used to design
web pages. HTTP is population). Unfortunately, accurate estimates are hard to come by
another protocol, and while there may be some dispute about the actual number of
used by most
browsers when users, there can be no dispute about the exponential increase in those
reading a web page. numbers. It is perhaps good to recall that the Internet in the form that
we know it today is only about 10 years old!

268 FD12A
 Although the Internet was initially used primarily for entertainment
and information exchange between academics, more recently it has
become a vehicle for commercial activity as well. Accurate estimates
are again hard to come by but it has been estimated that e-
commerce, the conduct of financial and commercial transactions
over the Internet, will reach a value of US$1trillion by 2003. There
are many disputes about the actual value of e-commerce but it is
again good to remember that in 1995 e-commerce did not exist.

There are many reasons that one can advance for the explosive
growth in Internet use. Some reasons have to do with the sheer
amount of information that is available on the Internet and the rela-
tively low cost of access. Anybody with a personal computer and a
telephone can basically access the Internet. Moreover, anybody can
find something of interest to them, whether it is music of various
kinds, the state of Dutch second division football, reviews of a new
film or what’s new in computer software.

Why companies use the Internet

Many commercial organizations have been attracted to the Internet

and use it for commercial purposes. This is often referred to as
e-commerce or e-business. Companies become involved in
e-commerce for a number of reasons, three of which are given
below:

1. The Internet enables companies to significantly reduce their transaction

costs. For example, the cost of conducting a simple bank
transaction over the Internet is less than 5% of the cost of
conducting the transaction face-to-face and less than 25% of the
cost of conducting that transaction using an Automated Teller
Machine. This saving results from lower overheads, less staff and
other indirect costs associated with face to face transactions.

2. The Internet enables companies to build new relationships with

customers and suppliers. Many companies, for example, insist that
potential suppliers replying to requests for tenders submit their
proposals over the Internet. It allows businesses a much wider
market for their goods and services and the ability to send orders
directly to suppliers without passing through additional
middlemen such as agents and wholesalers. Orders can be
confirmed immediately and a shipping trail set up on the net to

FD12A 269
 track goods from the time they leave the supplier until they
reach the customer.

3. Many companies have set up entirely new businesses on the Internet

forcing others to do the same. Companies that have seen Internet
businesses take a significant slice out of their market share have
had to establish an Internet presence as well. A good example is
amazon.com, which is a company selling books over the
Internet. It took a significant slice out of the market share of
Barnes & Noble and so forced the latter company to set up an
Internet site as well.

Using the Internet for business

The use of the Internet for commercial purposes primarily between

businesses is called B2B (Business To Business) and accounts for
some 80% of the total value of all e-commerce operations. However,
individual consumers have also been drawn to the Internet for
commercial reasons. For example, many individuals are using the
Internet to buy directly from retailers (in B2C e-commerce).
Examples include amazon.com and dell.com. The reasons for the
emergence of B2C e-commerce involve:

1. convenience (unlike real shops, the Internet does not close at

5.00 p.m.),

2. greater choice (a physical book store can only store a limited

number of books, whereas a virtual book store can in principle
offer any book that is in print), and

3. savings e.g., Internet sales often do not attract sales tax.

In addition, people are also using the Internet to sell and buy
directly from each other through on-line auctions. This type of e-
commerce is often referred to as C2C. A good example of this is
eBay.com which, in essence, is an electronic flea market.

Building international communities

The cheap and open access to the Internet has also helped create
global communities and global special interest groups. Although it is
unlikely that one will find a sufficient number of individuals with
the same esoteric interests in a geographically defined area, it is

270 FD12A
 more than likely that one can find sufficient individuals with similar
interests among a group of some 550 million.

The community building aspect of the Internet clearly has its posi-
tive sides. However, there are also some more negative aspects to it.
A person with strange interests will find it difficult to find similar
persons in a geographically defined community, no matter how large
this community. Clearly, this is no longer the case if the larger
community becomes globally defined by access to the Internet.
There is little harm in people using the Internet to create self-help
groups for people with particular diseases, or communities with
unusual interests, 1920s British motorcycles for example, but the
technology can also be used to create communities of people with
less savoury interests. Indeed, it is not too difficult to find Neo-Nazi
groups spreading their message via the internet or to find child
pornography. Can anything be done to control the use of the net?

?
? CRITICAL THINKING ACTIVITY

What might be the implication of creating global communities

via the Internet? Consider both positive and negative aspects of,
for example, political interest groups, criminal/terrorist activity,
privacy issues, interpersonal relations, etc.

Some legal issues

Censorship and the use of the law to enforce censorship, is not

effective in the context of the Internet. While most countries have
laws in place to prevent the distribution of material that they, or in
some cases their leaders, find offensive, the Internet, because of its
open character which gives anybody with access to the appropriate
(cheap) technology the chance to use it, is extremely hard to police.
Moreover, even when a state can find the person who uses the
Internet to distribute material or provide services that it objects to,
and prosecutes the individual successfully, there is no guarantee that
the material will disappear. The global nature of the Internet means
that the offender can simply start providing the material or the serv-
ice from elsewhere.

FD12A 271
 A good example of shifting sites to get around the law is Internet
gambling. A few years ago, the United States passed a law prohibit-
ing the provision of Internet gambling services. However, rather
than not providing these services, for which there was a clear
demand in the US, the organizations providing these services simply
relocated to the Eastern Caribbean. Internet gambling is as popular,
if not more so, as it was before the ban. It is just that the services
are now provided from the Caribbean, rather than from US based
organizations.

A related issue is that of intellectual property rights. Intellectual

property rights are the financial and moral rights that a creator of a
piece of intellectual property, such as a song, a piece of literature, or
a piece of software, has by virtue of the fact that he or she has made
that creation. The violation of intellectual property rights is nothing
new. For example, software piracy, which involves the illegal copy-
ing of software, began shortly after software became commercially
available. However, the ease with which information can be put on
the Internet has made the problem of the violation of intellectual
property rights worse, and many producers of intellectual property
rights (or owners of such rights) have undertaken steps to protect
what they consider to be their financial interests.

A good example of this is the case that the music companies

brought against Napster, an organization whose software made it
possible for Internet users to freely swap music. The record compa-
nies argued that this violated their Intellectual Property Rights, as
people had free access to music that they would otherwise have had
to buy. The US Supreme Court agreed and Napster was forced to
close its operations. However, the fact that since then, a number of
other Internet sites have sprung up that basically provide the same
service as Napster did, illustrates how difficult it is to protect intel-
lectual property rights.

?
? CRITICAL THINKING ACTIVITY

Recently one American university has made all its course

materials available on the Internet. The position taken is that
such academic knowledge should be available to all, particularly
since it is virtually impossible to prevent anyone from gaining

272 FD12A
 access. Do you consider this a reasonable point of view or that
it might start a free-for-all that would be the detriment of
individual property rights?

E-commerce and the Caribbean

Many have argued that the Internet provides important opportuni-

ties for poor countries, as it “levels the playing field”. The argument
is that in principle the Internet provides small poor countries access
to a global market and thus affords them great economic opportuni-
ties. Indeed, there are some success stories. A widely quoted exam-
ple is a group of Amerindian women in Guyana who used the
Internet to sell hand-made hammocks. The Internet gave these
women access to a market that had hitherto been out of their reach.

However, the use of the Internet to help in the economic develop-

ment of poor countries is not as straightforward as all that. One can
only use the Internet for one’s social and economic development if
one has access to it. Unfortunately, the vast majority of the citizens
of the poorest countries of the world do not have access to the net.
Earlier we mentioned the fact that there are fewer telephone lines in
Sub-Saharan Africa than in Manhattan, and we referred to this as
the digital divide.

There are, of course, efforts under way to address this problem and
the cellular phone is coming to the rescue by providing telephone
services that are considerably cheaper for both customer and service
provider than installing wired telephony. Already, Africa has more
cellular phone lines than wired ones, and the number of cellular
lines is increasing rapidly. However, while the provision of basic
telephony is of course important, and will lead to significant
economic opportunities, access to a telephone is a far cry from
access to the Internet.

Although the cost of Internet access is falling rapidly, in relative

terms, information technology remains very expensive in the devel-
oping world. The same computer that costs less than 5% of the
average person’s annual income in the richest countries of the
world, costs 15 to 30% of the annual income of a Caribbean person

FD12A 273
 and more than 4 times an average person’s annual salary in the
poorest countries of the world. In other words, while information
technology might provide important economic opportunities for
poor countries and their citizens, their very poverty often makes it
extremely hard for them to access the technology in the first place.

Even if one could solve the problem of access, the big problem
remains how to attract customers in the first place. Selling in the
“real world” (as opposed to the “virtual world” of the Internet) is
difficult but relatively well understood. If you are selling to individ-
ual customers in a store, then it pays to establish the store in the
best location possible. As the saying goes, in retail only three things
matter: “Location, location and location.” Similarly, selling to large
businesses often involves a well-understood marketing exercise with
repeated visits to the prospective customer and possibly visits by the
customer to one’s physical establishment as well.

It is less clear how one sells in the virtual world. In order to conduct
a sale, one first has to get the prospective customer to visit one’s
Internet site. Visiting a site requires a conscious decision on the part
of the prospective customer. Prospective customers may happen to
wander into a physical retail store, for example because they were
visiting the area in which the shop happens to be located. However,
a prospective customer is much less likely to visit an Internet site by
chance. One therefore has to entice customers to one’s site and this
is an expensive proposition. It has been estimated that the acquisi-
tion cost per customer (the cost of acquiring a potential customer) is
four to five times as high in the “virtual” world as in the real world.
Indeed, very few businesses that rely exclusively on the Internet for
sales have made any profit, despite their having access to consider-
able amounts of capital through their local stock markets. The ques-
tion is how companies located in the developing world, usually with
far less access to capital, can make a profit when many companies in
the rich world have not been able to do so.

274 FD12A
 ACTIVITY

Essay/discussion topic

“Although e-commerce offers many potential opportunities to small

countries these potential benefits have not all been realised.”

A good essay can contain answers to the following questions.

Use them as a guide.

(a) Why is the Internet seen as providing a “level playing

field” for all?
(b) What has attracted companies to the Internet?
(c) What are the problems and limitations faced by small or
poor countries with respect to e-commerce?
(d) Besides business, how might access to the Internet help a
developing country?
(e) How might regional Caribbean governments encourage
and support greater access to and use of the opportunities
offered by the Internet?

Whatever one thinks about the prospects of this technology for the
developing world, there is no doubt that it has had a significant
impact on the way in which the world is organized, and that it will
continue to have a significant impact. Companies and individuals,
no matter where they are located, would seem to have no choice but
to integrate this technology into their operations. We would all be
wise to keep abreast of developments in the fields of computer
science and information technology; the end is nowhere in sight.

ACTIVITY

Consider the ways in which IT has had an impact on the

society in which you live and how it might change our lives in
the future.

1. Compare your society now and ten years ago. List all the
differences (good and bad) that the increasing use of IT has
brought to your region.

2. What further changes would you expect in another 10 or

20 years?

FD12A 275
 3. How do you think these changes will affect social relations
in your country?

Some of the areas you might look at are: conducting business,

personal communications (staying in touch), education (will
distance education become the norm), shopping, meeting and
making friends, running a home, medicine – diagnosis and
treatment by distance, working from home vs going to the place
of work.

SUMMARY

Computer science is the science behind information technology. It

involves constructing algorithms that provide instructions that
computers can use.

Information technology is the computer based systems of gathering,

storing, manipulating, and analysing and disseminating information.
IT has increased tremendously because computers are relatively
cheap, powerful, and able to perform many difficult tasks. Vast
amounts of information become accessible to anyone. In organisa-
tions IT is used to improve already existing processes by automating
them and to re-design the way business operations are performed.

The Internet is a global network of computers sharing information.

It allows access to information from around the world at a relatively
low cost. The Internet has been used for entertainment, informa-
tion exchange between academics and institutions, conducting busi-
ness, and creating global interest groups e.g., support groups. Legal
issues surrounding the Internet include the lack of censorship and
the difficulty of protecting intellectual property.

E-commerce offers many opportunities to the Caribbean but at pres-

ent a number of limitations reduce the effectiveness of this avenue
of developing business. Phone lines are not available in some areas,
many who could benefit from using the Internet cannot afford it,
and marketing goods or services is expensive and difficult.

276 FD12A
 Unit 6
Some Ethical and Gender Issues

INTRODUCTION

Many of us are ambivalent about our attitudes to science. We

express concern for the ethical and social implications of some
aspects of the discipline but look to science to solve many of our
problems. We question the wisdom of encouraging unfettered scien-
tific investigation in all fields, especially those where religious beliefs
dictate that answers are best left to an omniscient Being. Yet we
hope that science will provide solutions to illnesses like cancer, find
ways to increase our food supply, and develop cheaper fuel for our
homes.

As we moved through these units considering energy, health, infor-

mation technology, and biotechnology, a number of questions,
concerns, and issues emerged. Most of these were related to techno-
logical achievements rather than to any science associated with
them. However, we did question how far science and scientists
could be held accountable for any untoward consequences of these
achievements.

One area we have not yet considered is the issue of gender in

science. We need to question the under-representation of women in
the scientific community even as it is changing. Women now
outnumber men in enrolment at our universities, even in the facul-

FD12A 277
 ties of natural sciences and medicine but in engineering there is still
a great disparity between the numbers of males and females gradu-
ating.

Considerations of gender also permeate other social areas. In this

Unit, we look briefly at the important issue of gender in the area of
health. Clearly the Unit cannot cover all the concerns that need to
be addressed. However, we hope that you will be stimulated to
continue thinking about the ones raised here and be able to shed
light on the sometimes ill-informed discussions about these and
other social issues that affect our lives.

OVERVIEW

The first section of the unit reviews briefly the concern for account-
ability in science raised in Module 1. Here it is extended to include
the topic of eugenics as an example of the extremes that may be
reached in the name of science when accountability is not an issue.
This leads us to a consideration of the commercialisation of scien-
tific research and our role in limiting its effects on developing coun-
tries such as ours. This is followed by a discussion of the changing
pattern of gender and science education and the factors that limit
access to quality health care for women.

LEARNING OBJECTIVES

After completing this unit you should be able to:

1. Discuss the issues of accountability and responsibility for public

disclosure of possible outcomes of scientific research and its
applications

2. Evaluate the possible benefits and costs of science and

technology

3. Discuss your personal responsibility as a citizen to keep as

informed as possible, in order to join in the debate on the roles
and responsibilities of science and technology

278 FD12A
 4. Relate knowledge of the issues surrounding science, medicine,
and technology to the challenges and decisions in your own life

5. Describe some of the differences between the traditional gender-

related patterns of selecting science subjects and present trends
in the Caribbean

6. Explain how gender-related issues may affect the practice of

science, technology, and medicine

7. Describe the negative factors that militate against women taking

responsibility for and receiving adequate health care

READINGS

l Allen, G. Is a new eugenics afoot? Science 294: 59, 61, October

2001.

l Ridley, Matt. The new eugenics: Better than the old. National
Review July 31, 2000. http://www.findarticles.com

l Darnovsky, Marc. The new eugenics: Genetically engineered

children? Co-op Connection Newsletter Articles, La Montanita
Co-op Supermarket.
http://www.lamontanita.com/docs/newsletterarticles/Aug2000

l The Scientific Research Council. http://www.src-jamaica.org/More.htm

l About CARIRI. http://www.tradent.com/cariri/aboutcariri.htm

l The Caribbean Epidemiology Centre: Our History.

http://www.carec.org/about/history.html

l Discrimination against women scientists confirmed. EUROPA –

Research: press release June 2002. European Commission.
http://europa.eu.int/comm/research/press/2002/pr0306en.html

l National policies on women and science in Europe. EUROPA –

Research: The Helsinki Group on women and science. European
Commission.

l Georgi, Howard. Is there an unconscious discriminiation against

women in science? APS News Online: The Back Page January 2000
Edition. http://schwinger.harvard.edu/~georgi/women/backpage.htm

FD12A 279
 l Separating the political and the scientific elements: The atom
bomb. FD 12A Module 3: Society 7.2 (a) pp. 62–65.

l Separating the political and the scientific elements:

bioengineering. FD 12A Module 3: Society 7.2 (c) pp. 67–70.

l The AIDS pandemic. Women’s Health Journal 2–3/94: 103–106.

ISIS International.

280 FD12A
 Session 6.1
Science and Accountability

Further ethical considerations

What responsibilities do scientists have? What are their obligations

to society as scientists, apart from their obligations as citizens?
When we blame science for the use of technology, to what extent
have we misinterpreted the relationships between the two? These
are not easy questions to answer. It was suggested before (Module 1
Unit 3) that scientists have a duty to inform the public about the
possible implications of their work, and that they must be clear
about the reliability of their conclusions and how these may be
applied. The latter condition is especially important, as we shall see.
Science is, or should be, “public knowledge”. Two examples illustrate
this position.

The atom bomb

The story of the atom bomb has been dealt with in Unit 3 of
Module 1. However, it is mentioned here again as it illustrates that
it is not always easy to decide who is ultimately responsible for
what is done with scientific findings. Einstein did not only deal
with theory but as the extract below shows, he was well aware of
the application of his findings. Szilard, the main proponent of the
bomb, contacted Einstein and persuaded him to write the famous
letter to President Roosevelt which was sent on August 2, 1939.

Sir, some recent work by E. Fermi and L. Szilard, which has

been communicated to me in manuscript, leads me to expect
that the element uranium may be turned into a new and
important source of energy in the immediate future… This
new phenomenon would also lead to the construction of
bombs…

Szilard also requested that there be permanent contact between the

United States administration and the group of scientists working on
the chain reactions, and that funds be provided for experimental

FD12A 281
 work. However, the commitment to build the bomb was not the
scientists’ decision, but President Roosevelt’s. The order to drop the
bomb came from yet another individual, President Truman.

Here we have a chain of events in which each link in the chain

knew how the science could be used and what it would do. The fact
that the ultimate decision and responsibility was that of President
Truman is not at issue. However the contributions of scientists to
that decision cannot be ignored.

Building the bomb was a gigantic engineering feat, but there was an
enormous gap between the scientific knowledge and developing the
technology that used the knowledge. What we can agree on is that:

1. Scientists are aware of how their work can be used.

2. There is no clear relation between scientific ideas and their

implementation, that is, between science and technology.

3. Implementing applications of science can be considered a social

and/or political decision, for which science is not responsible.

Perhaps efforts to apportion responsibility are misguided. What we

can agree on is that when scientists provide knowledge, they are
obliged to report the implications of such knowledge, not only to an
inner circle, but to the public at large.

?
?
CRITICAL THINKING ACTIVITY

One of the scientists who refused to sign the petition asking

President Truman to refrain from dropping the bomb wrote as
follows:
First of all, let me say I have no hope of clearing my
conscience. The things we are working on are so terrible
that no amount of protesting or fiddling with politics will
save our souls… Our only hope is in getting the facts of
our results before the people.

To what extent does making the facts public absolve scientists

of their responsibility for the effects of their discoveries?

282 FD12A
 The eugenics issue

If there were no dates provided in the following account it could be

mistaken for science fiction or future science. Although it is difficult
to conceive of respected scientists behaving in this way it is well to
remember that human nature does not change radically over time. A
similar scenario may return in a different guise.

In 1883, Darwin’s cousin, Francis Galton, coined the word eugenics.

It came from the Greek “good in birth” or “noble in heredity”.
Eugenics was defined as the science of improving the human stock
by giving “the more suitable races or strains of blood a better chance
of prevailing speedily over the less suitable”. In other words,
humans could be improved by scientific methods, in the same way
that plant breeders improve their stock. Galton thought it would be
“quite practicable to produce a highly gifted race of men by judi-
cious marriages during several consecutive generations”. The scien-
tific assumptions behind this are that most human attributes are
inherited; the possible effects of socialisation are ignored.

Galton’s views were derived from ideas about natural selection and
evolution. An American, Charles Davenport, was particularly influ-
enced by the idea of eugenics. In 1904 he persuaded the Carnegie
Foundation to set up the Cold Spring Harbour Laboratories for the
study of human evolution. From his studies on human pedigrees,
Davenport came to believe that certain races were feeble-minded.
Negroes were biologically inferior, Poles were perceived of as inde-
pendent and self-reliant, though clannish; Italians tended to crimes
of personal violence. (On what type of reasoning do you think this
was based? See Module 1, Unit 2.)

He expected the American population to become through immigra-

tion, “darker in pigmentation, smaller in stature, more mercurial...
more given to crimes of larceny, kidnapping, assault, murder, rape
and sex-immorality.” His aim was to promote negative eugenics –
preventing proliferation of the bad. To this end he favoured a selec-
tive immigration policy to prevent any further contamination of the
“germ-plasm” (the genetic information transmitted from parents to
offspring). To deal with the “badness” within the present popula-
tion, he tried to prevent reproduction of those whom he considered
genetically defective.

FD12A 283
 Harry H. Laughlin, superintendent of the Eugenics Record Office at
Cold Spring Harbour, used prison and hospital data to lobby at the
state level for the passage of eugenic sterilization laws which would
allow individuals in state institutions to be forcibly sterilized if they
were judged to be genetically defective. Over 35 states passed and
used such laws. By the 1960s, when most of these laws were being
repealed more than 60,000 people had been sterilized for eugenic
purposes (Allen, 2001).

Although in the 1930s many biologists had begun to react against

many of the claims for eugenics, it was too late. The ideas had
spread to Europe and in Germany the National Socialists used
Laughlin’s model as one of the bases for their sterilization law. This
law led directly to many atrocities by doctors and others in the
concentration camps. More than 400,000 people were sterilized for
perceived genetic defects (Allen, 2001).

Doctors may be regarded as technologists applying the science of

human biology, rather than as scientists, therefore science is not to
blame. However, we need to examine the responsibility of the scien-
tists for the genetic theories that underlay the eugenics movement.
It appears that these scientists did not consider the social implica-
tions of their conclusions, nor did they make them public. Moreover,
the conclusions on which they based their theories seem to have
been driven by what they saw as desirable social outcomes. The
public was never informed about the absence of reliable evidence to
support these conclusions.

Many are of the view that scientists are obliged to examine the
social implications of their work. This may be debatable. What is
clear is that they need not decide how or if it should be used but
make clear the extent to which their observations and conclusions
can be reliably put into practice. This is especially important in
sensitive social areas, when they should be clear to the point of
being overcautious. The responsibility of a vigilant public is to be
as informed as possible, to demand the evidence and evaluate it
critically.

Allen (2001) issues a warning about the present tendency to use

advances in biotechnology to portray genetics as the new “magic
bullet” of biomedical science which will solve many social problems.

284 FD12A
 He considers it unlikely, that we will see a return to sterilization
proposals. However, the requirement of anti-fertilization medication
for continuation of welfare benefits in the United States, and tough
immigration sentiments in that country and in Europe, remind us
that that we are not entirely free of the prejudices of earlier genera-
tions.

Science for profit

There is another dimension to the debate on eugenics. In the highly

competitive world in which we live there is no doubt that certain
characteristics provide those who have them with distinct advan-
tages. On completion of the Human Genome Project it may not be
too long before parents-to-be can decide what careers they would
chose for their offspring and, in light of that, what characteristics
each child will need to fulfil their parents’ dreams for their success.
It may be difficult to resist the temptation to use the methods now
touted for gene therapy to alter the genotypes of embryos to
produce a custom-designed child. Who knows to what excesses this
could lead? We may yet see a return to eugenics but this time it
would be positive eugenics by personal choice rather than the impo-
sition of discriminatory laws. These decisions could become a major
issue because the procedures involved would only be affordable by
the very rich and in the already developed world. This may yet
become another way in which the achievements of science separate
rather than reduce the divide between social groups or countries.

The scenario described above may never happen. However, there are
other important concerns that relate to the economics of science
and technology. As noted earlier, most scientific research is being
funded or conducted by agencies with a commercial interest in the
applications of what they underwrite. Two problems arise because
of this. Firstly, the objectives of scientific research and technological
development are not necessarily directed to areas that are most in
need or of greatest scientific interest. Instead, they are directed to
those areas that will yield the greatest profit. An outstanding exam-
ple is in the area of medicine where certain disorders and potential
cures are overresearched because the results can be successfully
marketed. Diseases that are common in the Third World and kill
millions every year receive much less attention and funding.

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 The second concern arises from the first but is more general in
scope. Even when technology and science produce research findings
that are in the interest of humanity in general, the benefits may not
reach the potential beneficiaries because they cannot afford them. A
recent example makes the point. Drugs that can alleviate the symp-
toms of AIDS or prevent it from developing are too expensive for
the countries that need them most. It took determined political
action, threats to ignore patents, and public censure to convince
drug companies to bring the prices to those nations within reach of
their economies.

Are there any solutions to these problems? We return to the starting

point of our discussion and to related issues that have been reiter-
ated throughout the course. Basic scientific knowledge should
remain in the public domain. Within the Caribbean region citizens
can support regional governments when they make budgetary allo-
cations to provide funding and facilities for universities and other
centres of research such as the Scientific Research Council in
Jamaica, the Caribbean Industrial Research Institute (CARIRI), and
the Caribbean Epidemiological Centre (CAREC) in Trinidad. We
must also support local ventures, commercial or otherwise, that use
n Find out more research findings to develop materials that can be made available to
about the three the public at reasonable cost.
research institutions
mentioned here.
Our governments can be urged to support international agreements
that would allow access to scientific information and enforce
already existing agreements that would assist less developed coun-
tries to share in the technology that would assist us in our develop-
ment. In the absence of such efforts scientific and technological
advancements will provide yet another criterion for dividing the rich
and the poor within and between countries. Very importantly, we
can only play our part if we make it our duty to remain informed
about scientific events and the issues surrounding them.

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 ACTIVITY

Prepare arguments for and against any one of the following

moots:

l Science would make more progress in the hands of private

enterprise than it would if it remained in the public
domain.
l Small countries such as the Caribbean islands cannot
afford to spend scarce resources on scientific research.

Arrange a debate with classmates or friends. Select which side

each team will handle by tossing a coin. Have others in the
group act as judges.

The gender issue

The term gender may be used to categorise the different roles of

men and women as determined by the society in which they live. A
person’s sex is, of course, biologically determined. Gender beliefs and
practices greatly influence several aspects of our lives, including
language, dress, family structure, health, and educational and
employment opportunities. We look briefly at certain aspects of two
of these – gender and science, and gender and health.

Gender and science

Traditionally, the sciences, especially the physical sciences, have
been male-dominated. The problem is perhaps related to the prevail-
ing heritage of patriarchy. Certainly during much of the existence of
modern science women were legally and explicitly excluded from
most of its institutions. Although such legal barriers have now been
dismantled, women remained under-represented in the area. The
problem was general as well as Caribbean, and it began at the school
level.

Research done by Bailey and Leo-Rhynie (1994) pointed out that the
education literature at the time contained many references to gender
differences in relation to the pursuit of science. It was found that
boys elected to do more courses in science, enjoyed science more and

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 achieved at higher levels in science than girls did. This situation was
also true of Jamaica up to about a decade ago. The picture has
changed as more girls choose to do courses in science. However, the
common perception that science subjects are more suited to boys
than girls still persists and influences choice to a certain extent.

Other factors that emerged from the research were the greater
uncertainty of girls about their ability to cope with the demands of
studying science or mathematics. At that time fewer females seemed
to be interested in careers in engineering and computer science
(p. 62).

An examination of the entry numbers for CXC single sciences

shows a changing picture. Table 6.1 shows the number of entries in
CXC science subjects by gender for the year 1996.

Table 6.1 Entries in CXC Science Subjects by Gender for 1996

Male Female Total

Subject No. No. No.
% % Sitting
Sitting Sitting
Biology 4353 39.95 6544 60.05 10897
Chemistry 3699 47.97 4012 52.03 7711
Physics 3999 59.84 2684 40.16 6683
Integrated Science 2475 40.00 3713 60.00 6188
(Single Award)

The pattern shows larger numbers of females than males entering

for chemistry, biology and integrated science. In biology and inte-
grated science there is an approximate 1.5:1 ratio of females to
males but only slight differences between the two for chemistry.
Physics was the only science subject in which males dominated.
Perhaps the perception that physics is somehow more “masculine”
still persisted.

At the lower level of the education system, an interesting study co-

ordinated by researchers in Norway and involving 60 researchers
from 30 countries (including Trinidad, but not Tobago), was
conducted in 1995. Its aim was to “shed light on some of the issues
that may be important for an informed discussion of culture,

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 gender, and science education” (Sjöberg, 2000, p. 166). Students,
approximately 13 years of age, were asked to respond to a question-
naire that was designed to explore their interests and experiences
with respect to science-related activity and their hopes and plans for
the future.

With respect to their background experiences, in practically all of the

countries, boys had been engaged in more activities that might be
considered valuable for learning school science. For example, more
boys made toys from wood and other materials, used a rope and
pulley to lift heavy loads and watched birds make their nests. The
implication here is that school science is likely to be more familiar to
boys than girls. One interesting observation mentioned in the
research concerned the out of school activities of boys in rural areas
in the Caribbean. Although boys might be engaged in many out of
school activities that are underpinned by the laws of physics (e.g.,
making and flying kites, making and spinning tops, making traps for
animals), these background experiences were hardly ever built upon,
in the school science curriculum. In this sense, the boys’ background
experiences are not being exploited fully to benefit them.

The study also showed that there was a great deal of interest in
studying science in developing countries among both boys and girls,
but with a slightly higher level of interest displayed by girls, overall.
This was certainly the pattern for Trinidad. However, when the data
were analysed in terms of areas of interest, it was found that boys in
all countries were far more interested in mechanical areas such as
“the car and how it works” than were girls. On the other hand, with
respect to issues pertaining to health, such as AIDS and healthy
eating habits, interest was higher in developing countries than in
developed ones, with small gender differences in favour of girls.

A number of conclusions can be drawn from this study: (a) Both

girls and boys at this age level are interested in studying science.
(b) Girls are more interested in studies in the area of the biological
sciences than the physical sciences. (c) Girls’ background experiences
do not have as much potential to facilitate learning in the physical
sciences as do the background experiences of boys.

With regard to personality traits, societies readily associate qualities

of aggression, competitiveness, and remoteness of concern for living

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 beings with the male image. However they see intuition and the
capacity to care and nurture as part of the female image. These
perceptions, along with the historical lack of access to education for
women, have been suggested as contributing to the traditional
perception of science as “male”. But as Helen Weinreich-Haste has
argued, “science is masquerading under a stereotype of masculinity”.
While male scientists, in her opinion, do get to the top of their
professions by the exercise of their aggressive, masculine personali-
ties, their creativity comes from supposedly non-masculine ways of
thinking including intuition, speculation, and commitment. In her
view “knowledge needs de-sexing”. This she thinks would entail not
a change in the nature of knowledge, but merely a greater awareness
of what knowledge in reality is, and what the processes of science
are. However, erasing tradition is difficult.

The trend noted above in the figures for enrolment in CXC science
has persisted and is reflected in the official statistics of the
University of the West Indies 1999/2000. The extract below is from
a table showing the numbers registered in the three faculties that
teach sciences.

Table 6.2 Nos. Registered in Science, Engineering and Medicine

1999/2000

Subject Male Female Total

Engineering 727 186 913

Medicine 630 819 1449
Nat. Sci. /Pure & Appl. Sci. & Tech. 1052 1273 2325

Here we see a reversal of the traditional pattern, except in engineer-

ing. This is consistent with the lower enrolment in physics that was
seen at the CXC level.

Although there are now higher levels of enrolment of women in

higher degree science programmes than previously obtained, there is
still what is referred to as “horizontal” and “vertical” segregation.
Horizontal segregation is demonstrated by the fact that, at a given
academic level, one would find a higher percentage of women in the
biological sciences than in areas such as physics and engineering.
Even within a speciality such as engineering, there are fewer women

290 FD12A
 in some areas. Vertical segregation manifests itself in the fact that
there are fewer women in top positions in the science departments
of universities and in other scientific institutions. This latter fact
will probably persist for some time until the females graduating
from school now enter the labour force in sufficient numbers to
change the entrenched positions.

Within recent times, the view has been expressed that increasing the
diversity among scientists (which can be achieved by having more
female scientists) would improve the quality of science in that,
among other things, the range of investigations would be broadened
because of a range of interests. For example, it is felt that if there
were more female research scientists, women’s health issues would
be more seriously researched. This link between diversity among
scientists and the quality of science produced has been hotly
debated.

In the Caribbean, we need to offer support to the increasing

numbers of women entering science by ensuring that women have
equal access to jobs or financial support and opportunities for pursu-
ing further work in areas for which they are now becoming qualified
in larger numbers.

ACTIVITY

Write a short essay entitled “Women and science – trends in

education”.

You might like to include the following: the traditional pattern

throughout the world, changing trends in the Caribbean,
differences between boys and girls in activities and perceptions
of science, vertical and horizontal segregation in academic
institutions, the way forward.

Read the section above again as well as any additional

information you have.

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 Gender and health

Many of the key health issues affected by gender considerations

have to do with reproductive roles and practices. Men and women
experience sexuality and reproductive health differently, in ways
that are shaped, not only by their personal identities, but by cultural
and class norms. Religion, politics, education, and economic condi-
tions also contribute. There are several factors that have a negative
impact on women’s health. These factors may cause them to
neglect their own needs or, in some cases, be unaware of them
altogether.

In promoting reproductive health the focus has been on satisfying

the biological demands of women’s health care. However, this is not
enough. Providing services such as good primary health care, provi-
sions for safe motherhood and family planning services does not
take into account the many factors that may prevent women from
making full use of these services. Relationships with partners, moth-
ers-in-law, religious authorities or others may prevent them from
acquiring or using knowledge, or from practising contraceptive
methods that offer protection against pregnancy and sexually trans-
mitted diseases, including HIV/AIDS.

In addition, there are several social factors which may place women
at a disadvantage in terms of taking control of their own reproduc-
tive health. Societal attitudes to infertility, non-mothers and older
women, rape and violence in sexual relationships, male and female
attitudes to sexual practices – for example, the refusal by some men
to use condoms, all act as deterrents in this respect. In some 26
countries including parts of Africa, the Middle East, and Asia the
practice of female genital mutilation still exists. Usually performed
on very young females by older females because men want it so, it
attests to the dominance of tradition over contemporary norms and
scientific knowledge.

There are other cultural patterns to be considered. Nutritional defi-

ciencies tend to be higher in females in any given population, partly
because it is more difficult to satisfy the nutritional requirements of
females, but also because of the practice of giving the male the best
of what is available, especially in terms of animal protein. (Until

292 FD12A
 recently, the accepted pattern was to save the chicken leg or breast
for the father; the mother claimed or learned to enjoy the bony
pieces.)

When women work outside the home, occupational health research

tends to examine the effect of mother’s work on her children, but
not on herself. Nor is much attention given to the hazards she faces
in the work she does in the home, since it is not quantified in terms
of earnings. Women themselves stand in their own way, for exam-
ple, by consistently putting children and partners and other
demands on time and financial resources above concerns for their
own health. Many women continue to show a preference for tradi-
tional practices, some of which are beneficial and cost little, but
some of which can be harmful. Clearly social attitudes and cultural
norms must be taken into account in addressing the needs of
women with respect to health care.

Spread of sexually transmitted diseases, including HIV/AIDS

Societal norms for both men and women contribute to this spread.
Women are socialized to please men and will submit themselves to
high-risk behaviour to do that. For example, where virginity is
valued, anal sex may be practised, which may put them at risk for
HIV. Then there is deliberate selection of young girls by older men.
Many women are forced to have unsafe sex, within and without
steady unions. Fear prevents the female partner from bringing up
condom use. The male partner often interprets this as a sign of
faithfulness. In any case, motherhood is valued, and the condom
prevents conception. In some societies, infertility is grounds for
divorce.

Men are also vulnerable because of prevailing norms. They are

expected to have multiple partners, and this puts them and their
regular partners at risk. One 1993 survey in Barbados found that
men between 25 and 34 years had an average of 5 partners, whereas
the women had one (Woman’s Health Journal, 2–3/94, p. 104). There
is also the stigma attached to homosexuality, so that homosexual
men are more likely to conceal their homosexual activity by practis-
ing bisexuality. It is accepted also, that men, more than women, use
alcohol and other substances that may lead them into unsafe or
casual and risky sex. Men are also at a disadvantage because the

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 society does not cater to their needs in terms of making reliable
information on matters to do with sex, easily accessible to them.

Termination of unwanted pregnancies

Many people argue that a woman’s right to self-determination, that

is, to control her own body, gives her the right to decide whether or
not an unwanted pregnancy should be terminated. If she wants an
abortion, and the father of the child does not agree, the fact that the
foetus is a part of her body, and not of his, gives her right prece-
dence. Others argue that the developing foetus is a product of both
parents and the decision to terminate a pregnancy must be mutual.
There is also disagreement as to whether the foetus has the right to
life or not.

This is a debate that will not be resolved as claims one way or the
other are mostly based on dogma making it difficult to analyse the
issues rationally (Macklin, 1991). Macklin is also of the view that
without safe abortion services in case of contraceptive failure for
whatever reason, a family planning programme is not complete.
With too many children, both mother and children are at risk.

Germain (1987) points out that an estimated 200,000 or more

women in the Third World die needlessly each year of improperly
performed abortions (p. 1). She also believes that good reproductive
health enables women to:

l regulate fertility by conceiving when desired, terminating

unwanted pregnancies, and going to term with those wanted;
l remain free of the disease, fear, disability, and death associated
with reproduction and sexuality;
l bear and raise healthy children (pp. 5–6).

The gender-related issues with respect to health are many. These

issues need to be interrogated fully if the goal of a healthy citizenry
is to be achieved.

294 FD12A
 QUICK REVIEW

1. List three factors that could account for men and women
having different attitudes to reproductive health and sexuality.

2. What aspects of health care are particularly important for

women?

3. What factors might prevent women from accessing available

health care?

4. Give an example (from the information above or your own

experience) of women putting the care of others above their
own health needs.

5. List some of the prevailing social attitudes that contribute to

the spread of HIV/AIDS and other STDs among (a) men and
(b) women?

6. Write down the arguments for and against women having

the sole right to decide whether to terminate a pregnancy.

?
? CRITICAL THINKING ACTIVITY

If citizens were asked to pay a special tax to fund research in an

area considered important to the Caribbean, which of the
following projects would you support willingly and why?

1. An investigation into the properties of local plants with a

view to developing cheaper medicines for local use.

2. Working with young boys and girls to change existing

gender biases with respect to science and technology based
careers.

3. Medical research on female health issues with a view to

providing greater access for women to quality health care.

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 SUMMARY

1. Science and accountability: In this section we questioned the

responsibilities and obligations of scientists to society. Two
issues the dropping of the atom bomb and the history of
eugenics exemplified the importance of making scientific
findings and the implications of those findings public. It is
argued that scientists do have the responsibility for ensuring
that the public knows what is taking place and what the
possible results of their findings might be.

2. The gender issue: First we looked at gender and science. We saw

that traditionally science and science-based careers were until
very recently male dominated. We noted the changing pattern in
the Caribbean and the need to do more to change perceptions
that science and technology are masculine areas.

3. Gender and health: Health care for women tends to focus on the
biological aspects of health care without taking into account the
social factors that limit access to what is available. These include
women’s relationships with their partners and other family
members, religious attitudes, and societal attitudes to matters
such as infertility. Women consistently put the welfare of other
family members ahead of their own health needs as well as other
demands on their time and financial resources.

4. Spread of STDs: It was noted that women become involved in

risky sexual behaviours to please men or out of fear and that
social norms also pressure men into multiple liaisons. Both these
factors contribute to the spread of these diseases. The stigma
against homosexuality is also a contributing factor as bisexuality
may be used as a cover.

5. Termination of unwanted pregnancies: Both sides of the debate on

abortion rights were mentioned i.e., women have the right to
decide, as the foetus is part of their bodies; the foetus is the
product of two individuals so the choice should be mutual.
Unwanted pregnancies are problematic; they encourage
improperly performed abortions that put the mother’s life at risk
but having too many children is burdensome, affecting both
mother and children.

296 FD12A
 Wrap up: Why should I care?

Consider the following points for discussion in your final

tutorial or teleconference.

n The development and use of information and communica-

tions technology, (see Module 2, Unit 5), provides an excel-
lent example of the ways in which we have become part of a
global community. We have access to more information
about health and disease, the environmental impact of
industry and the impact of climate change on the Caribbean.
We can see for ourselves the effects of mismanaging global
resources and how this can affect our region. Can we afford
to have others make important choices for us, especially
choices that might affect our very existence on the planet?

n No one expects any one person to be fully informed about

all of the key issues affecting the economic and social devel-
opment of a country. Should we therefore leave the decision-
making about issues of scientific and technological
importance to “experts”? Perhaps you will agree with the
view expressed over 50 years ago by Sir Winston Churchill
that scientists should be “on tap not on top”. (This issue is
raised again in Unit 4 of this Module.)
n A comfortable daily existence for all our citizens is an ideal
we would like to see achieved. Each citizen has a right to:

- a continuous, clean water supply

- an effective sewage collection and treatment system
- a continuous and reliable power supply
- some reliable form of transport, whether private or public
- a supply of food that is both nutritious and cheap
- access to a good health system

To what extent are these objectives really separate from the

larger issues discussed in this course?

n Our governments often enter into international agreements

that may determine their ability to provide us with basic
necessities. International events and concerns can have a
direct impact on our lives, as demonstrated clearly by the
events of September 11, 2001. Are we in a position to ignore

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 what takes place in the rest of the world? (Before consider-
ing this question you might like to list all the ways you can
think of that September 11 affected your country).

n If you decide that you do care about some of these issues,

perhaps you can then identify ways in which you can
become better informed about them (e.g., through the
Internet, newspapers or television). In addition, you should
consider how you might contribute to debate on improving
provisions for at least one of the issues from the list above.

n Many people would argue that, given recent developments

in science, technology, and medicine, there is urgent need to
provide an education through which people may become
“scientifically and technologically literate”. By so doing, a
nation can ensure that its future decision-making is as well
informed as possible. Should Caribbean countries be aiming
for scientific and technological literacy for all? Is this too
idealistic a goal?

n Finally, do you consider yourself to be more scientifically

literate and aware than you were when you started this
course? We hope you can answer affirmatively.

298 FD12A
 REFERENCES

Bailey, B. and E. Leo-Rhynie. Factors affecting the choice of science

subjects by high school students: A pilot study. In Barbara
Carby and Vilma McClenan (eds.), Readings in gender, science and
technology (pp. 47–64). Kingston: UWI, 1997.

Germain, A. The Christopher Tietze International Symposium: An

overview. International Journal of Gynecology and Obstetrics. Suppl.
3: 1–8, 1989.

Macklin, R. Ethical perspectives on unwanted pregnancy.

Unpublished paper, 1991?

Paulson, S. Gender insights can improve services. Network 18(4): 32,

Summer 1998.

Sjöberg, Svein. Interesting all children in science for all. In Robin

Millar, John Leach and Jonathan Osborne (eds.), Improving
science education: The contribution of research (pp. 165–186).
Buckingham: OUP.

Whiteley, P. Science textbooks in Jamaican high schools – Gender

fair? In Barbara Carby and Vilma McClenan, (eds.), Readings in
Gender, Science and Technology (pp. 65–77). Kingston: UWI, 1997.

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