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LONGMA.N GROL'r LIMITED

Lon gman HOUK, Burnt Mill,
Harlo,", Euu CM20 2] E, England
alld A UoXla l,J e;., ,,,paltlt . rll ","l~o'" rht World
I COH E NT S I
pllgt
P R E F AC E vu
Cl C,E, E cker $le ~ and J.M , [eke r';!e)' 1960
I S T RO D UCT I OS r
All rq:Il U rt ~ r\'td . f'; o ~Il of , II i" publi~a lio n m ~) be
reprod uced , slored in II relrieval w sre m. or. r lll n~. Chapftr(j) (T HE P ART S OF SP EECH I 3
mIll ed" In lln~ form 01 b y ll n~ mean... e"'dl"n~. Classification by Fu nction
me,~nical. p1'1010<:0pyin" recordm,. o,r Ol ll er ,:,'
... \llIou l llle puor permlwon of rile Co p)n,lI r o n - Chapter€) /T HE S plPL E S FSn : S n ] 8
FirSI p wblisMd 1960 Subjects and Objects; Enlargements; The Complemen t ; Word
N t .. ImprtU kHlS · / 971: " 197J ( I..i« ): · ' 976 ; Order in Simple Sentences; Dec la rative Sentences; Questions;
. /977 : • /978 ; · / 919 ; " / 980 . " IllS / .. Commands, Req uests and I nvitat ions
" / 98J
Cl!apltr QJJ {Nous s (1) K I S DS\ 19
Cou nt able and Uncou ntable S ouns; Compou nd S ouns; The
ISiI!'o 0 S82 S2C042 II Gramma t ical Function of Nouns
• • • Cluzptn @ I
N o u x s ( 2 ) ~ \': )I BE R I 26
Formation of the Pl ural; I rregu lar Pl ura ls: Foreign Plurals;
Co ncord: Plurals and Compound :Sou ns; F orm'" of Ad ,lre.u;
:Souns wi lh no Pl ura l Form; Noo ns with no Singula r I"urm ;
Pl urals with Difterent Meanings "
Chapttr 6J !S O UN S
Masc uline a nd Feminine Forms
(J) GB D EK I
.'
Clulpter(0 , X O UN S Ul CA SE t 45
Tile Posh 'live (Genit ive) c.se; Su bjec t ive a nd Objective Genit Ive;
mTi"phc at ute of th e Genit!~e; The Double P ossessive
Ch.2pter {j) - [T HE AR TICL ES r

The I nd efi nit e Article; The Definite Article; Id iom atic U$C
51
of the
Printed iJ1 HOffI KOI1I by
Cornmotr _ aJ rll !rll1ril1l Pmr Ltd
,. COI'T£NTS
I
puge I CONTESTS •
Chapler(§) [ A DJ ECTI VESl 64 po.ge
The A tt ri butive and P redica tive use; Adject ives func t ioning as Chapta@ I V E RBS {51 ~I O OD ( 22 5
Nouns; Ko uns fu nctioning as Adjectives; The Formation of T he I mpc ra th 'e; The Subjunc tive
Adjectives from Noun s; Participles used Adjec tivally; The Forma-
t ion of t he Negative
I Chapter rfj) I VER aS (6) Til E N O ~. F I S IT E S ' 230
The Infinitive; The Particle to wi thou t th e I nfi niti ve; Functions
Chapter(iJ (C O }\ P A R I S O S OF AD JECT IV E S] 70 o f t he I nfi nitive; The Split I nfinitive: T he Participles; Position of
Notes on Comparison; Id iom at ic Construc tions; The position of l'drtkiples; Pa rt ici ples wit h the I n finit ive: Particlpks as A<ljedivc
Ad jel;tivcs; Possessive Ad ject ives: O ther t ypes of Adjec ti ve s Clause Equivalents: Partic iples as Adverb Clause Equi valen ts'
Mis-related P articiples; Compound Pa rt iciples; The Genlnd:
Verbs follow ed by th e Gerund; Verbs followed by the Infinitive:
Chapler €§) \ D E T E R Ml s AT l v E sl Verbs followed by Ge ru nd or I n finitive
T ables of usage; Notes on som e Determinativcs
Chapter @ ) An VE R Il S J 2 51
ChapteT@ \P ROS OUS S\ 97 Classificanou according to meaning; T he Formation of Adverbs;
Person in Pronouns; Case; Notes on Personal Pronouns; Possessive Ad ver bs and Ad jectives w ith t he same form ; Ad ve rbs with two
Pronoun s; T he Double P ossessive; Demonstrative P ronouns; forms; Classification acco rd ing t o Posi tion; I gv ersion with
Reflexive and E mph asizing P ronouns; I nterrogat ive P ronouns; A dve rb.,;;; Compartscn: N otes on certain Ad ver bs: quite, already.
Interroga t ives; I d iom atic E xpressions; Indefinite Pronouns; still, ago, too. bllt
N otes on some I ndefi nite Pronouns; Relative P ronoun s
S ITlON S A ND • D VE R BI AI• •-\ RTl C I. F. S' 2i7

Chapter@; \ VERBS I 1 43
P re po sitio ns and Adverbs; Posi tion of t he Preposition; Illustrations
Reg ular a nd Irregular Verbs; Notes and Bxam ples: T r a nsitive o f the usage of Prepositions and Adverbial Particles
and I nt ransit ive Verbs; Causative use of Verbs
Chapter w I C O N N E C Tl V £ S \ 306
Chapler@ I V E R BS (2) T E !' S E~ 157 Conju nctions; The and Group; The but Group; The 0' Group: •
The Simple Tenses; The Continuous T e nses; The Perfect T enses T he so Group; Subordinate Conjunctions
Chapter (fj}- l VERBS (3) THE SPECIAL F Il\IT ES

F ormation o.f..Jh~ Negative; Fcrmattonjof the I nt errogative:
(i U1 32
C haPler~JI~N~'~E~'~R:il~E~C:i':i1:20~N~S::;A~N~D~E~_2X~C~I:,A~';'~'l,:;,:2o~N:;sLJt 3I5
_ Qu~stion Phrases; ) Short Answers; Elliptic al -Sentences; - The Exclamatory sen tences
Emphatic Form: Position of Ad verbs; Third Person Sin gu lar.
G li K S PKC I AL F It'lTE S m}]be, have; causative use of have; have to; Chapler @ [ S E N T E N C E S A !'<O CLAUSES I 3 IS
can; could; do; should. would; may . might; must; need, ought; dare; Compound, Double, Multiple Sentences; Complex Sentences
uud (to)
Chapter([1;) I SUBOR D I!'< ...TE CI. ... USES I 32.j-
Chapter w Adjec ti ve.Clauses; Definin g and Xon-deftnlng Clauses; Adjective
Clauses With Fo rm al Subject it; N oun clauses; Ad verb Clauses
., CO l'ITE ~TS
pagt
CMpiv 1:'": \ ! C O:-: OIT IOS Al. CLAI;SE ~ f 347
"'"
o n Conditions; Tenses used In Open Co n d mens:
" H " pothctKal
-,..- PREFA CE
C:ditions; Su ppositklns; Conditions c l<pre""ed by I n H 'hlon "
Tuts grammar has been prepared with three objec tives in

Chaple, IQ,
& ( A S ALYS IS 0 ' ":ES
~ T ES C E S \_ 355 I view. First, whi le covering in an up-to-da te manner t he
ground common to all English grammars, it is designed
Ch ap/er €:9 ' D I RECT "s o Is DIRECI SP EE c nl particularly to meet the needs of the Jo rd p l student of
St atements; Indirect Q uest io nS; Ind irect Commands English. So, for example, thc tenses of the verb, thc use of
prepositions and 'phrasal verbs', the articles, and word order
Chapter €]) I P C :-; CTt) AT I O S l are dealt with in considerable de tail; many examples are
given of t he commonest sentence patterns in En glish : and
Chapter @ l$ F N T~:r; l-E I' '' T T E R :'; ~) there are tables showing the UJ'.e S of the determinative words
-all frequent sources of difficulty to t he foreign student .
CluIpter (2} [T u E PR O l" C S C1ATI O :- O F E S.G LlS H ) Secondl y. it is intended to be really comprehensive, in
The Sounds of En glish ; S tress; Rh ythm; In tona tion that it will , as far as possible, provi de an answer to any
grammatical problem the student of E nglish is likely to en-
Chapter €V A BRIEF HI ST O RY OF T HE
E S G LI S H L A S G l.' A G E 4'1
coun ter. Briel accoun ts of t he h ist ory of t he language and
of the phonetics and intonation of E nglish have been in-
cluded also, since these matters-although not strictl y
I NDEX m
J 'grammar'-are bound to be of interest and import ance to
• • • most students of the language.
Lastly , it is meant to be a p ,aclical grammar, one that is
suitable both for work in class and for students working on
their own ; so it is pro vided with a very full index and wi th •
plenty of exercises.'
Although this grammar has not been directed at any
particular examin ation, the needs of examination candidates
ha ve been bome in mind , and it should give ample material
t o prepare students for the English language papers set in
any of the usual examinations.
Our thanks are due to ~lr . H _ W. Acomb, ~f.A ., and to
Mr. S. C. White, ~r.A . , for their assistance in the preparat ion
of the exercise!' and the Key.
C. E. E.
J. ~r. E.
' A Key 10 Ihe Exctcisn is I'ubli,h....l u paratcly.

I l" T R OD U CTI O~
:\Iost of t he earhe r /{Tammarians, particularly those of the

eighteenth cent ury when the E nglish language was being
'sys tema tized'. held the view that one of their (unctions,
perhaps t heir main funct ion, was to keep the language 'pure',
t o stamp ou t errors that .....ere constantly creepin g in and to
formul ate rules that would keep t he language on the course
they believed it ough t 10 take. The rules wert based on Latin
syntax, and it was into th is Procrustean bed that t he gram-
mari ans t ried to fi t t he English language. largely disregard ing
the fac t that English was no longer, as it once had been , a
high ly inflec ted language. In fact, in the whole of modem
English there are really only two major inflections' and four
or five minor c nest, for the E nglish language has changed in
the 10500 years that it has been in E ngland from being a
synthetic to an analytic one in which infl ection has been
practically entirely re place d by two ot her phenomena:
(J) Struct ural words (like/rom, in, shall , may , ollghl, ric.), and
(2) Word Order.
• • The grammarian of to-day no longer believes that he shou ld
• attempt the impossible task of 'con trolling' the language and
direct ing the cou rse that 11(' thinks it ought to lake; he realizes
that English is a living language, constantly changing and
dev·eloping in accordance not wit h. man's laws but with its •
own genius. x or does he th ink that the funct ion of a gr ammar
book is t o lay down la w s to teach people how they ought to
speak and write. His task is simply to state how, so far as he
can judge . certai n people do spea k and ...'rite at the present
time. The grammar 01a langu age is the scienti fic record of the
actual phenomena of that language . writ ten and spoken. So.
in the present volume we ha ve tried to present the facts of
modem E nglish usage so far as we could ascert am them ; any
I For S UlII ber in 1' 0 Uni ...ud Put Tense in Ye'1.5
• For Genit ive of ~oun' . Objeo:.:ti>·e for m. of PronQu ns. Com p,;ar i50n
Qj some Ad jecti ves, lId Person SingulAr in t he Simple Pr esent Te n...,.
Qj some Yer1.5, and ... le w re me...nt. of t he Suhi" ncl we ~Iood _

,
.. .-t COlllprdU"lSlt'l Eugllsh (;", m lll ll r
' rules' t hat we have g iven a re merely conclusi ons .dra,\:~ h om C H AP T E R O:SF.
t hese Iacts. II at any t in e a ru,le docs n?t c~lIlC\llc '''l~h t he
usage. it is t he rule t hat is \\'r~ng , and It will ~e t he Job 01 ( T H E P AR T S OF S P E EC H '
fu ture grammarians t o change It. T he wo rds that compo!'-t' t ile English lauguago-c-or any oth er
Ianguagc-c-can be classific..1 in var ious wa~';; :'l lud l time and
effort h as been spent in try ing t o se ttle what names should he
EXERCISES given t o t hese cat egor ies. I t seems t o us t hat t he re is little poi n t
in giving an yt h ing bu t the mos t genera l definitions of tile Parts
I From your own experience in learning English. try t~ of Speech , in the first place because it is almost im poss ible t o
explain how important you consider the study a give a defin ition which is exact and comprehensive, or w it h
grammar to be in learning a foreign language. . wh ic h every grammaria n wo uld agree ; second ly because it is
II Do you consider that u.e
st ud y of grammar . IS ,~re hard ly n ecessa ry. s ince t he concept ion o f ' Nou n ", ' Verb' , e tc. ,
im rant or less important m learning English .an ,,; 1\ a lm ost ce r tai nly be fam iliar t o t he s tuden t in his own
it ~ ill learn ing you r own nat ive la nguage? Give language. It seems t o us more important t hat the st uden t
reasons for your answer , • should be given e xamples of the various P a rts of Speech and
III The I nt rod uct ion t o t h is book says, on page one; sh ould sec, as he will in t he pages th at follow, e xac tly ho w
'English has changed Item a synthetic lang uage to ~ t hese word s beh ave. We have t herefore ad hered . in the main ,
analytic one'. Compare t his with wha t has 11 ~ppen t o the traditional! most familiar definitions. Un der t h is system
in -our o.... n language and aay whether you .t hlllk th is all t he words in t he English language can be grouped . according
ch1nge has made English ea ster or more difficult for t o t he work they do, int o eight daSS('S. TIl("SC are tilt' Parts of
the foreign studen t t o learn. . . spe~cll .
' . - does t he abandonment . of ' bel ief t he
In
1\ I n your opml0n. They are:
grammatical r ules t end t owards a do;: t.enoTat lon In
style and quality 0 1 a langn ag,; as It IS.U&eJ III every- , • (!) Words that a re the names of th ings or people or places, e.g.
day life) house. hal, iron, Mary , Russia, London, sweetness, spuch, '"
crOU'd, army .
•
\~orr t hat d o this wo r k a re called C,>;ouss· 1
\ II. W ords that c a n be used instead of nouns. so that we can
re er t o people or t h ings without Teall}' nami ng them and being
I com pelled t o repea t t he names too frequent ly, e.g.

I Professor C. C. Frle~, t hc fu rmer Director of the English Langua ge
I Institute of t he Universily of Michigan and per ha ps t he mcee iwno-
clulie of modern gra m marians, writes;
'O n the .... bole, I beueve it wil l be found Ihat most of t he t rad itional
teuns. t hollJb oft en badly na med . correspond to real /;tcll "",d
\ dist llletions In the linguistic material. li ma)" rea!OOll&bly be doubled
whether a $.en·ic=ble gram mAr .... hi<;h d isf'C n_ entirely nlt h . uch
ter m. as nou n and v erb will ever be written.... To m y mind it i,not
ao much t he tradi tional t erms t hat are unacceptahl e a.s t he explana·
tinns of t hem whic h are normally given:
)

4 A Comp n Jr.t Jlsivt English Grammar
H U. ,TR : L-JU r
IUtitS ! 11..t..
" \.\
p::o r
tJ~'>
LC4I- . .,
c.k\tl
,, _ ~ - _ _. ,
Thr H ITls of Spach

• • •
,
" Yl\ .~ \ b'""cmj ful.oI.j - t ~ "'TYOI,I.>
/lt llo/ OM A M ,
\MjI , you, tllem , who, that, hi",ul . somtont.

that do this are called PROl" OU ~ S .
, Words that qualify a noun by mak ing its meaning
Words like t hese ar4 n ERJECTfOXS J
'1 ",I I"
.j'" _
- - I ( j . I..\ S S I H C \1/ 0 S
-.OJ,
_owuvIY . . ! 'f dowl Wory'y ~
xCTl12>-- ......
c.o~ t: ~
c earer, fuller, or more exact. Examplt s:
a. bad egg, a biue dress, the book is nttt'.
..,.(1 It is most important to remember that words are classified
into l'a rl ~ of speech accord ing 10 tlu-ir run ct tcn. that is
Words that do this are ca1led{ ADJI::CT I\·I::: S ;),".r~' ~ .. ncconlmg to thr work t hat they do and not according to their
There are a number of words of vkribt;; types that are form. There are in fact a grsar many words that can be two
sometimes grouped as adjectives. words, for example, like • •
three or even more parts of speech arrording to the work they
4(n). Me. SotlU, tach, no, 11114(11, etc. Th ese are discussed in the do. Take for example these sentences.
section Determinatives. (Chapter Ten .)
a
M1tJwords t hat express the idea of action or being. t.hat
t hat a person or t hing is, dots or suffers someth ing.
-( I f lie came by a Yery k ISt train.
-f~ ~ William ran very l p sl, -
~3j. They are going to 7,:!!/ for t hree days; during that time
EX02mples: t hey won 't eat a nything.
Th e boys pla),ed foot hall.
..(4)- At the end of his three day lfEl he will have a very
He is hungry. light meal.
The enemy was dt/ f alld.
Words of this kind are called {YERBS) In (r) f ast is an adjective, in (2) it is nn a,I\'('rl1, in (3) a verb,
G?:\ Words t hat we can add t o a verb to make its meaning
and in (4) a noun .
Or note th e differing uses of wal, h in:
clearer. fuller or more exact. Exampu s:
~ly fat her gave me a watch fo r my birrh.ln y
He ran quickly . I saw him )'eslerday .
I am going to waf,h a football ma tch .
Words like these ar~ ", uH R BS . ) Hex is a geed Tcnfdl dog.
tvnWords that art: used WIth nou ns or pronouns (generally ,
bu't4t;t always, being placed in front or them] and shew-the Or of spring in:
relat ionship between the noun ?r pr~n oun and another word , The sP,illg of my watch is broken.
often expressing abstract relat ionship of case or of t ime or The dog tried to sp ring ever the gate
place. Examples: t Jove sp,i n~ flowers.
I sent the parcel to him ; it went by air mail. The smoke went w ords like drink, look , smoke, ~as/', ~wim , J, i,,( . I,)' are alj-
up t he chimney , The desk was nea r the window. generally used as verbs, bu t . especially in familiar ccnvcrsa-
Words that do work like this arelPR EPOs ITJO~SJ tion , we pu t ' hI!l'( a' before t hem ('h:\\"e a drink. look, t ry,
u:II\ Words that are used t o join words, phrases or
etc.'), and t hey become nouns. Words like shoulder, head,
Jingtr, eye, elbow. hand , etc.. arc generally nouns: but we can
sentences, Exa mples: 'shoulder our way' , 'head a football or a procession', 'fillger an
J ack and Jill; a boy with a dirty lace but a pleasan t smile, object', 'tye a person ' , 'tlb<nc someone else aside' or 'hand him
He worked hard bu4ust he wan ted to succeed. a cu p of tea'. An d then these words are all verbs.
\ ...'ords like this are(co·q usCnOl's J ! e.tl;,.;
' VIIU Words that express a sudden feeling or emotiorr' E XEUCI SES
These words do not enter into the syn tact ical construc tion of I Use the following words as (a ) 110l1 nS, and (b) verbs:
the sentence. Examples: .- - 'l'~ 1;"(..> house, iron, crowd. tie , sm okt , dreu , ai r. boo:', step.
c- ~ .-- l~ ..;, ~_ I ... LP , L,lt:.... ",: .;, LoP
hcrroly - hl-(,,"a ~ " _ / b,/A.h.1'l
t ?-:,,:'-
~ .- .
L,.... J
6 A Compreh," ISiu E"gli5h (.,"'dm UUl T

II Use the follo'lnng as (a) n o uns. and (b) verbs. and
r h,' Parts Qj Spud,
7
indicat e the change in p ronunciation : \ ' r ).[:lk.., sc.. u teuc es !lsill!> eac h of t he jullo \\ ll1 l: words as
objet" p reu'lt, rerord, p odwce. confiia, cOM ,"l, h \ " di fieren t parts of spcoech (not n c.;o:;,..<;,;. ri l\· in tbc
ih5trt , UI"Ud. perottit. same M'nlefl(e i: 3m' $3 , ' wha t rarl~ o f ~r...,....,:h l hc\" a re;
.-\dd to the list of such words. A lIglU I (""Glu l); (l /ttTll<ltt ; fllIIwk; ".;.·..I i.J ; ..1Ull f;
III Substitu t e pronouns fo:r the nc une a nd nou n ph rues f"qU#tU.
underl ined in the fo llo....i ng sentences. wh ich are [X. ll.- ), Iolrk wllere the stre,,-~ fa lls in each exampte.]
im possi ble or inelegan t as th e)" ~ U.n,l: VII P ick ou t t he verbs in th is 1"'''-'l.a lle and dassifv t hem
I I . Joh n looked a t ~ Iary . but Mary was look inl:

a t )tary in th e looking' l;!ass.-
a. If you don' t want the paper. give I t to ~ person
as ex pressi ng (i) action, (ii) a sla te.
J oh n was late. H e h ur ried down to brea kfast ,
.
said somet hin g t o h is fa t her. wh ich t he la tter d id

I who does .
no t seem to unders tand. glan ced at the clock. got
eve n more worned a nd r ushed out of t he I,OUse. He
J . The speaker looked hi s q uest ioner in th e eye ; doubted whe the r he would e ver become m anager.
t hen the s peaker gave his questioner his for he had been repr im a nded t oe oft en for not bein g
a nswer. punctual.
4. Oxford (Oxford is fa mous lor its un iversity) VI II Pic k o ut fo ur prepositions a nd three conju nct ions
is now becoming indus trialized . from the passage in question VI I.
IV(a) I nsert s uitable adjec tives where the d ashes s tand: IX R epla ce t he <lashes by s uit a ble in terjec tio ns or ex-
I. , ...re didn ' t see each other agiJ.n for a - t ime. clam a tions:
2. I n spit e of h is - streng th l,1.e ...·as - to (ttl - , I eliel no t s ucceed! (b) _ , whe re ha"e yo u
s wim across the - - river, as til e cu rren t was been all t t~ is t im e ? (e). - no, I really could n't! (dl
t oo - . - t here $ a car coming! (..) - -. 1 k'I" II' that wo ukl
J. The car t urned t he corner a t - - speed ha ppen!
4. The - - cat la y sl~ping in th e - - sunshine. X Arran g:e t he ....ords in the following passage in colu mn s
5. The door is - bu t t he windows a re -. eccc rd mg to the parh of speech wbic h t hey are;
I V (b) I nsert suitable adverbs where tile d-ashes stand ; • • ·It m us t no t be imagined tha t a walking tour. a;.
I I . I t ....as _ gettin g da.rk w hen we began t o some wou ld h ave us fa.ocy, is me rely a bet te r or
....o rse way of seeing the coun t ry. There a re m an"
I climb t he - - rising incline.
'1 . The men were not _ - - a wake. wa ys of seeing lan dsca pe q uite as good: and none
I J. H e was - - accused of the crime and - more vi vid, in sp ite of can ti ng el ile ttan tes. t ha n Irom
acq uitted. a r.ailway t rain. B ut la ndsc ape en 3 walk ing tour is •
4. I - have eggs a nd bacon fo r brea kfas t, but q urt e accessory. H e wh o is ind eed of t he brotherhood
- - I tak e fish . does :n o~ voyage in quest of t he p ic t uresq ue. bu t of
S' Ha ve you - - been to the Zoo ? Yes, I - go certain Jolly h umours-c-of t he hope and spirit ....ith
t here . wh ic h t he march begi ns at morllinl=:, a nd t he peace
\' N a me t he parts of speech of t he words und erlined in a nd spirit ual repletion of th e e\"en ing-'s res t . . . .'
t he follow ing sen tences: R o ber t I.ouis Stevenson, lVallr ing T out's.
J . It'. hard wo rk , but I know you can work hud . X I Exp lain, a nd ill us tra t e in sentences. two senses in
a. He'."'ikid keen t o get on, bu t now th at his-;;;;t winch t he re new1.ng words can be used . N a m e t he
part of speech of each:
friend"i'Sdead, he is finding li'ie"deadlv mono:
(1) sound. (2) oil. (3) m aster. (,,) clear . (S) s peed.
t onOU5. MOOotony is nea rly a !wa,'s a~ l v_ (6) w a ter. (7) deal. (8) b utter, (9) ring. (10) police .
J . He struck low. Cli m b hill"h. T he ncwers look XU Defi ne t he func tions of the eight parts of speech and
nke. Cu t th;5i"K; (!$ t hin .- give two examples of each ....'ith words no t al ready
used in chapter I .
• • L. "
~n'U-'li'.. ~ t.
, ..
..,
', \.' ,\1,..1),,': k /l.. S ... SIX-tit
•
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. 'L .L.~"1 1...t 1J.<- ...
~ rUl.1n: r 7 -
-i-:
,"-~k [ k J br'-~Ij "..J ;'4-"'J-'1
The S i mple S t l1 lUlce
T he pred icate of a sen tence is what is said about t he subjec t.
9
Xouns or pronouns t hat are in t he su bject are in¢ he !WSil s A, -

f1.....- 1U1. """;'k. f.:'y yYIJ C HAPTER T W O t l VE c ase ) .
~ Some verbs {T ransit ive ver bs. see p. 154) ex press an action
\ TH E S I MPLE SENTE "CEJ t hat passes over from t he su bject to someone or somet hi ng else,
from t he doe r of t he ac tion to the receiver of t he action. Thus ,
[S U B J E CT S A:>:D O BI EC T it for ex ample. in t he ilrst sentence above, t he ad ion of hitting
--. . " finitet \'eili:(and only passes on'f_ fro m t he boy to t he dog; in t he second sentence t he
A Simple sentence l is one that co!!!ams,@ -- action of bHmg fro m t he d og to t he boy. T he rece iver o f these
Qnc ..li.ni~ rb). It does one of four t hings: acti ons is ca lled t he OflJEC,T. T he perso n or t hing expressed b y
",I) makes a st atement; th e object sta nd s in a rela t ion to a 'd oer ' and an action. T I1('
.(2) asks a question; . nou n or pronoun that sign ilics th is is ill the (llIJEC1'IVI' case.'
.(3) gives a corrunand o~ makes a request, So wc could divide the sentences above like t his:
\
.(-4) makes an exclamatIon. SUBJECT PMEDICATE
,
E%4",pla:
Mr. Brown teaches this class. (~latcrru'n t) Va l! Objt(l
Do you understand me? (Q ueshon) ,
Open the door. (Command) T he boy hit t he dog
, Please help me with my work. (Request) T he dog bit t he ho y
~ ". N'
-
" " .... 1 H ow cold it is! (En la ma, Ion
. ) ! • J ,-,. ..J: , ...... I. __ \ . \...- T he gi rl read ... ,.~ I ~ t llO,: books
~ ..y - - . . d usua llv o f tw o parts , t he SI: BJECT T he books pleased .• t he gi rl
A sentence IS compose I . • I the Icllowi ng sentences:
and the PREDICAT E. Take, Of ex amp e. •
Whether a noun IS t hc s ubjec t or object of a sentence is
The-boy hi~ dog. Th e dog bit the boy. h . I shown not by its form bu t by its position in t he sen tence.
The girl read t he books. T he books pleased t e gtr '. • T here arc some verbs t ha t d o not ta ke an o bjec t eg.
We can di vide t hem like th is:
r I , TIle do g r<lll away. The boy cried. The girl l<l /lgJud ,
Ver bs t hat do not take an objec t are ca ll1''ll( I STK,~ ":s ITn'E:l
Verbs. [See p , 15-1.)
The boy hi t t he dog .
The dog bit t he boy. rE SL." RG F. ~U~""h \,- .:::.,.. \:.\.;0 ~\
T he girl read t he books. Ph rases or word s other t han <In object may accompany bot h
I\ T he books
In t he first part
pleased the girl.
t here is a person (or t hin g) t ha t we ar.e
d part is what we say about t his
a t ra nsit ive or an intransit ive verb in a sentence, T hese
b ~' U R G bl r: S' TS1 of tile verb art of various type s, e.g.
talking abo~t. The
person or thing, Part
se;:c:
the subjlec t . Part :I is the predicate.
. t he word (or group of words)
-He walked slowly.(f )IA" HiI ]
- T he dog ju m ped 'hrough tilt wil1 d01l'. i)'u n l
The sub ject of a senten~~ 1$ about which somet hing is said. - T hey arrived Of! Christ mas day . [j h li)
denoting t he person or mg r .:-----"\.
,..-. . .:::..
e"e d ea.lt with fully on page' (3 I S \0 358;.; '@e «mee t of case- corrC'lpond s to d ilTereoce o f form only in
.
/I
ntene.w I.n 1kIa...~ - - '- .
I
•fo'
(, 01: -fin ite ~ nd nOIl-1inlte verb' &eetP,~
~ . . 11
ce rtain p ronou ns """ p- 98).
,
- • • I
A C(Jmp,d/(1lSit·( E'lglish G1(ltllma,

10
.. train was la te because oJ. r tIU JCe.:,
("u RE:\ 5 .
. But ti llS is not t ile case in such e Xa.lllp ll's as :
- ,..y r . bed D GRH,
- Ny work is ~a'ly finis : le ~ Toda~' is. Tile plan t Su ms . T he man ~~'1IIl<"
. saving u p to buy a ~cyc "" D ' th4 ga,denTIH __o\CEj
-J{
H~ ~orked lik, a madman (l]i pi;:; E In Somethi ng m ust he a dd f"cf I)('fore t hese 1Jc.<ome illtellisibll'. e.g.
Todar is my bir/krill)'.
- 0IlI Saturday .[l! I'IIE l f t he noun or pronou n TIle plan t .~al1a d,'nd.
be e largemen ts 0
Similarl y there may n b' t TI1U S t he sen tence: T ilc man b.·C'''fl,· I'iolo ul)' aJl.!;'y .
forming t he sub ject or .t he 0 jec . eks u t t h ree metal- t,o pped
l'iol~II/("
TJ,e~
b . h t little boy with rosy che P before seven 0 cloc k. T he "wcrus my hirt/d ay . J r,/.J, (/ Ngry a rc no t objects:
A ng . . t l . on my doorstep the verbs i s, SUms, brcame a re a ll intransi t i,'c ve rbs.
bet tles of milk qure ) . to its parts) like t his: cOl~plete
the ntl'a ni ng of
called rOllf'Ulll:~ra
( 0 uld be a na lysed (i.e. b roken up In
word s or ph rases a rc nee-d('(j to
Verbs like is,' SUm ,
~o~rpu;!E
t he verb; t her arc
become are \'crbs of PUE IHC.U IOS . The d ifference
• between com plement ana o bjec t ca n be seen in t he fo llOWing
examples:
SCil jECT PREDlC... TE
S ubiea Objut Enlarge"l ( '~ TIle little g irl smelt the )JOtters [ OJ: / ECT)- The "flowers smell
ifO.\ fP~t.\ltNT) slr"'~bunes
E nlargement Enla,gtHl<'nl
V erb
Ulo,d oI S u ~e.'L of V erb li.wd of Object S'lrul I grow (OBJECT) in my
k!1JI- - garden . His ace grew p ale (COlf PLE .I IF. l\·T) a t t hc news.
- A complemen t may be: •
boy a brigh t pu t quietly bottles t hree.meta
little. with (Malina ). topped . 0:
rosy cheeks on my d oor- milk -<r) a noun
•
ste p (Piau) • .(2) a pronoun
before d n n • • 00+3) an a djectn 'c
o'cloc k ~-4 ' a n a d verh
(T i",e) .(S) a gerund 9,
IT ill:: CO lot p l.J':)IE:n l •
..6) • verb
(infim t l\'e)
I •
Many ver bs express an Ide a intellig ibly wit hout a n ob ject 0 '
00(7) a pllrase o- <.oJ,,.......
I " 't lt nt J'u-h '('r
•
an ex tension
T he sun . s,he. . .
· geso Fishes slt't m.
m
T he baby IS ··41
... kin, . All j N ..."11 or
I
morta s dbs' , se Iull .v
It.
tha t need an 0biICC t to express t heir sen
areEven v:e~ Ie W Iithou t t he. ob ject . e.g.
m telligib
The boy hit. T he dog bit. . d ubt a bout t he ac t ion

'-- hit a nd bit lea ve us In no 0
The veros '·et~.
" 11 cllrt.:!. in C'l>e>\ i s and ot her verbs 0' i" c" m pl,,!<,
with ;r, chan ge of mC,1ninli. bel COmplete
I'H"Ji~ .. li"lI cal<.
I These &re called F~t'!lu verbs.
(.'>ee p. ' 9 .'
involved. 1

T Ir ,' Simpl,- Selllol( ,' 13

A Comprth tus ive E nglish GrtllIlmar
T he NEGATIVE f a declara tive sentence is expressed mai nly
U bi t b ut still need Mime other word or words to in '0 ways:
t ake a n 0 Jee _
complete the predu;ate , e.g. -{I} By inserting not immediately after the verb. This
method is UsM only with the Special F inites (see p. 182). TIle
word order is: """";W, u" ......,' }l1 ~
_ ••
-r• "l
.-. I .-;...c.J .."
• ./Il _ lor
~ S U8J E CT + VEkB (Special F inite) + .nol. In informal style. _
not ma), coalesce with t he Special Finite to Icrm one word , • ~
.-J'
e.g.
He is not (isn 't) my friend .
George cannot (can't) speak Russian.
He will not (won't) come.
The children are not (aren't) playing in the field,
The farme r's wife is not (isn't) feeding the chickens.
4 2 ) By using 40, d~s , did' with Iloi an d the PRESE:!orf
I :"FJ !'i' ITI \' E (without to).
The word order is:
Sl,.: B] liCT + do (does) , did + 110 / + I S F IS ITIVE .
This const ruc t ion is used with all verbs except the Special
F inites, e.g.
~lr. Brown does not (doesn't) te ach this class .
You do not (don 't) come here every day.
They did not (didn' t) go to the theatre.
• •
Up to the seven teenth or eighteenth century all verbs could
form. their own negative merely by adding not, e.g.
I like not fair terms and a villain's mind. (Sh akespea r~.
•\fercndllt of Veniu )
I 1maU' noi why I am so sad. (Shakespeare, Merchant oj
Venice)
r Ltt not your hearts be troubled . (Bibk)
S ub;tcl Look not upon the wine when it is red . (Bible)
this class.
!otf. Brown E nglish . This form may still be found in modem poetry, ego
George here every day. 'Speak not-U'lJisp tr not;
You to the t hea tre. Here bloweth th yme and bergamot.'
They in t he field .
(W aiter de la ~I are , The S lmken Garden)
'The children their work.
Tb'Y \ the chickens. 1 dQ (dQ4"l) is used lor the I'resene Ten-e. did for the Put Tense.
The fanner's wife
14 A Comprehensivt English Gram ma r

T he S imple Se ntence IS
The auxiliary do is not used with anoth e r negative or par tly
.o(3) By using 'Question Words': t he intefTogatiYe pronouns,'
negative word such as t1ttlfr. hil rdly. sca ruly , e.g .
interrogat iYe adjec tiH'S,: or interrogati\'c adve rbs , ~ II 'IIO?
He never speaks E nglish. She nevu came to t~l e party. What.> II'hich.' W hell? Why.' et c. In questions of type (3) the
He never a nswered my letter. I hardly knew him. question word always begins the question.
He scarcely spoke at all. . If the interrogative pronoun (or interrogative adjec tive +
. H er did like mathema tics. noun) is the subject of t he sentence, there is no inversion and
except lor ICJ!lphasls' bc
The neganve may
lC ,g. e:d too in literary style. by the
expre . ( "/ d t me the word order is: J:o;TeRROC...fJ "g (Subject) +
VERB, e_g.
\ICC J'" ."..
. b' · ' . , He fuiltd t o answer my let t er. She J ill t 0 co
to the party.
J'
Wilo is your friend ?
Which boy answered the ques tion ?
Whose dog bit the postman?
IQUEST IO NS I ' . \ \110 wrote Va nity Ftl i, .J
Interrogative sentences ca n ~ formed in t h ree mam_.wa ,,· If the question word is t he objec t or pa rt of the oLje<t of
bi t d -et b i.e by t he wor d or d er the sentence, or if t he question word is an interrogat ive ad verb,
.(1) By in,:ersio~lof ~uodl=n ~:,Iish thi~ ~ethod is used only then, after the opening interrogative, the word order is the
VEM B + Sl: BJ ECT. nm same as for questions of types (I) and (2).
with Special F inites ,: e.g.
Questions of type (J) de no t admit of an answer ' Yes' Ot
Is he Y2.ur friend? 'Nc'. They are said with Falling Tune intonation (see p. .ft.!).
Will they help us? . , Examples:
Can Gtorge speak Russianr What languages can WilHam speak?
Are the children playing in the fields? Whose car are you d riving?
Has Henrv finished his breakfast yet? . Wh ich question did you answer?
.~ I finites could
I n elder English , v~rbs. that ~'ere n.ot specta Whar did he say?
, f nn their int~rrogatl\'e by mverston . e.g. , " wnen are you co ming to see us?
a S:H:W agrus lhe devil with thee about thy soul?' (Shakespeare , \\11Y did you lock the door ?
~~~7 gr::w you so your nether lip?' (;ha~espcar~, Othtllo) •

' Sim on , son of Jonas , I01:est tJwu me (B'~)
IC OlB IA S 1>S, R EQ UE STS "SO I S\lrrATl O'. s l
. .
. J (d did) and the infinitive . Th15 form IS In ~ommands' there is usually no subjec t, Exa"'/'{t s:
..(2) By usmg 0 ot'S, I S"--ial F inites The word order
used with all ve rbs except t re 1"'- • Open t he door. Come in. Take t hat des out . Don 't he la te.
is: Do (does, did) + SI:Bjf-CT + IS~ lS ITl \ E , e.g , Don 't hring t hat dog in here.
Does Mr. Brown teach this class. In requests, too, there is often no subjec t , e.g.
Do you come here every day? Please lend me your pe ncil . 1'a.'>S the sugar, please
Did they go to the theatre? d b 'Yes' or For requests an d invitations another construction . 11\
. f t 'TV" (I) and (2) can be enswere Y question form, is freq uen tly used. Th is form is felt to be more
Questlonhs 0 h-~d -ith u i...in'" I une intonation (see p. 41 3),
' No' , and t ey aresal \\ 1 ,,", ' p_" polite or less abrupt. It begi ns with wiU, W Ollfd , would (do)
f ' rI' ece questions,..,e page. )6.?-7 . } 'Oll mind .
• For the .... nrd ords er ~ ,'Jl ~:n ite. u5Cd in fa nning perfe<ot t en,eo,
'I nc1 urlinlt Ihe pee~' - • See p"ll:e 116 . • See pages ai, 89, "9-10 .
t ..... tinuou' te n_ . e tt . • Se<e page ZH
, See alllQ page n (i

T Ilt Sim/,I,' S,·lIf,'/I,·,. 1-;

A Comptnen slt·t Engli sh Gralll"I<1' ;;;:~er l~ore in. the pond Int nig ht. (20) He found t he
v ,ha I;. {2jJ ~ly ro5CS bTew very wet" thts year,
A subject, n ormally l ON, is expressed, The word order is: {21!.. The ~rdencr d ue up the ~tat~ (N) ' Ir Brown
I wiU (WOlUd , etc.] + Sl:DJECT + 1l\ F1S ITI VE, c.g. rU';6I tl~e tefure straight. (JoTlhoe hoy ral;1:: t he bell.
O~~IOC \~O e \'cry earl ' t his mOfll in~. C~ ~) I rose at six
I Will you lend me your pencil . please ?
\V ould 'ou come t his wa lease?
'" . 33
}y hranC'as fast as
out () bed at SIX ",'doc].. (3 '] The
. 0 I saw -,
la t picture
W o d y~ mind passing the ~~, pl ease? at t e merna. (]6) That baker sold us good ca kes
Dei you mind not smoking, please? (37) J~e hen laid an e '" today. (38) :\101.1')' ate he~
breaJdas qUI(; y. J~ u ~~k8'~'<.;l~"':J,"';
Won ' t you come in? ~hU rOOk the medici ne. (,.0) t nry tries to understan~
@!y~ com e t o t ea t omorrow? I e essen . (" 11 H ei'l ry is t ryi ng to u nderstand the
F or word order in exclamatory sentences see p a ges 262, 26-\ , essen (p) The boys t.ry to understand t he lessen.
(<43) he bovs were tryln" t o understand the lesson .
J'~ (~ ~) .1.1'. mi t rvee 10 a hou sc. f45f)fr.- Slnidi i,
~~ I~ !(hln that house no w. (46) Mr. Smith was Ih·in,.; in
EX ERCI SE S a cuse last yea r. (47) ~ ycl e t o wor ~ every dav.
I What are the various functions of a Simple Sen tence? (..S) He wen.t to school t hl.! morning. (..9) The chifdren
sang very well. t~?) We sat Oil. these seats Yesterday ,
Give an exa.m ple of each. (51) ~om spoke Frenoh when Ill': was ten \"eaTS ld
II Divide t he 10110\l.-lng sentences In to subject and (5z).lhe ca t sprang on t he rat. (531 Every bo\' st~
predicate in th e manlier shown on page 9· III his place. {5..1 Hen toTe that -.ane ou t of h is hook
(I) lJ,:c bird built a nest . (z) The ~ardeller mowed t he (55) The sun shon flJo: t \' t IS monurur ~ ,~
lawn , (3) The rai n h as stopped. {..l T he su n IS shinin g. me t he sec I' e:: t . (57)'r he teacher
. taught~ .• ~ , e ll "
u~ t hat r ule
(5) T he gra!>S is growing. (6) T he tlowers are opening (58) The class und erstood the lesson. (59) The "hi ;
their petals, (7) Open t he door . (8) W ho bro ke the sank 1 11 the grea t storm. (6u ) Richard swam acro~; t l1~
window ? (9) The dog bar ked. (10) W hich bby 6rougn t n \ 'C L (61) The boys wen t to t he pnr tv. (6 z) The tl;;e \:£5
that dog? stole a ll t he Jewels. .

III \ \l1at are t he main wa~'s of fornli n& t he n~at i\"e et • v \\1t.at arc the t hr ee main .wa ys of forming the in terro-
a sentence? Give mree e"ampl~ of each method . gat rve of a sent ence ? Gl\'C three e~ampl~ of eacf
met hod . cI
IV Make the following sentences e egati ve :
(I) J ohn ls her e. (2) Susan can swim very well, 131 The VI Make the senten ces in Exercise I V intcrrog ative. •
birds are singing t his rnor nint:". (4) H enry will help me VII wnte q uestions ro which the fu:lo\\"i1l" could 1 '
with my work. (5) Mary comes home ev ery week-end, answers: " >t:
(6) They go t o Switlerla nd every year. (7) H e wal ked
t o school this morning. (S) Richa rd writes to ) Ia rgaret ~~)r ~o, I ' m Aust ri~n . (~ ) YI':'. he has (3) :io, only for
regularly . (9) He wrote to her th is week . (10) ~[ary I ke mon.ths. (-4 ) \ es. we go there eve ry yea L·(5) \ 'e::5
bakes a ca ke. (II) ~ and Susan bake a cake. (n) n~ him very well. (6) reo. he has a bad accen t '
(7). \ ea. I wen t .t here last :\Iay . (8) Yes, I saw heron t he
:\l~§llsa~ are ~1II.E~ £.a.1(e-.(13) the .10; (:h ~
~\)~. (I'-Ine flogs ch ase rabb its {151"'The dog IS ship. (9) She ~1~ t hat she was coming home next week
(10) Because It IS such a cold day.
c as ing a r abbit. (16) The dogs are cb n ing a rabbit.
(11) That shopkeeper ileUS good cakes. ( IS) That shop- VttI Ana lyse t he followi n ~ se ntences in t he tnanucr shown
keeper has good cakes. (19) Mary speaks E nglish well. on page 10,
(20) Mary can speak English well. (21) )Iary is speak- (I ) Ur.lsht yellow daffodils can he seen in th e gardens
ing E nglish now . (n) \Ve rode to school on ou r II I spn ng. . .
bicycles. (23) R ichard 10r~aYe the 00& who had t aken
his pencil. (24f I chose t esc cakes or tea , (25JThe ,
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,8 .-l COlllp, dl (ffSit, ~ E uglull G,,,mnu'

(1) At w em blev last Satur0 _ dav
a} a h u ndred thousand
apectatoIS l~most exerting fl)Ol bal1 ~tcb . . C H .H ' T F. R TIIREE
• (J) All the st udent s in m (:las!> a re workin thIS
year in order 0 pass their exammatlOD. ! N O U N S : (I) KI NDS \
\ I X Pick ou t the compleme nts in the following sentences .
(1) Nelson was a sailor. (2) he fur fee:1s soft. (3) T he :\ noun is t he name of anything: IHdlJ , COUIU,y, (ily, I1ell'y,
toOm looks clean and tidf ' (4) . Ie tlllk(6\U!&~ \t~~'k Spai n, Pa ris, happiness, uhilet/ess, "wd, teem , All t hese are
Owin~ the thunder (s That IS b e. names of people, places or t h ings: all are nouns ,
ij1P; easy 'gt
lft~ rned ou t diif1cu tt· (7) He ~ent ~ou n s may be classified logica lly into two main categories:
as W I as a e t 1BT1!l:at
c" remai ke S01Undss s tupid to
c
me (9) The man grew weiker ~Very gay. IloJ ~ -( I O~~C R 12 t( ~ H STk AC4 Concrete nouns are represented by
~ ha.1t~ &eeii wcll..$QIn pnd th?i
a ve worn m.
(1l)!bey elected him President. I'l) tie caillcd) ire
sue wor s as ma,l, country, Henry , Spai", Paris, crotrd, 114m.
Abstract nouns by such words as happi'lfH , ,,-hi/nUB, brau/.\'.
man a thi~f. (I)) ~es his whisky neat , 14 M health,
'tW"m;tt ee a ppointed George capta'n of the team. Concrete n ~u!l s may be sub-d ivided into two categories,
(I S) Set t he people free. . T he names ma ti, COIIIII ,)", cou l,ly, city can be applied t o an y
\\n at is the difference between
. ,
t he com ple ments In man, any country. any cit y ; t hey are names tha t all men ,
5enten ces 1 -1 0 and t hose In I I-IS · countries, CIties share in common. They a re called {:0p'O:"-
jIhrksJBut Ilenry , George T1Iompson ,l Spaiu , Yorkshire, ans
• are not na mes t hat can be applied to any man, any count ry ,
a ny count y, a ny ci t y. They are names of a part icular man , a
particular countr ,a ar ticular count y, a pa r ticular ci ty. They
are called PROPEI<:-; UNS,
Words like scent, st¥utn.;u , u:hiteness are not q ui te like rose,
• • • Sligar, S1l0u0; t hey a re names not so much of ' thi ngs' as of
abst ractions . The abstraction may be, as in the examples above,
t he name of a quali ty; or it may be the name of a sta te of
being, like health, pot'my, pleasure, Y014IJt; or it may be t he •
name of a n activity, like laughler, arrival, perseveratrcr.
Nouns at are the names of qualities, sta tes or act ivities
are called [ISTR.KT ~OU N S ,
Fina lly , t iere IS one 0 er t y pe of noun. Th is comprises
words li ke crowd, army , ji", k, class. They are names of a grou p
or collection of t hings, of men, women, sheep, students, etc..
regarded as one whole; so we speak of a crowd. all army
a flock a class, i.e. of one t hing. These words ani c6[[EcTlv f
SOA~
, co lective noun de notes a group or collection of simi la r
• Individua ls considered as one complete whole.
I Gtorgt is t he 'Cl"ist iall' or 'fi rst ' name. TlIo...p _lO.. i~ t he 'su rname'.
III English the C brist ~n na me wmn heforl! t he BUrn"ml!
,.
S OUIIS: \1) K i,uis :;! l
A Comprehtnsit·t English Grammar mdefinite article (II, lUI), Proper nouns, since t hey are thr
20 be shown diagr ammatically like names of a particular person, place or thins , ar~ usually
The kinds of nouns may singular, but t hey are coun table and may at times be plur al.
this: e.g, the Hi", alaj 'as, the Wes' I ndies. the S m iths; or in such a
socxs sentence as. 'There are three J ohns [i.e. three boys with the-
I name J ohn )"1n my class.'
I I
Abstract
Concrete ------<cmlP~v :.; D N"OI' ~D
I
One of th e chara.cteristics of E n41ilO h is the capacity It he s
for forming compounds . that is. U1'IIts which . though m ade u p
of two or more parts each of which may be used as a separa te
word, arc. nevertheless. Iclt to be single terms. The elements
comr',sing a compou nd may be almost any part of speech.
e.g. ..choolmaster (noun + noun). quick-silt'cr (adjective +
( C OON'TABL E ASiC UNcoo1TAB~ :\ OONS) - - - noun), whiwash (ad jective + verb). pickpocktJ (verb + noun).
tical distinction may be. made O1ltrlook (adverb + verb), tralking-sJick (geru nd + noun). The
An important ~amma t ble and nouns which are most impol'tant pattern in compound nouns is SOl,J S + NOON,
between nouns which are coun a or GERUND + :';OUN' . and t he first element only is stressed. \'.&".
uncount able. I -; shup are 'count able' . NoWl;> hdirp in. sh{,jJkeepcr, p 6stc14rd, lliwspapu . sl;nshine. b6xing.
NounS like boys. books . app t. . aur ink are 'uncountable ; nudch , dining-room, ",iti Plc-paper. etc.
like bread. glass, sand , stea:"t:;;'c~not be coun ted . they can
they stand for subs tanCe5 these words. e.g. glass. PIlP".. stmlt, The "vritten fonn of these compound nouns is somewha t
only be measured. Som~ ~ f text and with a dlfferent arbit rary; sometimes they are writ ten as one word, e.g. black-
,--_ 'count able In one con ' bird. houu wl! e: somet imes as two words joined by a hyphen,
etc can uo: , . mer:
\o l j " . 'uncoun table In ano ' . ' ' e.g. gds-works, f ire-engine. ihunder-storm . sia-supmt: or even
J m",amng, . of lass (Um 014n1ablt ). occasionally as two separate words. e.g. P6si ojfiu. T he GER1.'N'D
,,! . tit A glass (Countable) 15 ma(~e ~ble) at a wall made of slMlt + SOON pattern is always ...vr itt en with a hyphen, e.g. cydi"C-
. rIO You can throw a ,s~t ou d ub, triighi"g-ma~h int . •
c ) ' "" .:r ,
{Uncountable . ." (C tablt ). There is paper ( L n- Iris t he single stress' ..... hich differentiates Compound no uns
I have an evening paptr DUn from 'word groups' {i.e. adjective + noun, or noun used ad -
countablt ) on ~he wall. bl ) oSe t oday. The food is packed jectivally + noun). In 'word groups' both elements take stress,
The price of 'In (Ulltounla e r e.g. gOld ri lfg. 14dy dOctor. rice pUddilfg. st6" t <1"d/I, L6lfdou
in ,inS (Countable). ....- ~ (Um oul'llablt) . 1 ga\"e the boy poliumlln. Oxford L'nit·irsity . II the group is longer than tw,)
->' The kettle is made of copra words the principle is t he same. each word has stress. c g.
-s "> . f c ,J,pers (Countablt) . t T6tten ham COlift R6ad. L6ndon P4ss( ng(r T rallsporl B6arJ .
-"'. ,; ..1", a ~r . " count able or uncountable; mos This different iation by stress is important , as it may convey :1
, \f ": "..- Common nouns rna} be t om e persnttra nce. trut1l, are difference of meaning. Thus a black bird can apply t o any bird
,./ abstract nouns. e.g . helP'bl ~n~ have a plural torm, and (e.g. a crow or a ra ven) ~'hich is black: a UM kbirtlis a bird of u
uncount able.' Only countabee ~eceded in the singular by the
nly count able nouns can P I Except ions t o Ihili a re I lle compou nd nOuM n;,,,,U ir a n" /;J.<J .
o . y,lled · ~t et"w· I\ouns. . ",d · U , .
' Nouns o f l h lt kind are son,et,m:':un lable a nd can be uted In t he
• But &Ome .. ~tract nount lire
'd ,n opi"iO"u,
plnral , e g, • I •
,,,.,111,
etc
•
22 A Com prti/rnsit'( £ rrgiisiJ Grammar
part icul ar species (turdus merula). ..\ h61 house (= a house ? ':;,',,~ . r:,.. . . y S OIII/S: (1) Kinds
, J ,.pr'.,...., of
'I
'3
w hich is liot) is not the same as a Jujllwll.'t ( = a heate d glass ..( 71- As th ~ ~n tcccdell ll of a re lati ve p roucun, e.g.
building for plants), nor is a p4ptr blJSkd ( = a basket for paper)
t he same as a papa b4s~(t ( = a basket m ade of paper). . The shIp t.hat t ook t he P ilgr im F at hers to '\ mer iO:3 .....a s
called the ') Ia y flower '. .
The first word, both in word f Oups and compound nouns IS
the 'qualifi er', and a reversal 0 positions may bring about a
comple te ch ange of meaning . T hus a race-horse is not t he same E X E HCISES
as a 1Jo,s,-r(Jee . la U"~ten"is as a u nnis.JaU"l , a Gram mar School I Cou ntry, t ree, JX'ace,. Sherlock Holmes. f1ocl.;. sht"ep,
as a school Kram,,",'. a jlrnnr-glJ.rden as a : (I,den flout' , an e)'t - ")l Rut>e: ns, square. patience, bea uty, Bodmi'I, rivalry,
glas s as a glass eye, a village-green as a gu m ('ilIag' , kzmp-/n'Z mcc.tmg, crry t raffi c, noisiness, Hyd e Park, crowd.
as an oil-lamp or pipe.tobacco as a lobacco-pipe. \Vh ~ch of the a bove words are ~UT CUll llJlUn noun s?
In a number of compound nouns, especially those that.h,ave Which are abst ract , which colledive?
been in t he language a long t ime during which t he ongmal It 'John, co~e here! Will you come t o t he t heat re ,,'it h
mea nin gs of t heir elemen t s have .becom e. obscured, t he vowel mer ' ~"~ lIch t h,e~tre ~ ' 'Covent Garden.' ' What's the
in one or oth er , and even occasiona lly In both, h as become opera? Tosc a Wh o wrote it ?' ' Puccini ' ' Wha t's
shortened or otherwise modified, e .g . t he p ~lce of t he t ickets ?' 'Sixt y-t wo pence.' 'Sor ry, I
haven t t he money; I 've been bettin.t: too much
bred/ as: {'b rekb s t ] (_ break fast); shepherd ('Ie~) recently . I lost a lot on t he Der by.' 'Oh r ou didn ' t
(_ sheep herd); /01ehead ['fori d] ( = fore hea d); cupboiud back Crepello , then ]" ' No, worse luck!' •
['kAb id) ( _ cup board ); S unday ['SAnd i] (= su n day ); Pick out and classify t he nouns ill the abo ve l" l "S;'~ C.
NeTJItrm ('nju :t n] (..: new town ); Portsmouth ('po : tsm~ e] III \V~ ic h of th e followinG" nou ns are 'ccun table s' ;uul
( _ port's mouth) ; lxmfire [ 'bonfai~] (ori gina lly fxme fi re); whICh a re ' u nccu n ta bles'j
poa_,. ('pousbn.n] (_ pest man), etc. do" me.u, ,. WiS4 11Cil', ,AWllde" s~, fisA, cAuse, bll4"i
P4,tJl, tree, .
l Tll,£ GR .. uutA'IlCAL Iruxcrrc xs OF
I V F onn abstract nouns from t hese words:
A n ou n may be u sed: -: • • • proud , beau t iful, paren t , likely, cowa rd, tr a it or.
-{I}- As t he subject of a sentence , e g , Infan t , sane, courteous. you ng.
Th e boy open ed t he d oor. \' (4) What is the correc t eollect ive noun for a n um ber of:
-{2,. As the direct object of a v er b , e,g , (I) lions. (2) sheep. b ) people a t a football match , (4)
wolves, (.5). elephants. (6) fish. (7) people in ch urch , •
I saw t he boy, (8) people hstenmg ~ a concert. (9) sailors on a shi p?
.(3). As the complement of a verb, ~.g . (b) Supply the a ppropnate collec ti ve nou ns to complete
He is a clever boy, the following ex pressions:
.(4 ~ As an indirect object , e.g.
a- of stars, a - o f oxen. a 01 cards a -
of br igands, a - of t rees, a 01 di~n.l e rl v
I told the boy a story , I people, a - of hou nds, a _ 0 1 lh ips. a _ of
CUrIOS, a - of books. a _ of aircra ft .
..(5). In a phrase with a preposition , e .g .
V I \\'ha ~ q ual ~ties (expressed h y a bst ract nO llns) dn V<lU
I spoke t o the boy. The H ou se of CommQ1ls. associ ate Wi th t he following ? .
-{6).As a prepositional object , e.g. J ob, Quisling, Shylock , Ta rt utle t;ri ah Hee p
Give the m oney t o your broihn. Hercules, Xero, Baron Muneh a u5en, ·~ra.c.hia\'elli ? .
1The antecedent i. Ihe word lor ",-hich Ihe retanve pronoun .tand.
( ke p . 3 ' 4)' -

-
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24 A Ccmrp,eJrtr/sit·, Ent;l ith Gmm m<lr
Xl it Fc rm compound no un. or ' word jirolllll ' to exp re,.,
"
\'11 In each 01the following groups of noun s. pick ou t t he (I) A knife for cutting I'll.... I I A , .
one that is d ifferent In class from t he o the rs . Give the wine . (ll A b l l per, 2 g au fur hold ing
I I ' III e or Il. enfety-ruaer ( ,) \ box f
reason for you r choice: 10 dms: matches (5) A desk for wnting at (~) A or
giving neWI and publllhed in Edln bu; h paper
ifs~ment bott:es~ (J! p~~
(a) quietness. country , la ke, s un.
(h) crew. team, men, crowd . for p ul,lull; corlll out of (8)
It l Germ a n)', Rhine, river. Zugspitlf!. ~\·aria .
(d ) laughter, gaiety, joy. happiness, mirth , h umorist.
° ICIUOrs for cutting tinger.n&ilJ, (9) A driver of tu13
In London . (10) A machine for cuttin g the gran on a
lawn , (I I) A m an whoee profenion 1. lend ing mone
( I~ A place wll,ere cotton clot h is ma de . (I J) ~\
VIII I de ntify the nouns in the following passage and name
the kind of no un to which each belon gs: ,
'At length. in 1812. ~tr . W illiams made his d ~but on ~~ col~:er f(~ ~a~h lns: clo~hes . (14) A fish th at is gcldeu
the t tl.g f! of Ratcliff Highway. ~a execut~ those (16) A ' II adma.n , w . ogeu coal outoftheground .
u nparalleled m urd ers which have procured for him , wa m e ° brick•. ( 17) A man who makes
such a brilliant and undying re putation. On wh ich a bnck wall , (18) A room where )"o u have mea ls
murders. by th e way . I mus t observe th at in one ~109J ~~hJ~;I~::i~I~~~u aleep, (20) A room in whicl~
respect they ha ve h ad an ill effect , by m aking the
connoi!i5eur in murder ,'ery fastidious in hi' taste and In eve.ry cu e lnark wh ich word' a re strcsS(.'II,
d i$$atisfled with any th ing t hat h as been done sinu, XIV E xp Ial~ (II) the meaning. of the following words and
in that line .' e xpre~luns u th ey are gi\"e n. a nd then (b) t heir
De Quincey, ' On t he Knocking at t he gate an j eanln, I ' .... h ~n th e two word. in each are t ra nsposed
Macb, th' . n eac 1 ease Illustrate l.ly sentence' ,
IX I n the following exam ples some common nouns a re ~I ) playing-cl.rd . (2) grammar , ,'hool. (J) fl ower-
ur.ed as proper noun. and some. proper nou n, are used f}rt~ n . It) eyeg lan. t51 village-green . (61 house-dog
as com mon noun' or adject ives _.P oint ou t t hese word •. .J lC y~ e peda l. (8) peeker-beck. (9) oil-la mp (IOj
II I Itatlon. (1 1) tobac co-pipe . (n ) lawn -t ena i• ."
(I ) Church and State do not &I...·a)"' a gree. (2) H e was
wearing a t weed ullter, (J) lIa".l" is a t ragedy bu t
T u ,tlft h Nigh f is a comedy. W Some people prefer
Ch ina tea t o I nd ian. (5) Paris . fash ions are famous
• •
e"o·erywhcre .
X Give the collecti ve nou ns for:
(11 The group of persons directing t he administra t ion
of a t own. (1) Ships used in time of war (" IIt1l:.J u'O'I'd, •
possibl, ). (J I The p card, used m playing Bridge.
(4) F ather, mother , son. and daugh t er. (5) The eleven
players in a game of football.
X I F orm abstr ac t nouns fro m:
__ 11) lI:rea t. (ll succeed . III destroy , <-4) profound . (51
.., repel. (6) k now. (7) gent le lm'o wcrd,). (8) socia l (t it'O
wcrd, ). (9) generou,. (10) liberal (lu'" u'OI"d$).
• XII Wh ich of t he following word s can be used as ,ount able
and ab o a, ueccc neab'e nouns ' Ex plain the ewe
~nKS of each one you fi nd ,
(11 sorrow . (2) beauty. (ll ...i ne . (4) tea. (5 ) bric;k.
(6) pain. (7) wood . (8) paint . (9) ti mbe r. (10) food .

•
N ouns: (2) Su mber '7
SMoot words that end in -0:
negro - negroes, potato - potatoes
hero - heroes, volc ano - volcan oes.
C H A P T ER fOI,;R But there are ~me exceptions to this. Thus , though words
th at have been In t he lan guage for a long t ime t end to USC' t he
\ :SO U K S : ( 2) :'\U)IBE R ~ -es form,
-\II) Th ose words that are still felt to be 'foreign ' take t he ·s
T here are two grammatical numbers in English. (0;,) S I~ GU LAR form. Th e principal ones are:
t o denote one, (b) PLURAL to denote m ore than one. piaftos , photos, 4,Y1lQ PISOS. '""l:ftdoS , kilos, PlUmePllos, solos.
Only countable nouns can be used in the plural.
-(b) All nouns ending in -o preceded by a " owe) take only the
t F ORlJl.ATlOS OF T HE P LURAL t -5 form, e.g.
cuckoos, cameos. bdmboos, pqrtfolios, , ,,rios. sJudios, ' aJios,
:, ~ \.~ c The plura l of almost all nouns is formed by means of a ... _ Th e following changes occur in the formation of the plural:
.r' ~ sibilan t suap.:. This suffix is written as -s or -es. It is pronounced
1I~ Words end,ing in .y preceded by a consonan t letter change
as (51 when added to a word ending in any voiceless consonan t th e -y t o -tes:
except the. :hissing' sounds [5], Ul. (t D, e.g"-- ----
lady , ladies: slory, stories: a,my , ",miu:jly, jlies,
book - books (bu k - buks] Words ending in -y preceded by a vow el letter simply add - S:I
cat - cat s (kat - kats) valley , t'll1leys: donkey , donkeys: boy, boys: key, keys.
It is pronounced [z) when added to a word ending in any voiced -(2~ The end ing '[ or -f e in most nouns is ch anged to -ws . with
sou nd except th e consonants [a], (3), (dS], e.g.
a c orrespon ~i n g ~ h a nge ,of pr~munc i at i on of (I) to lvl. e.g .
dog - dogs [dog - dogz] leaf, lcuves: wife. u'lIIes; thuf , thieves; loaf, loat'es: 1Ialf , helves,
bird - birds [ba rd - ba.dz] But there are many words ending in -f or -f e tha t simply
day -c-days [dei - deiz) • • • add s t o form their plu ral:
It is pronounced liz] when added to a word ending in the roof s, gulf s, cliffs, rerf s, P,oofs, chief s, lloof s, I"rf s, s(//es,
sounds [' J. [D . lt D. ['J . [3J . [d3J • • g. dwarf s, g, ie/s. beliefs .
ho rse [hers] - ho rses ['ho :sit] ; rose [rouz] - roses ['ronziz] Some words have both forms: •
judge (d3Ad3] - judges {'d3Ad3iz]; ash [aD - ashes ['afiz]. scarf s, scarves: u'II"'fs, ~hart'es: staffs, staves: 1I00/s, hM 'rs.
., , ,: vJI
S aTE: The s of ho14se (hau s] is voiced in the plural ('hauzit ).
The unvoiced -th in bdth Iba:El], moutll [mau 9], oath [ou 9], p"ln I IR REGUL-\R P U ; RALS J r:-.; v
:... , [pa :91. s.¥atll Ui:9], trutJ. [tnI :6] an d )'outh [ju :9] is voiced in ~Th:re are eigh t nouns. the '~tation:t plurals, which
~ ~ the plural: [ba :Ol], [mauOz]. (ou" z). (pa :"z]. [Ji :Oz], (tru :" z] form then plural by a change of v~'er: maft;- trU"" (an d
/...-, and (ju :Oz].
1 ~Il.t t bere is a technical tenn in banking. une ece, etc., th.lt b ,.pelt
In wri ting , t his sibilan t suffix is spelt -s, with the following lKQ1I.n.and not, as one mi;:ht expect, fI'lOtU)' s.
exceptions , in which it is wri tten -es. • Mutil.tion (ch.J.n.e 0 1 ve ... el) \\ ;1$ ea ~ by ~ he presence 0 1 ",0 i th",t
once ,.t~ after the fmal conson;uot of tbe stem. Th lU the Pr im;li ve
@ w ords that end in the let ters. -s. -sll. -ch , -s, -z: Germ.n oc plural of / 0/ (foot) was /o /i, later /tl and t he n /ttl.
glass _ glasses. brush - brushes
church _ churches , box - boxes.
•6
I
-
zb A Comprehc nsiw Ellglish Gram mar
compounds of tlUlli . e.g. genlk ma n , gentlemen);t tooth, teeth;
f oot, feet: mouse, mice; woman, women; goose, geese; louse, lice; Historical UCI/Sori for I},('>(' forms
dormouse, dormice. The plural of mOng oose is mOllg ooses; dor- In Anglo-Saxon there were five po~i~le end ings to dc ucte
mOflse is a compound of mouse but mongoose is not a compound plural: -as. -au, - I I . - (I and - 0. In addition , there were some
of "DOse. "neuter' nouns th at h ad the same form for the singular and
rm;:Some word s have ti le same fon n for singular and plural: plural , and t hat is why , in modern E nglish , the singular an n
~P. ur i'lt , deer, fish (but also Julin). plur:\! of a few words, e.g. shaft and drcr, arc the same: Bv
about r4°O these five endings had , with one or two except ions.
T o t hese could he added t he names 01 ot her a nimals, especially been reduced to t wo: -es and -s (both developed from -as). T he
wl len~scd in a hunt ing context. This applies to giill~~ ~ir_dj) word oxt n is one of these except ions ; it still keeps the Anglo-
and fish:, e.g. ~-
Saxon -an (later -, PI) ending for the plural. There u sed t o be ,
to hunt elephanl , antelope, etc.: to shoot wild df/ck , grouse, almost to modern times, qu ite a numbe r of plurals end ing- 11l
t o catch $41mon, trOW. -en: slwen (late r shoon) for shot s is use d by Shakespeare.
We have. too, the unchanged plural in some words showin$' Chaucer's Prioress had 'eyen (= eyes ) grey as glass', anti there
number and measurement of weight: were lwusen (",. houses), homl (= hose). p m sen (= re~l
Childfns, bftthren are really doubl e plurals-,' The Old E ngh:'.h
two doun (abbreviation: do%.) eggs; t hree huKd,ed pounds: plural for Anglo-Saxon did (= chi.ld) was nldTl/: for bTothor I t
four tllOw aml people; t wo c ross of pencils ; three S«Jre years; was bTotA ,.,.. In ~[ iddle English , (h,ldTll became chllder (3 (arm
two $J(ml of potatoes; four Ju",drtdweigh t (abbreviat ion: that is st ill heard in dialect] and bToth" . became brethe r, Then
ern.) of coal; ro,ooo candle-power; 20 horse-power; forty hu.d to what .....ere already plural word s an ex tra plural enJins - ,' II
of cattle; two }'CAe of oxen. So 2 ,300 ,5 0 1 is ' two milli on, th ree was added making, child ('TnI , brethrr' n , which de velope..1 10
Jumdred thousand , five hUPldrtd and one', Co ~1 ehi/dr,n , brtthrlll .
But these words (except gross) t ake -s whenlt'hey have no
numeral in fron t of th em , e.g. dOl".S of eggs~hundreds of ( F OREI GS P LUII..U S 1
pounds; S«()Tes of t imes; h"ndredweights of c~ Sometimes ~[ent ion .....ill be ma de later of the large number of foreign
either form is possible: ' He .....eighs twelve slones' and ',He words that have been absorbed into the language." Sometimes,
weighs twelve $Jon,' , 'He is six fen tall' and ' He is sixfool tall', especially in th e technical language of science, these. ha ve ',lot
The words bdrTacks, species, sen'" , nU"~ns, U"orks (and com- been thoroughly 'nat uralized' and thev keep t heir foreign
pou nds like gas-srorks , iron-u-orks, etc.) are the same in plural forms . The largest number by far o'f these foreign plurals .
singular or plural .
So, too, are some proper nouns that end in a 'hissing' sou nd: are of l a tin or Greek origin, for exam ple: "'-"~;~ " ' (1
,
Letin: .... ~s _ axes; ': :'1iacillus - bacilli ; u;'cdit;i;- media:
S uiiss, Chiffeu, J apaffese, P ortl'l'Uese, V ien>It5r.
stratum _ strata; bacterium - bac teria; locus - loci:
cW'rhrce words form their plural in -en. They are: rad ius _ radii; corrigendu m - ....crrig enda; add....ndum - a d-
d uM - , hildren: 0% - O%t n: broth,r - br"dhrm. denda; erratum - err ata ; larva -c- Iar vae; nebula - nebulae.
T he usual plural of bro/her is, of course , broth, rs. B rethren , Gruk: analysis - analyses: b asis - bases: crisis - cri..,:,,;
which was the usual plural un ti l the seven teen th century, is hypo thesis _ hypo t heses; thesis - th eses; phenomenon-
now used wi th the mean ing 'members of the same society or
religious order ', phenomena; criterion - crit eria : oasis - oases .
' So is IIi",. Tile phmal of Old E nglish " . (- <;ow) was a ' nn, lo ' l;"'"
• But R rn<t"tlS , ND. ..." .." C" ..." be<:a,,"c t he se wor ds " re not COn_ plera l TV. To this was a dded another plural form -eu. T he n 'Y'N L<.... -."ne
nec ted with thD ;ntlependen t word . ~i"f. . t Chapter ) 0 .
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30 A CQmprehrtlsit,t l:."jlglis!I Gramma r N OlI/IS: (:2 ) N UHlb<r 31
The longer the words have been in t he langua ge, t he more
they tend to conform to the English plural in -s. Some words l s ",g u/.ad J P luml 7
are at the half-wa y st age with tw o plurals, t he original foreign mediums (_ pt'~pJe c!a.i ming eonununication
one and the E nglish one. So you will find: medium wi th spirits).
{ media ("" mean s, age ncies).
a ppendix - appen dix es, appendices; formul a - formulae.
formul.as; terminus - termini, terminuses; fungus - fungi . T here are also one or two native English word s t hat have
fun guses; retina - retinae, retinas ; cac tus - cacti, cactuses: t.....o plurals with different meanings (~'C also page 38):
focus - foci, focuses; aquanu;n - aquaria, aquariums : brothers
curriculum - curricula, cu rriculwns; maximum - maxima . brother { breth ren)
maximums; memorandum - memoranda, memorandums. cloths (differen t pieces or kinds of doth ).
mmunum - mi nima , minimums; sanatorium - sanatoria . doth { clothes (articles of dress).
sanatoriums: vo rtex - vortices. vortexes; automaton -
. { pen nies (ind ivid ual wins).
au toma ta . automatons.
penny IX'nce (collective value).
}[05t words taken in fa irly recent times from French or
Italian have t heir origina! and also their English plural. But the word SilP(ll (( (meaning the small silve r coin) forms a
Practically all the older words conform to the English pattern. plural s;xpn lu s, c-s - 'Can you give me tw o sixpences for a
shilling?'
Recent words with two forms are: :'Ilany foreign words ha ve now become completely natural-
burt-au - bureaux, bureaus; tableau - tableau x, tableaus; iz(,.1 and always take tile E nglish plural, such as:
portman teau - portmanteaux, port manteaus; adieu _ bonuscs, cho rllsc~ , cirCI/ S"S , isllrmllscs, Ql/wllmSfs. = p70Sp(C-
adie ux, adieus; t rousseau - trousseaux, trousseau s; bandit tuscs, areas , arenas, ellcy clop adill s, eras, ideas, /'llIIrlC( IlS,
- band itti, bandits: libretto - librett i, librettos; soprano - prtlinslIJas, SOn atas, solos, u mbrellas, villas, albllll/s, <l"~ylll m ~,
sopran i, sopranos; virtuoso - virtuosi, virtuosos. chry5allthctnllm s, m ustrHlIS. iriscs . demons ,
In some cases the tw o plurals h ave d ifferent mean ings (see
also page 38): . ' • , COXCO kO )
t17i\ A singular subjec t ta kes a singular verb, a plural subject
{ S ingular/ / Plural} t ~ a plural verb, e,g,
indexes (= tables of contents). •
The boy is here. T he boys are he re.
index { indices (= algeb raic al signs).
G Difficulties arise sometimes in the case of Collec tive
genius {gem"", (.:3 persons of unusually gre at men-
ta! powers).
Nouns in t he singular. A collec tive noun was defined as a no un
denoting a grou p or collec tion of similar individuals considered
as one com plete whole. It is t herefore naturall y regarded as
genII (= good or evil spirits).
being singular and as such takes a singu lar verb.
{~::
(_ metalstam psformakingmoney).
die Tile football team is playing wdl.
("'" small cubes of hone or wood Tile Govern ment htU decided to lJaS5 t he bill.
used in games of chance].
That family is a very ha rry one.
formulas (.,. forms of words). • See p.:o.ge , 8.
formula { formul ae (_ mathematical terms). • "", ..i btts is a I_\ li n ,!al i,'c pl ll, ..1 _ ' 1,,,- ",II'. T h e word j. u,,,,\II)'
~one ned t o bits (ph",.l b'<$roj .

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Out . whe n the parts or members tha t compose the th illg 33
denoted by the collective noun are t hought of individu ally. a '1IIIH I\'111 Parutcrs' is one of Ruskin's best known boo ks.
plu ral verb may be used;
I1illIf tl,l(, second noun is merelr p~rt of a phr asc qualifying
The football team are h aving baths and are then ("omlJl~ thC1frst singular nann, the verb 15 sin gular, e.g.
back here for tea . T he boy with his u Og" is here.
Th e Government have discussed the ma tter for a long time Mr. Smith , accompanied by his wife ami t hree child ren , has
but they have shown no signs of rea ching agreeme nt. just arri ved .
The family are vt'ry pleased about the news of William 's
success. ~ :;'inglllar subjec ts joined by (J ' or neithr r . . . I/O' take a
~~ a r verb, e.g,
The nouns people, police. public. clergy, c<Jl/le arc always use d
with a plural verb, e.g . A cigar 0' a cigarette is very enjoyable.
N eit"" George ,11;>, Henry lUIS come yet.
The people of Norway aTe called Xcrwegians.
But by the 'rule of prox im ity', if one sub ject is singular ami
The poiiu aTt making enq uiries about the murder. a nother one is pl ural, the verb generally agrees with the neares t
The p..blic art requested not to leave litter in these woods subject , e g.
People is often used as t he plu ral of /" 51»1; it also means Ei ther the teache r or t he st uden ts are to blame (or t he ha.1
nation, e.g. The French people, the proples of Europe. results.
t'i'1Th Two or more subjects connected by an d tale a plural t'cit!tt'r lie nor t hey are wholly right .
v~ e g , @ The disrnbutives! take a singular verb a nd a singular
The boy and his dog a, e here. ~i ,' e adjee nve.t e.g .
But if the two subjects joined by a lld are considered as ant: Every hoy in the class is present.
t hing, a singu la r ve rb is used, e.g. Ea.-h of th e beys hil S gained a prize.
Brown bread and butter js usually eaten wi th smoked salmon . Neit he r answer is co rrec t.
Wh isky a nd soda is his favouri te drj.nk. • • Everybody is doing his best.
His courage and endu rance U"~5 tried to t he utmos t. But this rule about using a singular possessive adjective with
The stitching (lnd bindi ng of boo ks is done on this machine. distributive adjectives like n'n-yoOle, tach , etc. , is, especially in
Th e stCu tary and iJCC01mtant of t he Company U"a5 present conversation , frequently disrega rded owing to the fact tha t
(One man doi ng bot h jobs.) there is not in Engl ish a possessive adjective t hat can sta nd ·
for both masculine and feminine, singula r and plural nou ns.
But : Consequently the plural tMi, is frequently u sed , e.g.
TIle secreta ry and (the) accountant of the Company U'n-, E lltry01te was talking at the top of their voices.
present . (Two men.) Wh en earh person comes in thry mus t show their ticket .
co, too , in such sentences as: N one may take a singular ver b or a plural one, e.g.
Ten yea rs is a long time. ' None hut t he brave dtSmies the fair.' (Dry den)
five thousand pounds is a lot of money. None of us is perfect .
where the subjec t , t hough pll;1ral in f.onn, is really singular in None or tile children ill his class are bored with the lessen .
meaning (te n years = a P,1Iod of time); £5,000 = a sum of I have checked your a nswers and none of them are correct.
money) or sentences such as:
1 Sft: p.age 8~,
\
34 A Comprehens ive E nglish Gramma r .\'ouns: (2) 'vfllu ber 35
The word Plumbt, sometimes takes a singular verb, some- III Express the following in words instead of fig ures a nd
t imes a plural one. e.g. expand t he ccntracucee to t heir fu ll form s:
(4) 1}0. (b) 1,300 . (el 3,4 3° .654. (d) 144 (111m f orms
Th e 'Pl umber of students in the class is small. /'<'SsiMe). (e) 150 ewe.
But : I V G ive the p lurals of:
:\ number of stude nts a'ere wait ing lor the lesson to begin. bacillus, L-.:is, radius , hypot hesis. crisl$. oouis, pheno-
me non. fungus, cac t us.
/i7il1?Je verb agrees wi th th e pronoun it in identi fying or V Exp lain the meanings of the singula r a nd pl ur al {a rms
e1'r!t!tiat lc sente nces, e.g. of t he followin g wor ds:
'Wh o broke the window?' 'It U'IU Henry and William.' air, premise, brace, COm P/l.", fruit , spectacle. d a mage,
It is they who are wrong . wit, p ain . powder, colo ur, body, spirit .
VI Ma ke a list of as many noun s as you kn ow which have
I'iSi\ Thc rclati vc pronoun t akes the same number and person t he same form in singul ar and plural .
a~ an tecedent , e,g" .
This is one of th e best books that hal.!l ever been written on [ P L URAL S AND CO~I J'OCND Nou ~s \
the subject. Old compound nouns u sually form the ir plura l as if they
were simple nouns. i.e. t he final clement is made plural:
• ~ If the 'formal subj ect' IMe is used , the verb agrees with
t~al subject, e.g. schoolroom - schoolrooms; a",,,hair - nrtllchairs: llOrseman
_ horselllell; house,,: ije - hOllsr.r il;es: :.:-ash.'r.roman -
There is a cherry tree in my garde n.
t.."as1l~; tooth-b ush - tooth-brushes,
There are cherry tr ees in my earde n.
This is generally the case even .....hen the elements of the _ j~ }l
compound are not themselves nouns: , •r : •. ..::.\.. ", ~
E XE RCIS ES hamij ul - Jr4ndju1s: bTelJ1ulOttn bTeakdtnrns; drawback - / ' ~
I R e..-rue the follo wing sen tences, putting as ma n)' words drawbacks; olubTeak - outbTeakt;{!orgrt'",N lot} - j orgct-",e- ../'1 ~
as possible into t he plural , and making ;my ot her 1I0Is;
necessary a lterations. or even if the compound consists of twn separa te words:
(I) A witch used t o be burn t , (2) A match is take n from
a box or to rn from a ' book', (3) The lea f whic h the bird ticket collector - ticket collectors; boy jriend _ boy jrimds:
was carrying fell on to the roof 01 t he house. (..) The . (U'll(ch rep~ walch repairers: girl glll'de - girl gllides: •
monkey jumped from rock to rock u p abo ve, watching (,?''.- boy scour-boy scouts: motor show - motor sh01lls ,
t h e moveme nt of the man in th e valley below. (.5 ) T he :.,7" In the !ollo....'ing , both elements are made plu ral :
defeat ed army had not even time t o bury th e bod y of
its hero. (6) The chief of the tribe had h is o wn means of oJ mall servant _ men servllnts: gentleman [a rmer - gentlemen
catching a salmon . (7) Th~ cheese co.. ld not be sold , as
a m ouse had left a too th-ma r k on it. (8) Which is the
greater curse in t he :!olidd le East, the fly or the lo use?
jllrmers: woma n serv4nt - U'Cmtll Strv~wIS: l men students I
(etuJu rs/doctors, etc" and womm 5tudenJ~Jleachers/docJors; ~ \ .~ v I
Lord-j l'!il ice -lords j ustices ;f!<
..:. ' \
ftrgnm",-pliJr]- K nights- \. . '
'"
(9) \ 'VhiIe the negro was voicing his belief. the m ulatto
kept banging o n the floor with his s tall. ( HI) Th is c risis T emp1ars.
comes in a long seri~. In syntactical compounds, especially where the first com-
II G ive the plurals of the following nouns: ponent is a noun qualified by a prepositional phrase , adverb
negro. wish . stud io, daily. convoy. ree f, wh arf, dormouse. or adjective. it is the noun which takes the plural form:
echo, inch, m o ngoose. dwarl, cal f, bough, fox, yoke. ~ &t the plllral of "",ill ""'4>01 iJ Mllill u"'....,.
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~, .:. L- .... o# , . v .' .n
36 A Compre!lCllsit'( English Grammar
\ ~OU~S WITH N o P LU Il AL FOR~I )
father-in-l aw _ fathers-in-law." _ commander-in-chief -
corrunanders-in -chief; ~~J~~:~ - men-of-war ; looker- on Many nouns are never used in the plural, e.g. most abst ract
-c-lookers-on: passer-by-passers-by ; j ustice-cl- the-peace- and many mate rial nouns (see p. 2 0).
justice~~~.!~~~e-peac e; goYer~or _general_governors_general;
/ ~ (( ouft~mart i af'- courts-martial; ??et . , }~;Sre ak - poets LN 0 l,; NS W ITH N o S INGULAR FOR~i1
~,c. >~
~r
<--<:,----.,- -
aurea e. 5~,..., & ..l Some nouns arc Ilcycr used in the singular, e.g. the names of:
But, especially in popular speech, the re is a tenden cy t o say: --<A ~TIC LE S ~ F DREsD trousers, breeches, knickers, pants,
mether-in-laws, court-martiaIs, attOl;..n ~y-g;II.e!a[s: co;n~ der pyjamas, sorts, dmiicrs, clothes.
in-chiefs. poet laureates; and alwaY~lll:..~ -the-r:lsp~( gaodp o TOOLS AN lJ I :-;~nWl.1 .E l""fS CO :-S IS Tl l>:C OF T WO P." RTS : cissors,
~ .; v-J v':'- . e- nothln~ ne'er-do-wells. [A';' <y ; s rs, piers, m eers, s ec nc es, g as es = spec acles) , tongs,
-~ ~ ".... l FO RMS OF AD D RESS t bellou's. The word 'pair ' is generally used with these terms,
e.g. 'a pair of trousers ', etc .
The following forms are used: AME S OF DIS EAS ES OR IL L ~ E S S E S ' lump s, measles.
I'LCR.\L 1'0 { . F SO ME GAME billiards, cards, bOll'ls, dom inoes,

SING UL.... R
raughts \;o 1..J1 ~ U~.. ' ,J~ '
M1SCEL LA ~ E O (J S OT HE R W ORDS' 11IIs, riches, ~.I1!'_~S scales (for

F or a ,nail, In drried
~ ,.. werg mg , conten s a a O ' etc . , gofngs.iin . gmfry, drrgs,
or -unmarried
Mr. Brown Messrs. Brown;the Messrs. Brown; (,,'::" /'" '@ats: ri!edtlltial.s:;qidinC9 SOIlP-SI!_S, Winnings , Sl1!U i ngs,
the two Mr. Br owns: Mr. Jo hn sllrroundi ngs, ashes (from the flre--;-but cigarette ash). T hou h
(Brown) and Mr. Henr y Brown , the nouns ~~~er--,---- shaving, savi ng, fJ.li'lg can be u$cd, t he
The form M essrs, (standing for plural fo rm l}!:.h lsf~rS) shavings, savi ngs, filiHgS is much more
M essieurs, which is never ....-rit - cornmon.cc->
, . ",,1,..-
ten in full in Engllsh) is used I A plural verb is used with the above words. So we say;
only in business language, e.g. My I t rouse~being cleaned . Riches do not always bri ng
Messrs. Brown and Smith Ltd. I happiness. Oa ts are grown in Scotland. Cards are played
For an unmarried every evening etc .
woman I
The Misses Brown ; th e ) fiss But if these words are used attributively in compound nou ns
Miss Brown they are usually made singular, e.g . my trouser leg; oat cakes;
Browns; the two Miss Browns; I
a Cil rd table. .. _
Miss Margaret (Brown) and I
Miss Lilian Brown.
@--+ Some n0l.m.sh~~a plural form but are f?lIowed b~ , a sin laD
I verb:' ncws;{fnJ1lngs. gallows; workS, f!iYS ICS; phonellcs, an as
For a married woman
The two Mrs. Brown ; the two I
a nile so arc"aTTOt:her-SCiences or subjects ending in gcs~ but
Mrs. Brown t his m a t~ is \lot fixed. Singular or plural can often be IIseo. e.g.
Mrs . Browns. P olitics h.,t'C (/!.!!V always interested m e.
) fat ematics i s (are) well t au ght at that school
I A nd sim ilarl)': m olhu s.I1t·Ja w, JO>ll-IIt -law, et~ . ~
-l id .- ...! j .J>"'.... J ~ , _ S.oo. f Sl-l.1,s ':' >,.4), 6;""
YI1 (,\ ti. c~ 0"",( }1 e Sf .r- . ~
dY"O Ujht c ,..td.~Ylt"M ) ~IO~h
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~~ A Ccmlp , rltt,u ill' Erlg/ish Grammar .vOU'IS: (2) Number 39

\ -I he news it good . TI\e first innings is finished. An ironworks .,. (I) sufferings.
(2) care, trou ble (' to take pains with some
il being built .
thing ').
[~P~'~U:R:A~':S-'~'~IT~H::-;Dn.:":'~E~R~E:'~T-'~I~'~A:N~"~.G~s:11 . , 7
{ ,,,emises = (1) things assumed as true as basis for an
The plurals of ecme nouns have two or m~re meamngs, . one argument .
similar to the singular meaning, the other d ifferent from It . (2) buildings.
/ccoJCXI15! - (1) hues. •

I I
quarters = (1) fourth parts.
(2) lodgings .
(2) regimental fla~. ...
& uS/- (1) instruments for navi~atio~. ""'-- ~ :,;I'
IreJUNlJ 7=z (I ) recu rrences ('many happy relu"U').
(2) statistical details ('rrlunss of inco me for
(2) inst rummts Ior drawing Circles. U-:: .
tax purposes').
l(lf ~cMiJ - (l ) habits. . V i..\; -" ..... _ ~~ ..._ _.... /spectllcles7 ~ (I) sights; t hings seen.
(1:) taxes on Imported good s , :,,~ . _ ~ - .
(2) glasses to aid sight .
I jravtJrlsj - (1) • game. .
(1:) currents of air.
Ispirits J - (I) souls .
(2) alcoholic liquors.
Ir/D",iI«X' / - (I)(1:) akinds
game.
of masks.
(J) mental or moral attitude ('in high spir.ts').
An interest ing peculi arity is the occasional use of the plural
I " " d. I (2) goods, personal property .
=- (1) results. form to intensify th e meaning expressed by the singu lar or to
suggest great quan tity or extent , e.g.
I [O.(fsJ (1)(2) organized
=' powen ('the forul of nature').
bodies of men ('armed 10" " ',
the saMs of the desert; t he snOU's andf! osts of the Antarctic;
the w;;u,.s of the lake; the J;;;;Vms above our heads; a walk
I 'poHce loren') , •
!t: 1oUSts ] _ (I) vessels for drinking from.
(2) spectacles: binoculars. L l ?, ......" . ~u '
- -
througFi" th e U'OOlis; swayed between hopes and fellrs .
f"; r" ,, ,;d S) -. (1) land (usually enclosed) round a house.

(2) reescns ('l"Otl'tlds for complaint').
. EXERCI SES •
"', ,m
t.:l,--" '
d r~ rcoffte KJ'OMtldS'). or L/, -,' ~ """ ......... >/
I \\'hieh of the alternatives in the following sentences
are correct? Give reasons.
(I ) The com m itt ee wasjwere of t he opin ion t hat th e
I leum] _ (1 ) signs of the alph abet . (VI '
matter ~hould be dealt ..ith at o nce.
(2) epistles.
(2) The crowd behaved iuelfjthem!oelves admirably .
(}) le arning ('a man of ItUml
(J) The congregat ion ~jare no t n umerous tonight . b ut
1",a,,,,nU _ (1) ways. custo ms.
(2) behaviour.
it /they seemsjseem t o be listening very attentively to
t he sermon.
I ",in" I,' J ,.,. (I) .paces of time. . (4} The staR wasjwere opposed. to any chan ge.
I, j secreearv's
-,
record of proceedings at. a (.5 ) The orchest ra ~jare playing tomorrow evening.
meet ing. e->\ .. . . . . . .
t'" ....._"d"'"J
y
~""
(6) The whole herd rush ed headlong to its/t heir
de-st ruc t i, m .
I See rJ'O ~gtls ] ') and 3 1.
40 A CQmprdunsit'e English Grammar
r
II What is th,2 {l1~11 formff th e following nouns?
.~.;.:J, - ~ 0 1 Q.nloo!ler"looker-on: tige!:lily ; woman teacher; moth-ball; CHAPTE I< FIVE
majo'-:generaT;madam ; manservant; Jnanhofe: man-
ai-arms. J ;" ";, ....... A
III Wh at is wrong with t he following sen tences. and why? I~OUNS: ( 3) GENDEHI
(1) I have come to perfect my knowledges of E nglish.
(2) Can you give me any informat ions or advices on The ~' oncept ,of gt:n~er has nu grallllllatil.:aJ Junction in m odern
t his matter? (3) Th e news are good this evening. (..) I English. H IS possible, however , t o group words into three
opened t he letter and it contained an important in- cetegones according t o whether t hey can be replaced by th e
fonn ation. (.5) I went t o my doctor for an ad vice about pronoun s 'he'. 'she' or ' it' r espect ively , I n all but a few cases
my health, (6) I have several jackets, but only one the se categories correspond t o t he ideas of 'm a le' 'female' and
trousers , (7) My pyjama is at t he laundry. '.in an imate'. Animals are usually referred to by'the pronoun
I V Each of t hese words can have two different meanings. It, but may also be spoken of as ' he ' or 'she' according to t he ir
Ill ustra te this in sentences, se x. T hu s we have these categories ;
sp irilS; It/ters; customs; fOl'us; grounds; minutes.
O IASCu ETs < <j:RDg )/or all words re p resen ti ng m ales , e ,g .
V Wh a t are t he plural forms of t he following:?
boy, king , uncle, prince,
gentleman, lady-in-wailing, stepson, watchman, trade-
union. (FE ~l !:'J:'! Gr;DE:~or all w or ds representing females . e ,g ,
VI H ow would you describe; • . girl, queen, aUllt, Prj'l ceSS.
(I) Two m en na med Smith, (2 ) The two dau ght ers of r!':EUT~R C{ ND ERV Or inanimate obj ect s, e.g.
Mr. J ones. (3) The wives of the two men in (I)? boo , Xouse , pencil, table.
VII Give one word for the following:
(1) The table on wh ich the games of (a) billiards, and Wo~ds wh i,ch may designate eit her m ales or fem ales are
(b) car ds are played . (2) One hal f of a pair o f trousers . sometimes said t o be of CO~IMO X G E :'>' DE R, e.g. COl/si n f riend
child, etc, ' ,
(3) The place where t he game of bowls is played, (4)
The board on which t he game oi, draughts is played.
{s} An instrument for weighing groceries, etc. I MASCULIXE AND FEMlNI!':E F ORMS I
VIII Complete the following sentences with is, an, was,
-t-(!)C enerally , wh en there is n o wish t o m a ke a di sti nction of
wen as appr opriate:
sex, ti le masc ul~ne form is u sed . I n other cases , h owever, a _
(1) The clergy _ generally dr essed in black , (2)
sepa ra t e form wil l be used for the female, T his word may:
Greens - a wholesome spring vegetable. (3) Whea t
I _ used to make flour. (4) The first innings of the r('i')1 ~ formed from t he masculine b y a dding -ess (somet im es
Test match _ nearly di sastrous for t he English ~Ith other slight ch a nges):
team, (.5 ) The Polilies of Aristo tle - studied at
I
Oxford. [A! aSCII/illel /Feminine 7 (M IIsc"I'1/( I i Fem/mile I
IX Comment fully on the mea ning and number of the po et poetess priest priestess
following words, explaining differences of me aning
I be tween singular and plu ral forms wher e both exist:
salts, alms, paper, quarter, spectacles, draught, effects,
au tho r
god
authoress
goddess
shepherd
Viscount
shepherdess
Viscountess
• h eir heiress actor actress
return, manner, glass, work, pain.
II ~ h ost ess waiter waitress
~ O ewess) emperor empress
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"
I'
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A Comprehensive Eflgli sh Grammar N owu: (3) Gende' 43 l ...;, ).; -\1. ~
,\ [ascuIine F emi"ine ,\fascuIi1u Fem inine /.'ascull'flle F eminln, Mauuline. F~",il'll'ne -'",; 't",""
giant giantess negro negress manservant - maidservant man friend - woman friend h .. ,J... f.,
Prince Princess tiger t igress hoy cousin - girl cousin landlord - landlady .,'. .. .
(;' " ) ~;... ,
Baron Baroness murderer murderess boy friend - girl friend he-bear - she-bur t .....a ·
Count Countess Du ke Duchess cock sparrow - hen spa rrow he-wolf - she-wolf
manager manageress ~I arqu is (or ptacoc k - peahen he-goat } { she.goat
lion lioness Marquess)! ~I arc h ioness tomcat-tabby cat billy-goat - !1a!l'1Y' J:;oat
mast er mist ress conductor conductress .~ T~ere ar.~ a number of 'foreign feminines'. The most
Th e only cases in which th e mascul ine is form ed from the c~on 1S herom , (mascuh ne hero). Other examples of foreign
feminine seem to be bridegrooml (from bride) and trid(Jf&tr (lroTI: frnumnes are:
widw ). Masculi" e Fe".inj", MiUculi"c
~ be a different .....ord: executor executrix prosecutor prosecutrix
• dilli.to' ~rix ) beau belle
.\lasculine Feminine o\ fasculine Feminine
Czar Czari na Su ltan SultAn"
boy girl bullock heifer (Tsar) (Tsarina)
man woman broth er sister
sir madam gentleman} lad ° 1..JiV\ Wit h regard to words of common gender , it is interest -
King Queen lord }: 1;~ note that occasionally for living beings .....e have three
EArl Count ess son daughter ....ords, one masculine. one feminine and one common genckr ,
father mother und e aunt e,g.
wife
husband ~meoPnh~,","} niece MrunJ j" e Ft1I4i"iM
CbiclleIoi)
~ .... :spinste!)
+"wrse-~ JOare;. ....... Jri~ nun
• • Iather mother . parent
'-'.~~aJli0!.'Y
bull cow
tutor
l'Au ard 1
gov~ess
'A1.klJ.
::~ } girl
daughter
} child
man woman person •
(coe¥) [}len:. 9ia.k~ ) ,-uuc.\
king queen monarch , severeign , niter
bUCk)
L,'U. .. ~ ~,;.; ; tgander) (goose schoolmaster schoolmistress teache r
/ .;., ,...; ~..I <nD~ '~ _ . dog- bitch stallion rna" ho,,",
V'- v_; ~ Jirn~·.,v. , tJ., ~ fram) lc':'°e ram ewe sheep
~ ' ...... :bOarJ $OW~" QJ~' fox V1xen
(1.)U,J:f....- ~ - bo" P"
.. II In words O(!COlllMON GEND2(f, the dist inction of sex may eock bird, fowl
be own by fonnmg a compoun word of which one element
denotes th e sex, e.g. ,. 11 $ yo~ Sow,;o S ~ ItU )'OJ( ' ~ "'p
I Tho\l gb thi. end J l.n ..IS it is no t a. fem.i.n;ine nou n. . E X E RCISES
• This wu orlgtn&lly ~, .._ (Old E~glisb; 8'l1llil - • man ). Th l.S I \\1Ia t a re tl.\e feminine forms of t he following words ?
word b«&me obtolete In Midd le En glish urn"" ~nd ....., replaced ~ ~ tlo,; J I'; "'0" ": cod; widoUl'r: utf"IOO' ; f or;
by -r _ v1:ard; am b,Ul ador; tIlM'1"ii .
'~; 7l/Il '" yt/ty
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A Comprcholsire £ tll:Jlisll Grammar
II Fill in the blanks:
(1) J osephin e was a celebrated _ of th e French.
(2) A woman becomes a - - on h er wedding-d ay and
a - - t hereafter. (3) \\'hen a woman becom es engaged C H AP TER SIX
her fiance refers t o her as his - - . (4) F lorence
Nightingale was th e - - of t he Cr imean w ar. j " OUNS, 111 CASE I
(5) Sarah Bernhardt was a famous - -. (6) The former
Mrs. Simpson is now t he - - of Wi ndsor. (7) T he Gramm a tica l case is t h e re la ti on in wh ich one noun or p ro noun
little pig lets wer e suckl ed by the - - . (8) Sauc e for s ta nd s t o some ot he r word in t he sentence , or the form of t he
t he g- - issauce for t he g~( Provub). (9) Barbara nou n or pronou n which sh ows t h at r elat ion .
Hutton became - t o the w ootwcrth millions. (ro) In Old Ene lish , nouns had [we cMJCS, ~c , ~ ,
Sappho was a lyric - . .\ c~usa hve ,enJt i ve an d D at ive, each genem l1y "(fistmgUlshed
III I n how many wa ys can the feminin e 01 E nglish nouns f,y . case endmgs l .
be fanned ? I n m od em E nf,lish t he re is ani o ne case en m or nouns
Give tw o examples of each . tll t""PO § ~ E SS l v E or GENITIVE). h ere IS n o rsuncucn in focr~
I V Wha t ar e t he genders of the following nouns? I be tween nouns t hat are in t he nominative case a nd no un s t hat
table, d ra per, ship. baby. sovereign, professor. puppy, are in t he obj ective case, t hough th ere is t his distinc tion with
chorus, rep resentative, doc tor, t omboy. some pronouns. (See p. 98.)
V A weddin g usually brings together members of several
families; it also causes cert ain changes in relation-
ships. About twenty words can be used to describe
( T HE P OSSESSIVE (Gr,::-:ITIVE) CASE I
those concerned . H ow many can you find ? lin The possessive Iorm of t h e noun (sometimes caned t he
VI Give live nouns of common gender. ' ~on Genitive') is formed as follows:
VII Give three nouns with masculine an d feminine forms <!i) F or singular nouns, b y ad d ing _'S : 1
t hat you can use about: T he boy's book (i.e. the book of the boy) .
religion, nob ilit y, res tauran ts, far m animals , l aw . T om 's bo use (i.e. t he house of Tom}.
• • • •
VII I Give the altern ative forms, masculine or feminin e, of: Ke ats's po ems (i.e. t he poems of Keats).
t omcat. widow, wolf, emperor, bride, marquis.
.. W it h some names, ch iefly classica l ones, ending in -s, we
use on ly the apost ro phe: _
. Hercu les' labo u rs; P h oebu s' ho rses; St. Agnes' Eve; Moses '
laws; Sophocles' p lays .
So a b o in: for go"gdlless' sake, for cOllSclence' sake,
<til F or plural nouns en d ing in -$ by adding apostrophe only:
Th e h ay s' house [i.e. t h e house of the boys).
'He soldiers' horses [i.e. the ho rses of t h e soldiers).
~ F or plu.ra l ~01.ms no t ending in -s (a ,'ery limited n umbe r)
by adding s, e.g.
1 Th e usual ending for the Old English gen;ti"e singul"r ,,"a\ -es, When,
la te r, the ., W;'S o mitt ed, it s "bsence "",,s shown b~' an apo;t rophe (').

A CompnholSive E liglish Gram mar
-"
"'O WI.~: (4) Case
The mm 's room {i.e. the room of the men). @ In .a n~n;ber of tradit ional idiomatic expressions:
The WOllle ll's Society [i.e. the Society of the women). ~t his lJI1,t s ;nd; out of ha' ",'s way ; to your heart's content '
The t hildml 's voices (i.e. the voices of the children). m my mind s eye ; to get one's money's worth . '
Th (3can have th ree pr onum' i <ttion ~ '
is] with words end ing in voiceless consonants (except (s], ( S UBJ I< CT IVE AN'D OBJE CT IVE G E l"I TlV E]
m, [tD) e,g. 5" II'tll'5, tat' s, Philip 's. .
[z] with words ending in vowel sounds or voiced consonants
@-ID When a possessive word qu alifies a noun th at has som
thm~ of verba l force (i.~. that denotes ~n action). the relatioe~
(except lel. [;)] and [1.1;))) es boy's, lady 's, B ob's. of this n.o un to the possessive word may be that of (a) a verb
liz) with words ending in [5], ~), [a], In, [d:)] , [t fl c.g. to a sub ject . or (b) a verb to an object . Thus:
lwtse's , j udge·s. J ,III/ ('/ S, vi/th·s. 'T,h ompson's mu rder' may imply (a) that Thompson com-
~ \'.nen t he ' possessor ' is represented by a n umber of ~Dltted ~he . murd~r, or (b) that Thompson was murdered .
- "'~ , the possessive ending is used with the last one only . e.g. Th e KID~ s praise ' may imply (a) that the King praised
Crosse & Blackwell's jam; Bryan t & ) (ay 's match es; J onC5, someone ( H~ was ple~ ~y th:
King's praise'). or (b) that
t he butcher's, shop; my Iather -in-law's hcuse; The Prince of so~,ne praised the Kmg ( He IS always singing the K ing '
praise I. s
Wales's feathers; m y lather and mother's friends.
~imil arly wi!h .the 'of' construc tion when the noun h
~ Th e possessive, or gen itive case shows possession , us~ng verbal association': as a
- ~rd ' possession' in its widest sense. Thus t he possessive
form ' John' s father' does not mean -that John 'possesses' his '! he l ~" e of his wife' may im ply (a) that he 10"00 his wife
father. nor does 'Shllkespeare's death' mean that Shakespeare ( !i ~ ? ld that for lo ve of his wife'), or (b) that nis w ife loved
'possessed' death. Th e Genitive form is used t o indicate not 111m ( He was happy in the love of his ....; fe·).
only possession in the strict se~ of the ~' ord but something, "The punishment .of the teacher' may im ply (a) that the
___ s~~ed by another noun . which appertains t o the person. l eac~cr ga ve pun ishment . or (b) that the teacher received
~ The possessive form is used chiel1)' with the names' of pun ishmen t, I
human beings and so~e an!IIla;ls. e.g. / oh'!'s j rien.d; ,~[rs. In the ex ampl~ (a), t he genitive case indica tes the subject
B,o-.rn's (4': the tat's tail: a s",de, s lttb. \ \ ith inanimate th mgs or doer of the. a~ tlo~. They are ~ UBJEcrIVE GES tT IVE. In the
we use the 'of cons truction. Thus we say: ; examples (b) It indica tes the objed or receiver of th e action •
'th e window 01 the room'. not 'the room's window' . They are examples of tile OBJE CTI\'E CE~lTn· E . .
and similarly. . I E .LlIPTIC... L U SE O F Til E GE~ ITIV" l

TIle colours of the flowers; the noise of the traffic; the walls
of the house; t he foot of t he mountain. i-{Vj] The genitive is frequen tly used 'elli pticall , .
a ~word when referring to a business b "ld X ,
" h
r.e.w It ou t
There are-some e xc~ tions t o thi s rule: , UI mg. etc.
I must go to the bukher's t his mOming (but cher's b t
a In the case of nou ns de noting measurem ent , time or spac~ , cher'. shqp .) , = ut-
or qu anti ty, U : I bought th is at Harr idge's (slwp).
a w({k's holiday: two days' wages; a J l.1,'S abse nce: an tiow:s We visited St . Paul's (Cathedral).
time; today 's post; ),tsle, day's news; a sroue's .tbrow; a hair's H: was educated a t M erchant T aylors' (5 ho l)
bre ad th ; a p oulld 's w orth. \\ e are'having dinn er at my aUllt's (hOlIS~) t~n·ight.

NomlS: (4) Case
48 A Comprdullsive E llglish Gmmmar 49
- A purtrm'l nJ R embrandt (= one port raying him ).
The headword is someti mes om itted to avoid repet ition:
She pu t her arm thr ough her brother' s (arm).
"d
I ha ve read some o f Sh aw 's plays, but none of Shakespeare's. - A PQrtm jt of Rembrandt's (= one painted bv him or be.
William's is the only homework that is never badly done. longing to him).
'Whose book is this?' 'It's J ohn's.' or between:
~ The 'of' const ruc tion cannot be used wit h 'classifying - a criticism oj SIul"1l' (= opinion abou t Shaw).
gemtlves', l.e. genitives t hat are completely ad jectival , e.g. " d
He is a shiP 'S c arpe nter. (SOT: ' the c arpen ter of a ship'.) - a criticism oj Shaw's (= opinions by Shaw).
She is a lady 's maid.
He has a d«tcr's degree.
It was a $',," meT' S day. EXERCISES
~ With proper nou ns the genit ive is perh aps commoner I Express by using t he possessive form;
W th~ oj construc tion; the latter is used mainly for balance. The ca r of my fath er . The car of my paren ts The
So we say: hoptrt;y of my son-in-law. The to)'$ of t he cbiid ren
'Henry's work ' bu t 'the work of Henr y and J ohn'; 'Scot t's e reign of William t he Conqueror . The pIa"" of
Sophocles. ;•
Wawrley' bu t 'Th e collected nove l s of Scott',
II E llpress by means of idioms containing a ........-.ive
We should also use the 0/ const ruction in order t o avoid case; ...---.~
putting an 's t o a long phrase, e.g. (I) In on e yea r from now . ( ~) I got geed value for the
Richard Cromwell was the son of Oliver Cromwell , the mon ey I Spen t . (J l I live ve ry near here. (.f) I bo ugh t
Protector of England . (SOT: 'Oliver Cromwell the Protector pota toes to t he value of Jive pe nce . (5 ) I have enough
",,,?rk here to last me for a week. (6) He ve ry narrowly
of England's son'.) missed colliding wi th a noth er car.
This is the car of the man we met. (SOT; 'the ma n we {Uefs III Combine by means of a doub le pos$C5Sive;
car'.) play - Shakespeare; friend - J ohn ' Iugue _ Bach'
hobby -Cecil; work _ Hugo.' .
[ T HE Do UBLE P OSSESSIVE ) IV Comb!ne the following in two wa ys to res ult in different
@ ~ An idiomatic construc tion of the language is th e use of rnealUngs. I n eac h cue ex plai n the d ifferen ce.
A pbOtogrilP~ - Cecil Beaton . A judgment _ this
•
th'f'nonn and of together.
famou~ historia n. A condemnation - Judge Je ffreys
He is a friend of Henry's. We saw a play of SIUJl.':> 'S. l An OJ110l0n - mj- fa ther.
This construction is very similar in meaning t o 'one of v I nt rod UCe possessive cases int o each of the following
He nry's friends '; 'one of Shaw's plays'. !:It'nlell~ , ....he re possible, m aking any necessary
A d ifference is that a frien d 0/ Hem )" s , a play 0/ S haw's, ch ans~ III wording.
could be said if Henry had only one friend or if Sh aw had ( I) That ho use belongs to Ill)' sisters. el) The refectory
'wri tten only one play . 'One of Henry 's friends', 'one of Shaw's ~! t he bl~thten has a fine vaulted ceiling. (J ) Those
plays' , could not be said if this were the case . , ~rel ess venors le ft t he sate of the field open. (of) This
This construction is of im portance since it en ables u s to ue was good va lue for ten shillings. (5) An une:oc:pec ted
ma ke a difference in meaning be tween: t urn ,of t he wheel of Fortune mad e him a rich ma n.
(6) ~ o\"Cm her 1St, t hc d ay of All Sain ts . is called
I See a llO p. 109 .

-- --
A Compuhe" siflt Exglisll Gralt/lIlar

' _ ' in England. (7) H e borrow~ il book ~longmg CII A P T ER SE V E N
t o me Iast week. (8) The Ca th ed ral of ,St . G!le~ 15 the
princ ipal ch urch in Edinbu rgh. (9) 1 her e ~s a sho p ' T H E ART IC LES 1
belonging t o Freeman, H a rdy and Will is. III allnost
every English t OWII . (10) We set out Oil ,ou r ,Journey on
a co ld morn ing in win ter. (t 1) Aft er cllmbmg for t wo Th e words a (an, an d the are gener a lly called 'art icl6'; ~ (!!.!') is
hou rs we wer e glad to tak e a rest for .. l~' minu t es. N SITE TIe L !it(TiDEFiSlT£ ARTICLtJThede nnit e
(121 Here are the football results for toda y-. (13) The y article is invariable or gender and num be r. Th e ind efini te
ha ve ....orked well a ll d ay today. (14) A dnve of 5: article is invariable for gender; it is no t used wi th plural nou ns.
miles in a small car is very tiring. ( 15) ,As we flew.so u -.lJLhas t he pronunc iation [a] weak form , le i] st rong for m.
the peaks oj t he Alps were gleammg In the sunllgh~. _t.:lJ:1 has t he pronunciation [an] weak form; [zen] strong for m.
VI How do you in ter pret t he mea ning 01 t he possessive The wea k forms a re almost a lwa ys used in nonnal s peech .
form in th e following sentences ? . a is used before a wor d beginning wi th a co nsonan t sound;
(I) T~ President's proclama tion w~ ..net.comed by the €!j:lbefore a w ord beginning with a vowel sound. Examples:
te (1) The President's assassmauon ca,:,~ a a day, a boy, a trein , all apple, an op en book, all allgry child ,
~i~K:~1 c ri!ois_(3) Peter's pho tograp h in the exbtbit acn [&ou,' ~~~.! man, '/i.::r('M !' ou,able act, a.!9hti,.
W'U much praised . (4) John '. wedding presc:n.u. were
magnificent. (5) The general opinion of t he cnuc IS not All is used some tii!lcs eve n before a n~rmally aspira ted '7SJ
very favourable. . when t he stres"S(foes not faU on the first syll able of the word,
e.g. ~ hatet, -an) histon'cal no vel. -
VII I ntroduce a genitive form in the follOWing where \\ e say @ EU,opean, €J UIlivt,sity . @ usef ul book, (y one-ey ed
possible. cha nging words at Ul~y be necessary. man because the first sound in e ach of these words is not a
(I ) Blenheim Palace is the residence of the ,Du kes ~ f sou nd but a consonant on e.
:Marlborou gh (~) To live abroad IS th e desml o~ b.1S
heart (3) Th~ shop of Blackwell. the bookseller , IS In as ree p ronuncra IOns:
Broad Street. (4) We bad tea at the r.estauran~ of --<!!) [&] wh en followed hy a co nsonan t sou nd, e.g.
Fo rt num &: xrason. (,5) The crest of t he Prince of \\ ales
t he boy (~.. boil ; t he cat [a.. ka t]; t he university
is t hree feathers. • ' • [00 ju .ni' va :sit i].
VI II Describe the fonn. of genitive used in th e following -(i) [ui] when follo wed by a VO\\'e1 sound :
sentences: ldi , •
'•. {~ l Th e 50 ler~ t he apple [Oi 'a pl]; the ear [~i ia]: t he hei ress [OJ 'earis].
( • ) Those shoes are myh brother essed (,) Shakespear e I
horses were superbly a m . 5 J h . - @ [Oi :] when speciall y emphasized. In print it wou ld appear
bilfth took place at Stratford-on-Avon. (4) t . 0 1'1 I in italics, e.g.
u a well-known College in Oxford . (s) That officer
holds a mas ter's certificate. I was t old you were Mr. Crosby; a re yo u the Mr. Crosb y?
f d mother asked a d ist inguished m usicia n t o [' ()i: ' mista 'krozbi]
I X A on d hear her daughter play the piano, which he He was one o f t he first persons , if no t the first person to
come eedanto do. Wh en t he gir . I h aud 'nmsnlshed pl_,-in, , tho drive a car.
~::;owing convenation t ook place: , ' 1 am ne ve r a t a loss for a wor d ; Pitt is never at a loss for
)loTH~ R : Do t ell me what yo u t hink of ffi}" d aug hter I the -",on]:1
exocution .
D I5't11'OU IS H E D "• U SI ClAN'. !.fadam
- , 1 t hink it would be I Said hr Charles Ja mes Fox (I H9- 11lo6)' a great orator, about 1Ii.
an excellent ideal rival William Pitt (1759-1806), all even greater ora tor.
Comment on this
"
I
5' The ,h tuks
. L. . • ~_~
..{3}..Before dOlhl lumdml
There are~ dozen
. _ .onQU--.
eg.... he 61 h
_II '
"" Ulon
.
53
field, e- reo~ cndred sheep were in the

(Note that when these words are in tI
plural verb.]
b'
ie su lett, they take a
...(4;-Before singular predicative noun d '
' so': ,cnotlng a profession,
trade, religion. class, etc (In
would not be used bere.] , e anguaCcs the art icle
~rge ~ants to be@ engineer. Alary's fat her is.cio
the ~avy. You OUGht not to call him~
In tt5' 0f!i~er
made Illm@lord. He was@ :\fuslim not tOO!. !he Kmg •
@:onservative or ~Gl Sociatisn
,,' • a Christian. Is he
"But if t he noun denotes a title or offi '
by one person at a time the indefini,',"h , a', c~n onl y be held
• , , ' wuc'ee nct used e g
- The,\ made 111m K ing (SOT' ' 4 tf ,_ ') 'I ' " .
Professor of E li " . l l I,g ,-. r. Priestley was
ir~lX~~ ~~nkg~~7~~~~~7~li~:f~~~~:ry,(
rsco. '
r~~J ~~
arne aptam ot the Victory in
( T il E I NDEFI~ rrE ARTICLE]
IlJt is not used after the verb t"rn in the meant b .
The indefinite articl e is used only before singular countable
nouns.I
The plu ral of a book, a year. a dsild , is: • •
bocks (or some books), y e<1'" (some }'t.1rs). children (some
. H -
nor after the nouns ~ or tiUe. ego

len ta.
ng teome eg
L_~,:"as @Co~r\'ative but he turned Socialist, He ~sed ' t
uo:'~t each er till he tur~d
_ _ 0
children). He gained the rank of Col I H .

Duke. one, e was given the title of
(i) The indefi nite a rticle Is u! cd : •
-'5,..l t is used also to refer to a person k I
-( l ~Wi th the meaning O1It, t any , it doesII't matter u'hich , e.g. eg, , ncwn on y as a name,
I have @sister and two brothers. The animals came in two
at@ time . ~)sti tch in time saves nine' (Proverb). A triangle
g
Mr"J ohnson called to set! you when } 'OU were 0 t
has three s1Oes. Please pass m~fork . ~~~V;~h:f~j~~~~~a\'e i~!a "'h~ h!.j~, ~:t~h.s aJd
no
""'(2).10 certain expressions of measurement : i6r-\\lth the meamng sa .
He drove the car at ninety miles@ hour. Th is material is
expressions: -...!!!l In proverbs and certain fi xed
fu ip@Jyard. Butter is 2op@pound. We have lessons three ~~~j ;~@feather flock together {a feather _ the same
times~week . He earns ft,ooo@year. • " ey were much of a size (= of the same size).
, See a.bo Deterrninatlves, Ch apte r 10. Pr "(llca ti ve nounl I -
00 .., ill used ", ben the n ume.-al ill emphasized . II to 6. . ...,u•• eee., _ "';';:" ~;. ~;~rl1ng t h" comp lement 01 ve rbs '''c h

,>4
.....
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....( 7)o-Before a noun ih apposit ion when the th ing or person I,

assumed to be unfaiiUIiar, e.g. Th e Artid es 55
Blake,€!IEnglish poet ; Lowton ,@small to....-n in Lancasture, I I Read the followinl: a loud :
' Lycidas',@ poem by Milton . ( I ) The cat. (1:) The 0 ....1. (3) Th e heir. (..) The host
-(SrIn exclamatory sentences! introduced by 'What ', WhCH (.) The Umted Stat es. (6) The one and o nly (1) Th a t '~
the noun is singular and countable: - n~.t .th e ;)Ir. ~n !tIl:h t I used t o kno..... (8) 'That 's ~[r.
\\ tlliam :'olorrlS . '\-'hat , till Mr. William Morris ?' (9) The
Wbat@foolish thing to dol What@ pretty girl! What6 day d ay ~·e m ~t was a wonderful day; bu t t he d ay we ' et
• The Indefinite Art icle is not used with uncountable noun s: marne<! wlll be lI, e day. (ro) He gets paid by t he ho~r
not by t he week . .
Wht2t weather we are h aving! W hat good milk this isl
What-care he's taken v' lth t his! III Put into t he singula r:
(but notice '\Vhat@)pity', though pity is generany an uncounr. mt n. wOlllen iI.nd clt il~rt n : ' oo/ s; "lerries: wi~u; / Ul;
able noun.] - It u ~drtds 0/ tlm rs; E,.,optilns. A/ricilns, A mMicans
A.SliInS and. 1 us! ralia ~ s; pOlatoes and olk", ~rletablts:.
.-(9~ In a number of phrases, e.g. Itlppopotam.1 In 2 ~rrs; ln ttll igtnt students,
~Y that .. .; I want to keep this@secret;as@rule IV I nsert the IIlde.lIlltc article in the blank spaces wllere
necessary. Otherwise leave t he space blank :
to be in(j)hurry; to be in@temper; all of a sudden; it'~G
shamt' to do that ; to take(d'Rj interest in ; to t ake pride ll: (I) - geometry set contains - ruler _ pair o f
com~, -
to taJie@dlshfi to; to rriiIe@fool of oneself; to be in.: (2) HIS father was -
p rotrac tor and _ pair of dividers.
la"'1 'er and earned £3 ,0 0 0 -
position to; to have ttheadacheJ6)painJ!) cold $)cough (b~' year. (3) Go and buy - half - - pound of sugar
toJ:.!ve too~che , earache, rD.~J.lfnat~, i!J.flinza); to hav. (4) One tenth of - th ou!Wld is _ hund red, and
@!lind to; tonave§ fancy for; to h av~h ance ~portun it :o -
-
th? 1
usan th ousand , are -
nussancet I left -
million . (.5) What
meat on t he table and t he
to; at ~ discount/premi~; on c§1 average;@shor t t ime d.og h as eat en it. (6) F or breakfas t we have _ por-
",o. ridge, - bacon and ~gs, or sometime. _ fish
Notice also the constnl(:tionsJsllch
cog. _
f.'J!/Ulie 'f/.:<llhe' ;
'Ht,"dIlY and we end up with _
- apple. (1) He became -
t out and _ marmalade
mem ber of Parlia ment
0;
I have had such a busy da y. There were q'Wiu a lot of peoj» as - Consen.-attve, but later t urned _ Socialist
and became - Member for Salton. (8) What _
there. MallY a ship has been wrecked there. He is 'l£llm . h umorous man you r. friend is, and what _ fun he is!
fool. (9) Byrd, - E luabethan musician, wrote many •
and t h e construction~r::cTlvl:: + 1 1 e.g, , motets.
We have not had so good a dar as this lor a long time. V Expl~in the sense~ in which the indefinite articles are
ueed III the lollowmg sent ences:
E X ERCISE S (I) 'Shall we give her a book for ChristmaJ ~' 'Oh she
already has a book.' (2) We shall be la t e if we don 't
I Put ' a' or 'an' in front of th e following word, or take iI taxi. (3) Som e modem planes ca n fly at over a
phrues: t housand miles aOl hou r. (ot) A score of people is twent).
N,"~rity; qpu-sided affai r; fw,usl tUlJ1; Aisl<!ry 0/ people. b ) My brother is stud ying to be .. doctor,
E'1.u,f4d; /lislQri&1J1 SNrwy: eu: Nfliftu fllUm4l fIIUW, ; VI Su pply the indefinite articles wu" "tpli,,4 in t he
Nfti1alnal areeme,": boUlI,o i ...-boU1t,o Mltl. following:
I See pal:e 316 . ! I ) He used to be - mis.sion~ in Africa but now he
I-S - Rector of this parish. (2) ' -- man ', _ man
for ~I that.' (]) ~ _ Leader of the Opposition he
receives ILII official salary. (4) He was so ra venOusly
S6 A COlllp,enttlsit" EtlKlIsh G ' ~ tll m<1 ' Visit www.csstimes.pk to download more E-Books
hungry that h , ate three N nclwich t l at - - mOllth fu l. T he A rticles

57
(,I ' ~tuch of - much"",' mean' t hat t here bUtUt
d ifference between t wo thinK' , (6) Where t here ', - Once upon a t ime there was /I' little boy who lived in e
will th ere', - .......y. (1) Wh at - ....eat her ....e a.re r ouagc. T h, " oltagt' was ill t bc rountrv and the hoy had
h.ving a nd whi t - abonlinah!e climate t hl, II! Jived there all h is life.
(8) Ki", L,a" - play by Shakespeare, is ..mon K t he
sreatest of a ll trag edies. (9) I have - corn on my fo~t T he indefinite article a here introduces a new th ing or person;
but it' , less pai nful t han - toothache. (10) \\ e the definite ar t icle, the denotes a thing or person al ready
haven't - hope of ca tch ing t he train now. mentioned .
\' 11 E xprns t he following by senten, ., cont aining an c:a4) Before a noun whi ch is followed by a defi ni ng prepositional
indeflni te article: phrase , e.s-
(l) The animals wen t in Im o by tu-o. (2) One pound of ~ battle of Trafalgaa@palace of \\'estmimter;~ house
meat costs about thirty pence. (3) In one year with green shutters; Ihe road to London ;@i!) letter from
a teacher haa holidays t hree rimes. (4) Someon~ America ;{JU)fourt eent h of April.!
cal1ed Mr. Rolfe rang up and asked ~or y ou. ('1
ha ve seen him ",any limu out with hts d og. (6) My ~5) Befor e ordinals in t it les, c.g.
stomach aches. (7) People of 1imilar ta1 te1 enjoy one
another's company. (S) The pl a y we saw wasn't much Queen E fizubcth II (Queen EJi labcth 6ih1~'\: Oll d ) ,
good (9) He asked me " ot to nlrnhOfi 1111 "I1I/U~ to l!)-<6) Before a com mon noun followt'd by a I'rop" r noun which
1I I1Yo~, tIll . (10) He ~A lIt',d t"~y ftKJlisMy , ( I I ) I .got identifies it, e,g.
thne goods 'II"'" ' ~'(lply by bur ing a large quantity,
(n ) They " ..' ,lI11y go to the seas :~e but this year t hey f!M pianet ~lcrcury; @0 poet B)Ton ;@ play ' K inD: Lear ".
changed their plans If:il~out Uanll"' anyone. (131 He -s Nou ns expressing trades or p roCessions often follow t he
1L'1I ~ t iven the oppo, tunily of travelling round the world, proper noun; they are preceded by JlJ.e, ego
lucky fellow I (1<4) That book was writte n U ",," my
,'IJOldjIJtlltr waf youn, . J ae bon ,t!!!) butcher: Brown,
lffi)<:ook.
tfi0
Gene ral ~ (alla;;('r; Li:u.i..,
' T HE D EF IS ITE ARTIC I,F. J • • e-Simil a rlj- with no uns in a pposition:

The definite article can be used before !~lar or plural H01l\c .ffi , apital of It.lly.
nouns whether countable or uncountable. ~7)
Before t he na me of a co un try that IS a un ion of smaller
The d efin it e article is used : e .g. ~tit ies ,
@l....(I ) Bef~r;a"";ioun that is to be part icularized by a defin ing ~'United K ingdom ;6hf) u .s s R. •
re lat ive clause.' e.g. ' or one tha t is plu ral in form, e,g.
This is~book that I premised to lend )'OU, @ Netherla nds ;@ Un ited States.
@-{2) With the mcanfi&;: 'th e cnly one', eA r...-;-,. . a:
@ sun rises in tJre'least and sets inl!iqwest. f!..!g Blble, L!!!)
tlt
and in cases where a common noun which usu a lly accompa n ied
:e,eotraphical name has been dropped . c.g .
T Jr Sahara (desert) @ Crimea (peninsula).
Lord (== God).
<£1-(3) With the meaning: 'The one we have just spoken about ',
~8) Before gro ups of Islands, c.g.
c.g, @ West Indics,@dliebriues,m Bahamas.
, FOt' definin g a nd non-de fininl cJausel , lee pagell )J .f-6. I Note t hat in writing t h e da te we o mi t Ihe and of, bu t ill rea ding
that da te we generally p~t th em in , e ,g ., May . j t h ( Tilt fi fteenth of
).by): 2j t h July (Tiot h>,·e nty _tifth of Jl1ly or July Ihe t we n ty -tifth ).

T ile A,tidts
59
58 .,1 CQmp, rli<:llsil'l E tl~lish Gra m mar
foBut we USC ill
- qualified , e.g .
before abstra(:t no uns t hat are limited or
~q) Be fore the names of rivers, cham s of mountains and
h - life we live I lI:~re is bard.
A cans, e g. c ":\
f.LM} Thamcs.@D anube .@J Atl ant ic .@Alps ~An dcs .
(Io.l.....Before the names of sh ips , trams and ae roplane" , e.g.
pj
"h freedom of thl' sea s, , , .
- wor k t1 ~a t we do. , . "
([!JJQut"en ~lary .@Flring Scotsman, m Comet. ~2 ) Before names of materials used in a ge neral sense, cg,
@-( Il ) Befo!"e the.name.s 01ho tels, shops, institutions, ctc., where Butter is made from cre am, (!' OT: 'I!lf. bu tter' 'tlit
the name IS an Im perso nal on e, e.g . cwarn'.) -
~ Ritz Il otel.@ Arm y and ::\30\1' Sto res, @M idland Wh eat is grown in Canada.
~k ,@ Odcon ( me rna . . . ~3) Before plural nouns used in a general sense, eg o
(12) Before a singula r coun table noun to ma ke a general iza tion Books a re m y bes t friends.
about a species, e.g.
(Th~ I LOrse is being re placed by@ trad or. .
@--i I3) Before t he names of m usical ins truments used In a general
-
' JUT:
@ books ll lat are on t he ta hle a re mme.
In the second sentence we arc referring uct to books In
~[~~~iestJey pfays @ piano; ~lr. Priestley is leami ng@ general but to some part icul ar books.
violin. rU4) Before names of me als used in a general sen se, E' J: .
~ r 4 ) Before(Superlati\'eijused attribu tively, e.g. Come to din ner/lunc h /tett with me,
•but:
This isgJoldest buildi ng in Canterbuf)':
sometimes beforc[su pcrlatl\'§iJ used adverbially, e.g . A re you coming to@!ddinner that we are havi ng in Loudon
next week ?
T like Shakespe are Lut it is mod ern drama t hat in teres ts me
@ m% t . ' : ",," ~) Before m ost proper nou ns, c g.
People who IJ 3YC t1 JQSe seats in tl.e t hea tre Will pare /least . I walked ill H yd e Park . (:;OT: ' tlu n.. · de Par k "] Do you
and beforelsuperIatives~d as no uns, e g. " know ReSt·nt Street? Luc-ille c-omes from I·ran( ('.
This is filiP best I can do, 11'6) Before Lake, Cape, .lfo /l1ll:
•
@most he can get is a fmc of £S' . .1
La ke Supe rior, Loch (= Sco t tish ' Llke ') Lom ond Cape
\\'rat h, Cape Cod , ~rQun t E H' f(·~t , ~l ount Vesuvius
~ I ~Bef orel!!!1 ec tlves,u sed as nouns denot m a whole class.
~ep t when these words are followed uy@e.g,
(IJW rich (= rich people) should help the poor (_ poor
Ohe)LakC@ I.ucem e;@ Cape @ Good Hope :~ ~fountfcl)
~ pI) ,
'h e Frrnck cook better t h an ~'lg/ lS!I .
. Olives.
$ _ The d efinit e a r ticle is .n..o t u se:l : ~) Before t itl es followed by a proper noun , e,g,
_ -,tt l Bej~~";'bSI;act nouns used m a gene ral sense, e.g, Ki ng George ; Doc tor Livingstone; Pro ft',,~or Ru ssell, Lord
~ • Life is very hard for some people. ( S OT; ' the IiIe'.) , Byron ; President Linco!n.
We will have freed om or dea th . (:;OT: ' th e freedom , et<:_) '.fa) Wi th the names of langu ages, e.g. She spea ks Spanish.
I See aiM! page 65.

A Comp rChtllS il'e l::",gllSh (.,ralll m ar
The A rlicles 61
[ IDIO~IATIC USE OF (t&)1
!he ~c is an idiomat ic u se of ll~ with the com pa ra tive of
adJcctl\'es.1
1J!! harder you work, .!!!t' more you will be pa id,
~ t more he gets, the m ore he wants.
I!!e sooner t hat worr
is finished, the better.
I hope a lot of people come tOUle par ty ; the more, !!!!
mem er. -
E X ERCI SE S
I \ Vh ich one of th ese wo rds , used i,. Q I''',.a/ snu" mus t
be preceded by t he deJi ni te article? Why ?
",jIll, buuer, c!lUst, eggs. CcU'S, cow.
n I nsert the definite art k.le where ' Ir a U <I ' )':
(1) - boy o\'er t here is - worst in tht class a t
@ '--_--« J2) SOmetimes belore predicative su perlat i\·cs, e.g. Freru: ~ . (2) - ~ ragna Carta ....as signed by __ Kin!!
The sea is du pest abou t twe nty m iles lrom the coas t. J oh n III - yea r 12 1':;. ( )) _ Arllt is tl,e carne 011
H e is happiest when he is working. - . el,eventh ~ ay of - x ovember 19 18. (4) _
Your hel p was most valua ble. Armist ice Day IS now obser ved on - - nearest Sun day
to - eleventh of - Novemlier , (.:;) _ Trea ty
(See also Adjec tives p. .76.) of Vcr.sames la id down - harsh terms. (6) _ ..__
s upervisor Ins pects a ll - work. (7) "\11 _ wor k
@ ' - -"",(13) In vari ous stock phrases: and no ~ play makes - J Ac k a dull 00)'. (8) ~Iy
• • • broth er IS a sportsman; he plays __ tennis. _
H e showed great bravery ~ fjlu of...Q.!.n ger. Tn place o[ mea t foot~all , - cricket a nd - hoc key; my sis ter ts a
w e are having fish . We are .1!!Jig!!Lo/.land . Arrange the books ~ us.ICla l\ ; sh e pla ys - harp, - - p iano a nd _
i'l ord" of size. H e is b ofl d reach 0 dange r now . Th e car violin. (9) Brown, - - chemist. sells _ pills. {Io\
H ave you had - - t ea yet ? Yes. I had it o ut. and ruv •
was damaged1eyond hcp.!.....o repair. ey set off under coocr Iriend paid - - bill. (1 1) - mo nke ys are intelhee nt
.$11 d arkness. In r:ase o/. fire ring the bell. He d id it by way of a nimals. Y~ . hut t hey are no t - m ost inte!lise;t oi
help ing me. As soon as I set f oot on th e island he \~ all - a nimals. (12) H e IS a studen t of _ arch it ec -
shake hands with me. She IS going to kee house or. . . . The ture; a'l impor-tant part of h is studies is _ Hi.story
ship has set saU. This will easily catth E· ve ca m e _by landlb of Archi tecture. (13) - world opinion is a ga ins t
- aggressio n, (14) In - - op inio n of - Capta in
Ka /2Y air. To go on beard ship. . . , To stay at home. . . . T o B row n - shortest wa y to _ Ja pan would be
be out of doers. The men work_b:Y..,!ax. but no! bv nighJ. H e is through - - Panama Canal. (15) - Informa tion on
in debt/in troubk. At day breakls.!!!!!!t. H e dldthe work if!! this matter is lac king, or at least - information we
l!!!.e, no t for money."""the shi p is aJ anchor. are all wan ting. (Hi) Which do you prefe r. _ Lake
Genev a or - Lake of Constance? (17) Wil a t i s - -
differe nce between - middle age and _ ~lid d le
•
• Ages' (L!l ) - - pen is mightier than - - sword, ( i<))
i • See 'Adject ives', page 77,
\
I A Comp"hetlSit'l Eliglisll ( ;',I! W Il<l f
- - Prince Philip is - - Duke of Edinburgh . (20) ~

Duke of windsor was once - - King of E ngland .
The ,~rtiel.:s
VI Supply articles where you t hi nk t hey a re required:

(I) This house is lor sate: in fact t he y- ha ve )11St pu t up
(21 ) --Queen is -queen of - - England and also for sale notic e in wind ow. ( z) 1914 marks end of " I)o.:h .
o f o th er cou runes in - Com monwea lth . (2 2) Wh ich (3) Xow that he wearslong trousers J ohn ny looks very
IUlguage do y ou speak bet te r, _ Germ an or _ much grown- up. (.., He IS ch ann ing and 10 is his wrte,
F rench? (2]) - French la n guage is better knOWD but their daughter is most chaeming , (jl \ " he n I wa s
here than - Russian. (24) I go to _ school every fourteen I was sent away to boarding school. School
day except - Su ndays; t hen I go to _ _ c hurch. hall was ve ry ancient bu t did not provide room for all
(:2 5) --life is ha.rd . espeo;iall y _ life of an altruist. boys a ttend ing sch ool.
I
(26) We read _ pa pers ever)" day to improve our
Eng lish vocabulary . (27) - irregular verbs i n - VII E xplain why t he defin ite art icle is used or o m iu e<;1 in
French la ngua ge arc very difficult. (28) They always t he following :
give - - postman a present at _ Ch ris tm as time. ( I) Faith is t he finest of human qu a lities. bu t flu f aitlts
(29) - - eldest son of - Edward - - Third was of lite West d iffer widely from t hose of the Ea st. (I)
called - Black Prince. (30) - burglars were sen t t o M ilh is sold by th e pin t but sugar is sold by weight.
- gaol for - six months. (3 1) 1 prefer - going (3) T he Lord :Mayor 's Banq uet a lwa)'s takes place in
by - - sea to going in - - train, (32) _ Demesne Guildhall. (4) T Ae more we are togethe r, the merrier we
Science College teaches - girls how to kee p - - shall be. (51 Cider is made fro m t he juke of (lPp/u .
house. O J) Avoid - - short cuts. - longest way (6) T Ju Easter holiday s were very pleasant b ut a t
round is often - thor test w;ay home , (J4 ) Many boy. WAilsw"tid, we h ad only two d ays' b reak . (7) Til,
leave - school at eighteen to begin - mili t ary Channel Islands are a favour ite relOl t of tourists.
service. (J5) - Oxford St reet is one of - busiest (8) As soon as you hear ,lie rUld l of your ex em m aucc,
streets in _ London . d o send word , (9) Pa tj'lln is a virtue. ( 10) M an y
III Use each of th ese words in t wo sentences, onc e aitll English inns are ca lled lhe King George the Fourth.
and once lVilliout a defin ite ar ticle:
tlaelu,: bethl: a/li: p ,ifl(tH; rjeh; Ilj t; "tam; di lllur:
cha,d; glass: iro,,; lill.
I" Explain the sense in which the deiirllte article i5 em- •
plcyed in these t hree sentences:
( I) That's the man you are looking for , (2) The Lord
Chancellor a the principal law offic er of the ccvern-
ment. (] ) I met two foreigners yesterday. The one was
here to study English b ut th e other had come t o Eng- •
la nd for a holiday.
\' Cbange these sentences into the plur;a!:
(1) The telephone is almost a necessity in the modern
world . (::) The book he bough t a t the au ction proved to
be a first ed ition . (J) This boy is going t o school to-
morrow for t he firs t t ime bu t his brother has been In
t he six th form at t he Grammar School for some t ime .
(4) 'The da ring young man on t he flying trapeze' (ti/It
of pcplllar SOftG). h ) The ape is the anima! neares t to
man in appearance.
• These word. are IO metimcsf ollouMJ, though ne,-er prece<led by 't he '
(lee also ~ge' 8). 1Z 3, 128).

Adjectives 6,
'That house is nnr.'
the adject ive IUW is used predi catively.
C Ii A P TE k EI GHT
Oth er examples of the predicative use of adj~t i\'es aft er
verbs of incomplete predication are:
I.O\ DJ E CTI VE S)
R icha,rd bo. vcry.!i!E!.. T.he dog \~ hmlgT}'. r th ought him
The tradit ional de fin ition of an adj ective is ' a word used t o very mlt/flr" t, [ h at boiler ma kes the water hot . H is e(for~ s
• describe or give more informat ion about a n oun' ~or . t a tl.ICt p~J lI S<' ess. Tom has fallen ~p . ~fary dyed her him
more tully, 'a word that qualifies a noun, adds to Its ~eamng brown .
but limits its application', An example will make this latter • S ote, that in interrogative sentences. formed by inversion of
definiti on d earer . TIle noun 'house' can be used to signify any subject and verb . t he pred icative adjective comes after the
house . 'The big house' tells more about the house but limits the subject , e.g.
applica tion (it rules out all smaU hou~) . 'Th e big rIetI' house' Is the house !!!!!} Was the car '!pensive? Isn 't ~l l ss ]ar kson
tell s still more, but narrows the field sti ll further. The descnp- prrt'y? Aren't t hese peaches dd id ollS.'
t ion 'The bi/:, tin!' , while house' applies to only a very few
houses; it gives the fullest picture. and the most limited Most adject ives can be used attributively 2!'-.Predica tive ly;
application. but some, especially th ose that begin with ~ can only he
used predicati vely . e.s.
THE AnRIBUT IVE ASD P REOICATlV£' U SE Of A DJ ECTIVES ~P •.afraid , alJ'lJke,.E!!!!!!. ,ll'Warr, aline, afloat. ashamed.
,c01Jlent" exemp! . ,mable. --
Ad jectives can be used in N 'O ways: .(1)- attributively ,
A few, e,g. for mer. "dter, i'lnt'f, outu can only be used at tn-
~ 2 )-predicati\·ely.
*
e.g.
Ad jectives arc used attributively when they qualify a noun .
butiyely . - - - -
Ad ject ives , whether predicative or attribut ive. are inva riable
for number, gender, perscn or case.
Henry is an honest, hardworking boy.> • •
Mr. Brown has just bough t a m w , po'U/tTf " l and very (A D J ECT IVES FUXCTION'IN G AS ~Ol' ~~ l
expensive car.
As has been already pointed out (p . 5), many English
.. .....djectives are used predicat ively when they form the pr~di . words can belong to more than one part of speech , and the •
t: ~t e wit~ the verb;iO'lliJor other verbs of Incomplete predica-
deliberate use of a word that is normally one pa rt of speech to
t Ion . So In the senlenCe: do the work of a different part of speech is a charac teristic
'T hat is a ftlU' house' feature of E nglish. ThUS, words that are usu ally adjectives may
t he adjec tive til'll! is used attri butively . In th e sente nce: function .as nou:ns. In this case they are always preceded by
the de finite article '!!ld, Ii thev refci fOPCo~trC r illrann
(ihh e obj ect ion could be made t ha t in ,uing sitch a d efini tion ....e a re meaOlng and lake a plural vert, e.g.
,<,n fusin g a lilt'''' (which is a !O'ltr4) "iul a til"" . ThllS If " e say that III
l h e phrase 'a big house ' bIG is a n a<!-j~tive d ncnb ing t~e nou,n lIou se !iigblilldJare taugh t trades at St . Duns tan 's to tit them for
we have fa.llen i nto ;l.n error In definition. It I S t he tll' ''G hou oe t hat ,s work in th e world .
big and not t he ,,It'',,'house '. T his U t ru e , o f ,course . :,ouns a re word •.
N.l\-fS('s ar.e,.!S.u ired to loo k aIter~andr~'(llltldtdl the
a nd words a re m erely symbols for t h angs . It I S t he thm g mea nt b}' .t he
nOllD that u deec nbed . W henever, t herefore, for the u ke 01 m ln'lt }·, ~nd[~ --
" e speak 0 1 ad ject i"'es docribi ng ' no un ,' thu dist inction should bo"
Fort une favours ~hefJwal'e )
J ke pt in m ind .
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A dj cctil'CS 67
- ',
A COlllpl'C!II;11 si,'t ElIgl isli GnmlJllilT H Oll 'n A dj ect ive N Olm Adj ective
66
Similarly. we can speak of the Ellg!ish. the Irish, the F rench, st orm stormy good na ture good natured
the Dutch, etc.,jbut!the plura] noun must be used in : t1leWr. friend frie nd ly child ch ildlike!
ma ns, the Italians , the Americans, the Indi ans, etc. har m harmful god g odlike t
-OCcasionally t he adO]cc6ve IS u sed as a noun and t akes the
definite article and a singular verb. In these cases it stands no t care careless brute bru tal
for people but for an abstract qualit y, e.g. wood wooden education educational
dan ger dangerous America American
The good in him ou tweighs the bad. fa me famous ' . republic republican
H e th ought th at th e aim of philosophy was t o discover the honour honourable Shakespeare Sha kespearian -
good , the beautiful and the true. troublesome
r~' . Edw ard Edwardian t
trouble
,
'the long and short of it is .. .': 'for belfer or It'orst ', quarrel
Icela nd
qua rrelsome
Icelan dic
l his tory
economy
historic( al)
economic{al )
( NOU:O; s F\!:-;CTlONING AS A U j ECi I VES ) atom 'atomic " Turk Turkis h
talent talented girl girlish
Words that arc generally nouns can act as adjectives, e.g.
a stone wall , a leather belt , a gold watch , a silt,t' wedding, a
TWbY carpet , the [Jniversity football matchJpring onions,
a corner seat (in a railway carriage), a garden tab le, rubbtr ( P ARTIC IPLES USED A DJ ECTIYAU. "J
gloves, a colton frock , lawn tennis, a London policeman , a
Shakespeare pl ay, r jce pudding, the L och N ess monster. ", Many pa:-ticiples/ ~o th present a nd past . have all t he
Jlaract~rlS~ ICS of adjectives, th us, they.can beused attributive!
@ - These groups. are. distinguish ed from com pound nouns (sec or pre~lcahvely; they can be modified by adverbs like n r Y
p. 21 ) by th e ~t~ess p attern. They have a stress on each word , too,. qUIte; ther Conn their comparat ive' bv adding lIIor~ 1~~
e.g. stone wdU as cplll parea with milk-bottle. their superlative! by addin g most, e.g. •. .. . .
tOld, very amui~glst'ory. THat' book has made\~ tasting
Some of the 'material" 'nouns have dnotber form wflich is
distinctly 'adjecti vaL e.g , '!pooa '- u'ooden; silver - sitvery; !Ie a
gold _ golden; fl ax -flaxen; brass - brazen, There is a tend- Impress,lon on my mmd, .Henry is a mor,e pro"li£1ii3 pupil
ency to use the adjectival,form,~ a fi rab;.'..tkanin , e.g. th~ Richard , ~u t ohn IS the 1II0st p rom jsj~m all. •
, , " goJden corn/h!!!"/su~se.t; silve", ham as tfl v c ceo cu~ls: en He IS a never- at n help in time of tr~bl~; ~ flight from
brazen Irnpuaence. ernen mes the -en in as. be meamng London to a ns In a small 'pla ne was a~ x pe rience.
' made of' ., Co~pare /aJf,OQl, wercJPllt ap , t!,t:;.0/{e"f$;j ..ocks' : ~ The.~ participles with purel y adjectival characteristic s are
~ a nd a wooden tox . "I ' 1
sometimes called PARTlCIPULS. T hough they have ex actly t h e
T I The adje,ctive childlike has a fayourable i~ plica t ion . ego 'jnllocent'.
THE" f.Q !(~IATIO:> he ad) ~tl~ e <;lllldllh has often the im plicat ion '1001ioh' 'I util'" t
OF AD ]J',;CJ '''.ES FRO.
.In addition to the simple procedure just mentioned of using

N OUN'S
:,odllJ'. = h k" '"'.l;o<l; majesuc . Godly = d"voted to GOd' )i';ll~C .
s _~_o...n(;>unch-:U [JC 'k,'pl;m~n] [ed'\\'o :(li~n]. All similar lor~~t ion5 uc
th~ sameforrn ~ith different gra,Jj.mat!CfI.valuesl~~lf func tion ressec rn t -e way- ." ,"
being understood from the context) there IS another method of : For Par ticipl "~ see pag"s 236---2 12.
For Comp ar arlv es ann Superlat ives see pages 70-77.
forming ad jectives from other parts 01 spe ech . T hat is by the
use of a suffix; The principal suffixes used are -y, '*[y , -[ ul, -Jess.
-ee . _o us,'_able, -some, -ie, -ed , -like, -al , -an, -ian, -ical, -ish, e.g.
(0 ' ,
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",
68 A Comprthtl/sit'e E nglish G'tll>WUIf A .lj (( II.,,"S
same form as participles forming part of a verb, their function II Supply suitable predic a t ive adjecti ves :
is not th e same. (I ) H is II nsucc ess l ~ 1 lift! had lett him _ , {a} J am es
Note the difference in function between: ....as very - of his son 's success , {J} After h is friends
The hou r's delay was most had rem onstrated with him abou t his idleness he be-
Is the smoke a1Hlm ng you ? came much more - . 14l Ifis nrgutnent provedmost
- : . 15) Ch arles ~me<l _ t o be off a t t he earliest
Continuous t ense.) possible m om ent, a nd t o be gr owing more and m ore
A singing bird in a cage fills me with anger (A djective), TIll' - of d elay. (6) We sho uld lJe _ if yo u would send
bird was sin ging on th e tree (Participle), He told an tl.mu!i u~ us s,'llllpl("S. ( 7) T he pu blishers are _ t he success of
th e l.oook will be _ and _
story (A djective), Henry was in t he nursery tlml.sHlg the
children (Ptl'lic iple). III For~l . sentences, usi ng t he following words. (tl) as
I,a rt ll:ll'k s. and (/I) as I'a r tid pia l ad jcdivC's:
® Similarly"'''ith Past Participles: j"spi'~d: J~anud;_1 at:~d;' blesud; ' sU'(~!,lIIg: ,uiding:
There were a lot of b, oken bottles on t he road (A dj tctiu). ,"an"fU€tll,~d; fi nIS/w i; an noyi"l.
Th e glass was broken by the girl's carelessness (P articiple IV Re- writ e .the ,follo ....in g passage so t hat t he adjec tivt$
helping to form P assive Voice). A confused mob sto rmed t he used attnb utlVely become predicatt va and vice versa:
Govemment buildings (Adjutive), You have conf used the The Browns ~re a la zy fam ily bu t they are very kind.
heart ed d espite the fact th at t hey li ve in d istress ing
meanings of the two words. (Participle helping to form po verty, so we must feel gTatd ul to th em a nd en .
Present Perfect Tense), The tired child fell asleep in her courage them to be m ore in d ust rio us
mother's arms (Adjective), Th at long walk has tired me \ ' Kame t he function 01 the words i n italics in the
(P tl,ticiple), following sentences:
( I) He is u:n'tinl a book, bu t th e fi ni shed t ext wlll n ot
be .readt lor some months. (2) His work showed a
TH E FORMATIO:O; OF TilE NEGATIVE OF A DJ ECTIVES dUlded un prc vement U soon as he ha d re ally decid~d
AS D A DV E RBS to st ud y hard , (J) They were Jllst jinishing the race as
we readied t he start ing poin t . f" l When I have "ti~ed
The negative of adjectives (and ad verbs] is freq uently fr:o m work I sha~1 live .a very ,~tiud life. (5) T he
formed by the use of prefixes or suffi~, e.g. diamonds were tllflnJlt'ng rn the gla re of the Jightsl ike
lwi" JlJi" l stan.
un·: unhappy, unfortunate(ly), lUlpleasant (ly); in-: in-
accurate, inartistic, inattentive; im-: impossible, imperfect . VI Wh at, in y o u r opin ion, would be th e idea l definition
of an adjective to use in a t extbook o r grammar ?
inunodest ; ir-: irresponsible , irregular , irresolute; il-: illegal , Support your answer by examples . •
illiterate, illegitimate; dis-; disagreeable, disrespectful, dis- VII Wh ich o,t the following ad jecth-es ca n be 11 ~ (Il) only
honest ; -ress (to the stem of adjectives, especiall y adjectives p~ed,~atl\"ely, (b). onl y attributh'ely, (e) eith er pre,
ending in -ful): helpless, hopeless, useless, valueless. dic atively or attnbutively ? List them un der t he thr ee
head ings mentioned abo ve a nd t hen constru ct sen,
t ences to ill ustrate their use :
dyed , astonis hed, former, u n...-en, d ist urbed , major,
E X E RC ISE S lonely, agog, happy, dutifu l.
I Supply suitable attributive ad jectives for t hese noun s:
d. 1 ~ .B. Th e~e , ....ord.s,. .....hen use:d ,I' adj cc ti ~ es. are pronounced as
tranl; s " ~eI; cron ing; pianist: fo x; h~""it: /'f'a}'er; lSS)llabtes [ l~,nld . eldlid; 'blesid), though, ' n the case of ' blessed'
s.. ;to~; diuuter; l~g~"d. only " ·hen used altributf'-.:oly. '

p
CompMis l.1II 0/ A Jj cctit"( s 7I
SlIpremaq is expressed by th e Su perlative Degree, e.g.
CHAPTER S IS E That was the happiest day of h is life.
He is the oldest man in th e village.
( C O ~l PAR I S O:\ OF A U j ECT I \ 'E Sj I thi nk ' H amlet ' is the most sublim e of Shakespeare's plays.
The superlat ive degree ofte n expresses the same thing as
When one thing is compar~ or c~ntrasted with ~other (or the comparati" e but from a d ifferent poin t of view. Thus:
oth ers) m respec t of a cert ain attribute, we use an mflect ior
' R)chard is the tallest of the three brothers and is th eoldlst boy
called CO~PAR ISO N' . Comparison can expressequa/ity, superiorir~
in the school' is really t he same as; ' Richard is t411tT than his
or inf eriority; that is to sa)' it can sta te whether two people O~
th ings possess some quality in the same degree (tqU<J!ity) or in two brothers and is oldff than an}' oth er boy in the school.'
different degrees (supmority or inferiority ). It can also express The POSITIVE DEGREE is the simple form of the ad jective, e.g,
supremacy of one person or th ing in respect of an attribute. clear, hl/PPY , gooJ.
There are three degrees of Comparison: POSITIVI:: D~ G H EE , FO R ~ I AT IO X 01' D EGREE OF COMI'AR ISOS
C O~I P.~ R ATl V F
DEGREE, SUPERLATIVE DEGREE, Exampl~s': '
( f rTHE COMPARATIVE DEGREE is formed:
I Posi/it,ej Comparat ive I
l j' uperlalive '~:
(I) By~t o the positive , e,g.
old 01 er oldest p ".
• P ositit'e Comparatil'e
ho t h otte r hottest l:\
clear clearer
careful more careful most careful
sweet sweeter
(Ei§iIMis ex pressed by th e Posit ive Degree, e.g. . ~ft softer
Harry is as old as William. It is just as /wt today as it. was (2) By61sinjdmorc}.~;th the positive, e.g.
yesterday. ~Iary is as ~re/ul as ~rarg aret . . Positive Camparatit'e
tj, uPtTlorit;} s expressed by t he Comparative Degree, e.g. beautiful more beautiful
c eorge is oldrr than William. It is ItotUr today thi... it was interesting more interesting
yesterday. E lizabeth is more care/ Ill tha" !lIargar et . splendi d more splendid
{Inj eriotl t,\ Jis expressed by using 'less. , . tJUnl'. @ - THE SUPERLATIVE DEGREE is fonned:
Margaret is less car efu l than Elizabeth . (I) B adding esl to the positive, c.g. •
It is less hot today than it was yesterday, on /lve S uperlatit,c
but this construc tion is rare ly used ; it would be far more usual clear clearest
to say; sweet sweetest
Margaret is not so (as) careful as E lizabeth. soft softest
I t is n ot so (as) hot today as i t was yes terday. (2) By{J'"u,"'i"
n 'i/3with the positive, e.g.
It isn't so (as) hot today Q.s it was yesterday, P ositive S"prrl,,/it'e
In affirmative sentences th e construc tion as . . . as is alwavs beautiful most beau tiful
used; in negative sentences so .• . as is the normal form, bin interesting mos t inte resti ng
as . .. as is frequen tly found . splendid mos t splendid
,.
I' 72 A CO Ill/,Tt}u ,u it,( Eng/isll G rO "llll<ll
~".--
Cf'Jll p",isOJI 0/ ,-ldj,cl lf'n 73
:'\ret hod (1) use d: ~er t a i ll or tl.lOgraph ic and phonetic points :.11o,uld be noted:
-( a) With monosyllabic adjec tives (except r ighI , ;.mmg. rtal). ~ ~\'ords dmg III 0y )r~eded by :\£OIlSOllallt letter , change
-{b) With disyllabic cdjecrtves tbat e nd in a vowel sound' or this to I In C ratl., ·e and superlative e.g. haPtG-
syllabic .1, e.g. prelly - pnt/ier - prettiest; simple - simpler hapt/&I' - hapl/ih t. ThIS does no t happen if t he y is pre -
- si mpks; narrow - nerrotrer - norrow(sl : or th at have t he c ed~ by a vo\\:e'T, e.g . grff-gl'@r-greytS f;gay _ gaytJ' _
stress on the last syllable, eg. poiite - politer - politest. gayesJ.
(el W ith certain frequentl y-used disyllabic adjectives that (j) The final consonant letter of th e word is doubled in the case
have their stress on t he first syllable: quiel - quieter - quicust: of word s of one syll able' containing one vowel lette r followed
pItasa'lt -puaso'JUr - pltasontest; handsome - htJ ndsomer- by one con~o nan t letter: big - biggtJ' - biggtst; thi n -
ha ndsomest ; commo n - COMmon,r - t ammOllfst; nonow - thinlftJ' - th l n n ~sJ . (Bu t. notice t h ~t there is no doubling in,
narrower - na rrowest . for example, thick - thl(ktJ' - thick est because it ends in
teo consonant let ters.]
Method (2) is used:
(a) With mos t disyllabic adjec tives wit h the accent on t he 6> filltJ'
A fi nal mu te -e disappea rs: ripe -
-filmt.
rip tr- Tlptst; fi ne-
first syllabl e. e.g. IlOptflll - more/",ost IIpp,jl/l; porolfS -
more/m ost 1'01'0145; f ertil e - JIl OTt /most [crtilc . (!) An I' which v.:as no t soun ded .in t he positive, is sounded
ill
(b) W ith all ad jectives of more than rwc syllables: beall/i/ltl the comparat ive and superla ti ve: near - nearer _ nee-est .
- IIIOI', /m ost ~autiful; u/rum gatlt - JJJoJ't!lt1os/ 'JI/I'avaga n'.
•
@The sou nd [gJ is added alter rlJl in strOllg - strongel' _
This method of comparison is used with adje ctives like sJI'ongest , and in long and young.
afraid , alit·" et c. (see p . 65) that are only used predicatively. @Syllabic [ljbecomes non-syllabic, e.g. aW, - aW, r _ ablest:
SImple - wlfpler - simp lest.
T here are a n u mber OfV RRFGI:I.AR CQ)IPAl< lso :-;sl
Positive
good (well)
Comparative
better bes t
Superl<!tit'e
I TH" I
To express su periority or infe riority, tha n with a com-
bad (ill ) worse • worst • para tive is used . e.g.
little less (lesser) leas t
George is taller tha n He nry.
nea r nearer neares t (next)
This car is less expensive than that one.
much (many), more most
far farther (further) farthest (furthest) Thml is also used afte r m thtr 2 and soontr , e.g .
late later (latter) latest (last) lie would rattier (SOO Il(J') play thall work. •
old
(ou t)
older (elder)
outer (utter)
oldest [eldes t]
ou tmos t (u tmost]
It is also used , but less frequently , after .0'""
an d allof"er _ e,g.
The result was quite other tha n we had expec ted.
outermost [uttermost]
This was quite a nother result than we e xpec ted
(up) up per up permost
(in) Inn er inmost, in ner most 1 Th e r ille a pl'lies t o a<ljc.:ti ycs 01 more tha n on e sv1!abl e il t he acc en t
forme r foremost, fi rst i, nn t he 1,\~t syJla hle. .
(fore)
I""I~" i~, histOtic<lU r. a "omp ",a li ,'''_ T il" po sit ive fOlm ".", '/JIM.
I I ncl lldi ng ~' [.. l see p - ~(,I ~ . which 1:1 no,,· ohl.ole le. It m e"" t ' ea<l~" and '.;a:.; llsed , ,,'ilh I lli, mea nin !:
• """A i5 115ed with u noo llntable :;ing Lila r noul\$, ",a..y "jlh co unlable b~' Milt on, 'Th e . ,,1• ., prim rose Ihat forsa ken d ie~ ' (Lrc id as) and by
p lu ra l (lnes. (See ab o pages <n-s·l Ten ny...,,, , 'Men ul ...1• ., and ri per yea u '.

•
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Grwlllll<1r COn/pnT/so n 0/ Adjtf/l'l'ts , 75
74
The more usual construc tion would be: . ,~ T he Iccmp
@ '. ar anvcs outer . " upp" ,., "" • •, and rh e correspond-
In super anves
d ' " arcI derived from adverbs '' i ,,,,., .. " . .
The result was quite diffe rent from wh at we expec ted . (or."lS are a \ r-r s. t IC comparative an d su......rla nv IeI positive
(Different 1M" is sometimes heard but is better avoided] adJcctl\'f'S. r- e orms are
. The word s utter , ." t lllOS/, "({'''nosl are, his toricall y com _
nves and superlatives of OJlt bu t their moder ' . pah"
little connection with out. ' n mtanmg as
aJ Lesser is archaic or poetic and is used onl ).- m. a (ew.

plifasl:s:
' to choose thc ~rssrr of two evils'; Cibber is one of th e lesser

poets of the eighteenth cent ury; the la ser spotted wood-
pecke r. ctc ., 'th e lesser ligh t to rule thc n ight' (Genesis i. 161, ",
is) N , arrsl l re fers to d ist an ce; 11 0;1 to order,' e.g .
I I Where is the nrart sl Post-Office? .. ,_,
The "txt s tation is Ox ford Circus. " , ','
® Farther generall y rden to d ist ance, ~.g. " -:;
I cannot wal k a ny [arthe r, ,'"
!olanchester is /arth" from Lon don than Oxford is
Fljrt.~~, though i.t can rep lace / arth" in all con tex ts has the
Specl . IZed meaning of 'add it iona l', e.g. '
I will gtvc you /urth" details later.
1 shall need / llrthrr help with this.
Fa r/lust and /,lr/h tst are interchanseable,
!\o T ES ( 'N TIlE (mIPAIU SO" ,)f A DJ ECTIVE S
(j) Old,r an d oIdrst ca n be used of people or th'ings:
@ .HIlj or and mllwr are UM'd at t ri butively a nd 110t pre- Heney is older than David . .'
dicatively , e.g. That is t he oldest house in the city .
The major part of his work . T his is a minor po int . Eld er and rldrst can be use d of' pe rsons only laUd on! for
@ The forrnsgood (uell) , bad (i ll) ,l i ttl e, flwch.ja r are not really m,n, mbher~ of
th e same family. !o[oreo\"Cr they ca~ {m l" be ~sed
corresponding forms to the superlative and comparative. Th ey a n utively, e.g.r ' . . I
have a semant ic connection but arc from differen t roots .

W ell is generally an adverb (see p. 2i T). It is a predicativc
~J tldlT brother is tl.liee rears oJdr, than
rr brot her. !olary IS my tldrst sister
I:Henrv- is Da vid's
adjective in such expressions as: I am vcry iull: He looks jfeels
!reU.
1U is an adjective in such expressions as to beifeel /look/faH
ill: and in ill health /news /luck (but bud w ould be more usual).

76 .4 Ca",prthe,uive English G"'lIIm'" Comparis on of A dj rd it·fS i7
E lders can , however, be used as a noun meaning ' those of an @ When two person s or things are compared the com -
earlier genera tion ' (implying, 'and so, wiser t han we arc'), e,g. parative is generall y used: .
You should respect your t ldas and betters. To choose tile lesser of two evils. The greatr r part of the work.
In one phrase 'an tid" st atesman' , i.e. a statesm an deserving The lotter half of the tw entieth century. She is the older and
respect for his age and wisdom, etder is used as an adjective , the m ore beaut Iful of the t w o sisters , BUT:
® Less is used with uncountable nounsJ (Ulerwith countable She is the oldest and the m ost beautiflll of t he three sis ters.
Howe~·er. i~ c~!1versa~onal English the superlative is often
ones, e.s. u~ . Even In literary E nglish man)' wr iters have disobeyed
He has spent less time on his work than he ought to ha ve this 'ru le', e.g.
don e.
-ghe was the yOlmgrst of the nco daughters' (jane Austen).
There are jtu'tr boys than girls in my cl ass.
tti.\ Latter means the second of two and is contrasted with [ I DlO)I:\TIC CossTRuCT loss l
'f<lfmer' , e.g. H e studied French and German ; the for~ o
language he speaks very well , but the lallt r one only Im - There arc a nu mber of interesti ng idiomatic construc t ions
with the compara tive and the superlative.
perfectly.
Latest means 'the most recent', ' the last up to the present'. TAl sooner t his is done, tne beuer, The more the merrier. The
e.g. Have you read J ohn Scribbler's latest book? It was written harder he tried . tl.e less progress h e seemed to ma ke.
in thr ee weeks and published two days ago. If you take a holiday now you will be all the better for it. He
Last has t he meaning 'final', e.g. T he T empest was probably told a lie about it . and that makes his faul t all the worse.
the la st play that Shakespeare wrote. Every day you are getting fNHer and better . He ran / asler and
It also has the mea ning 'previ ous', e.g. I t hink this recent [auer. H is voice. go t fUak er and wtaker. Th e storm became
book is better th an his last one .'Com pa re also: more and m ore violent.
14st week /rear/month /nigh t , etc. Tf he will help us, so rIl ll Ch th e better, If lie doesn't work, so
@: Notice that before an attribu tive adj~ti~'e in the lIluch the tl'Orse l or him. He is ra the r fhe worse for drink.
superlative degree, the should be used, e,g. This IS ,tis< best You will be '10 TilOrS,; for having had th e experience. You are
ad vice I can give y ou . Iione the worse for t he experience; in fact, you arc all tlie
(i"i) mos t + an ad jective may express the pre~nce of a better.
qWJity.in a \'ery high degree, but without thought of a direct I had brtter l go now before it is too late. He u.'"OI4Jd rather
companson: play than work. •
What you have said is II WM interesting, H the worst comes to llie worst we can always walk ho me. lIe
made a living as best he cou ld .
When this construction is used attributively, the indefi nite
article or no article is used , e.g. '
A OJ ECT t n : s S OT AO)f1TT IXG OF Cl,l l1 PAIU SOS
She is a m ost beaut Iful girl. T hat was a m ost extraord ina ry
t hing to say. H e wrote me a mos.t inUres/ing letter. These There are some adjectives that , on accoun t of their meaning,
are most deJitiow cakes. do not reall y admit of comparison at all. c.g.
If th e superlati ve without most is used, then the definite p'.r/ m , unique, mat chless. f ull. empty , sqllare, rOllnd , ci rcular,
article precedes. t he superlative, e.g. triang ular, woodell . monthly, daily , etc.
H e showed the greatest (the utmost) patience. ':\Iea lling. ' It would be bet ter if I W"" l "OW • • •'

.
,
78 A Co",prtM'l$ive Erlglish G,am mar
Hut comparative and superlative forms of some of these words, Comparison 01 AdjfClit" S -
e.g. 'perfect', 'full', are used because .....e are not considering 19 ,
them in their literal sense, e.g.
French m
~Iiss E\"a~s ha;
E vans has t he _
11;
( )
h~\"e l Si ) Ir . J ones has £ 10 alki
. d a ve t he most? No. Miss . .
'\
'
'Th is is a more perfect specimen th an that one' (we really h , an you have th e - (,J' Wh o
mean: 'This is nearer to per fection th an that') . _
as -(6) it J onesf or l? You h ave '':\1
, Is, Ir. • r. J' ones h as •
~r~~\1;:::nmil~. br: t Sar.::~t~:n~f";~fI\~ ;'I~rc~ Yes,
m
My glass is fuller t han yours.
He sap he has given me fuU details. but I .....ant him to gh'e
the con t rary, ' I(~~~ ?~ ~ i8~0~\~f wi~e? x e, on '
bus stop ? (9) I t i, very _ _ to I~arn Ge:~ea IS ~e
me fuller particulars.
E X ERCISES
~:et~e-- to learn R~,ssian, while Chineseni:~idQ~~
cons ists of a~angU a g~o~?e~h: ~·orld . (10) A bicycle t yre
I Give. with two eKalnples of each, t he methods used in 9uestion 0 1 how _ to re~:~ - - t ube . (11) The
forming comparatives and superlatives of adJecti},.,s IS _ in men's minds p ( I ) H Pe ece IS the one t hat
and say to .... hat class of adjec tive eac h method is politicians of t he d ay. ' : e IS one o f t he - -
applied.
v The adjec tive in bracke t h ..
0 1 the following sen tenc:s ai~ t e bepOlII!'J,: of ea ch
11 (a) F orm a comparison 0 1 equality, a comparison of
sllperiorit y and a compar ison of inleriority from each
I nsert in t he blan k spaces it s appropriate
com pa.red form
Irregul arly .
of t he following skele ton sen tenceS:
( I) George _ ind ustrious - his brot her . (:1) IrI !good o~ well) ' I say, you do look b "
The window _ narrcwe-r-r- the doo r. (3) Th is car Yes, I ve just retu rned f rown a nd - -.
I 've eve r had: rom t he holiday
_ fast _ th at one. (,,) William" work - good
_ John'S work. (2) (good or .... ell) ' I say, th at stew looks ' , '
(b) Rew rite t hese sentences so tha t they express th e It smells _ _ t oo don 't ou - . '1 es,
same roNning, but use compara ti"'es of superiority some and see If It t astes a/ th mk ? Let 's tty
0 ) (bad 01' ill) 'Corgor"zola ch: : - as It smells."
t ast es delicious. ' ' I agree iJ t-J e ~mens -
instead 01 compara6ves of inferiority: •
(I) A pig is less intelligent t~n, a horse. (2) The _ . I h ad some on ' ~ ~ .a. .ways IIlakes me
hut
•
Thames is less long than the Severn. (3) :'farlowe is Cha nnel, Wi th the _ I=b~ ··;.rhlle crosam g t he
less well kno.....n t ha n Shakespeue. (4) A lake is usuall y rough, a nd aft er the ml!h.. e re sults. I t was very
less rough than a sea (5) After that heavy rain the e~ il mind accused me of beP ~~ & person WIth an
I,,) (little) ' O f the two evils I '~K eh-
grASS is less brown th an it was a week ago. (6) Joan
~ms less afraid of wasp" than of spiders. for d n nk l' •
' I d, n ', t h' ' e us c ccee t he ---:-. '
, Ink it matters in the
III Give the comparative and superla tive degrees COfTe· alternative yo u accep t: t h . - which
sponding to the following positive degrees: ' , be tween th em.' ,ere IS - t o choose
long; biUtr; ,o n ~e ..ie>lt; ellil; beauti ful; sty, uueJ; jelle,,;
conjlanl; plla5a"l; afflJid ; wi cked ; f ood.
(5) worth
(lit tle). Nob le bir th iii 0 ( "- ' i/ccount ", .
Ih'a n1solid
1\' F ill in the bla nk spaces ",.jth an ad jective in t he (6) (acari Of t he two versi ons I th i k v .
the truth. m ) ours IS -
correct degree:
(1) )IaT)' is 5 ft . 6 in .: J oan IS ~ ft . 8 in. Which is t he (7) (nea r) 'Can }'OU d irett roe to t h
_ 0 1 the twO? {l} John is eighteen yeus old , Arth ur ' Yes, ' it is just over t be road e -dflOSt -offke? '
is nmeteen and J ames IS twenty -one- Joh n is the - baker 's.' ' . ' - - oor to t hat
and James is t he _ . (3) What was your wont
(8) J~uch, many) ' Do t he French eat _ bread"
su bject Al school? !ltathematics was my - and
'O~s.,-.- t ha n we do.' ' Do t hey eat - - -;.
} es: - peo ple h ave rema rked about it to me'. '
, •
80 A Comp,ehmsive EngI.UJI G,a,."na, 8,

(9) (far) ' H ow - is .it from he:re . t o Lo~don ? ' IX Commen t on the words in ita lics in t he following
'T wenty miles by tram; by road It lS - . senten ces. correc ting them where necessary and
(I O) (fa:r) The good pupil at school should by -"g~ts go justi f)'ing your correc tion.
_ in life than the bad one. Alas, It IS not (I ) Th is is t he tldul ch urch in t he I,, \\'n . ( ~) Henry IS
alway. so. I ndeed, a cy nic wou ld say that the my oldest brot her and William is Iny tldrst friend .
m ost unscrupulcua go _ ,in life. 13l :My cousi n Harry is eMer th an I . (4) I l l' h as bee n so
(11) (la te, latter) Jones and Br?wn are two im??rtant long in politics that he is considered as an older
members of the commum ty; t he former IS t he statesma n. (5) She has t hree sist ers 0 1 whom Jane is
vmage postman a nd the - the police canstahl: . the )'ounger, (6) 1 w as able t u get jon l1l rr mfun na tiun
(u) na te) H ave )' OU seen the - edition of this a bout trains at the railway-st ati on . (7) It is gem'rally
dictionary? I t bas oyer a thousand pag~. the - wise to choose t he ltssu of two evils . (6) H is sister,
one being numbered I ,On · who is h is Nixl relat ion, can be desc r ibed as h is neDrest
(13) (old) My ....ife h as thr~ bro~ers. all - than of kin .
she. The - . Geor ge, lS a b ishop . X Supply t he id iomatic expression cont ai ning compara-
(14) (out) P lease t ake t he - car e of this bracelet. t ives or superla t ives necessary to complete the
(1,5) (out) Don 't talk such - nonsense". following sentences. Each dash represents one word,
(16) (out) J ourneys into - space Will soon be I') - - haste - speed . (2) lie looks - " " ' 7 " " " -
possible. for hi" acd d,.:nt . ,(J ) If he won 't take advantage of his
(11) (up) Keep a stiff _ lip in adversity. oppor tu nit ies,. - .- - - - - - fur him. (4) He
(18) (in) The only real h a p pin eu com es from conti nued h is studies - - - _ _ after
peace. leaving schbor ea rly . (,5) - - - 1 tee of him. -
\ '1 Couect the following sentences: _ I like h im. (sn'u DI ~ssibilitjts ) (6) With r~ular
(I) The cheetah runs faster than all animals. (:z) Of all practice he beca me - - - at E nglish. (7)
other animals the cheetah runs t he fa.stest. (3) I lent H ow is the in\'a:id t cxlay ? He is much t he same, -
you two books the other day. If you h,lIove rea~ them, - - and ,~ . - -. (8) You have to get up earl y
t ell me wh ich you fi nd the most mt erestm g.• (.1 t omorrow, $0 )'OU - - go to bed now. (9) The
No soon er had he settled down to read when the t e!e- noise of the aircraft became - - - - until it
phone bell rang. t~l Mary is elde r than h,er COUSin . d ied away completely, (10) If you ca n come for four
(6) H e paid less for h is new house as ~or his old o?e. lessons a week instead of t wo, - - - - _ --
(7) Lond on is a b igger city as ~IS . (8) English •
custom s are very different than con tmental. (91. J o~n
is senior t han his cousin George. (10) Tha t. subjec t In
( T ill! P OSITI OS OF :\Tl]FC'T I"F.5 f
the syllab us is m inor . (tI) French wine IS ~upen01"
than californian. (n ) He isn't $0 good at English than
he lik es to t hink. (I)) ~ty first impressions of England
o wh ere ad ject ives are used attribu tively they generally
come before the noun they qualify, e.g. a ' brOttfl horse: a !let
were quite d ifferent tha n I had expect ed. day; a new car. But there are occasions. especially in literary
VII List any adjec t ives you know which cannot be com- English, when they come afur the n ou n that they qualify.
pared, . hi h
These are : -
VIII Write sentences to illus tr ate the different senses.w IC
the follo..... ing ..... ords can express. and e xplain the ..(a) wh en accomp an ied by a p h rase expressing measurement
e.g.
exact meaning of each sentence;
farther, further; la tter, later; last. latest ; nearest, ne xt; a river t wo hundred miles kmg; a roa d fifty feet u'ide; a man
less, lesse r; foremost. first ; uppermost. eighty-five rears old; a building ten-storeys Me!l.
82 A C01"Prthlll~ it"t EpJCli~h Gr" mma r "JIlt POS/tiM oj Adj tctju s 83

..{b) when more adjectives than one are used wit h th e noun, e.g. " ptnny savtd is a pe nny gained. (P Tot'"b)
He is a writer bo th witty and l#ise.1 !he words mt"tiOll ,'J below... ,
The hymnal w e use is ' Hymns ArlCit'lt and M od",.',
.
But participles that are predominantly adjectival in
He climbed the mount ain by a route ,m cJsQrtt d, ~ttep and meaning pr.ecede th e nou n. e.g. a broken bottle; a painttd ta ble;
dangerou~.l rr'," jrtg child.
He had a face tMpl and ;.I·orn. but tagtr and rrsoillte.!
cDA H ~nd bo,tJs preced e a noun, a possessive adjec t ive. a de-
"'-:c) when the adjective is followed by a prepositional ph rase, mQllstratl\'e adjective (or pronoun) and the definite article,I e.g .
e.g. .-4 11 (both) his friend s are gone. A ll (bo/II) these statements
He is a man grady for money. should be quite clear. A ll (both) the beys have gone horne.
Alfred was a King anxiou s lor hi s peo ple's welfar e. But the)' Iollcw a personal pronoun, ego
All these are matters u"Orthy of a tten tion
When th ey saw t he policeman they all (bolh) ran awar .
...(d) in a few fixed expressions (mainly from Fre nch) such as: we nlJ (both) hope you will be successful.
the Theatre Royal . the Poet La ureatt, the heir appa rent ,
from time immemorial, court martial, all th e people prestn t , tJ.) !1a.lJ an d double precede the noun when they are used in a
by all means possiblt . let ters patm I. proof po~itlvt. the d~nptlve sense , e.g.
P ostmast er Gt1W'al, Knight t/'Ta'l' , He drank a 1Jalf bottle of wine. He drank half a bottle of
The words next and lasl may follow, though the y wine.
generally precede , e.g. lasl Friday or Frid ay lasl; next He is my half-brother. He gave halJ-a-crown for a h'llf -crow'!
xtcndey. Monday next. book,
";e) when used with SOfntt1Jillg (-ont) , etc., anything. n;tryt1Jing, The stockings were sold at IwlJ price . (= half tile origin al
n llfhing. e.g. price),
I 'll tell you something very im portant. He drank a double whisky . I wan t a dOl/bit room.
That's mJtlling " tV. • • • But luUJ, dou ble (and lwee) are often Icllowed by the definite
He'll provide trtryl1Jing 1ltctssary. article or a possessive adjective:
There is somtont h url, I think . I ?ought the s.tockings at lIalf tht (Ihid ) price (= hal f th e
-{j ) Adjec tives preceded by /ht may also lollow a prope r price you mentioned).
•
noun, e.g . That will cost half (doubtt, tu·ju ) the money,
Alfred the Grt,u. William the SiZe"' . Ivan the Ttrn'btt . Hill! his time he does no work.
That wou ld cost double (flr;tt) his capital.
J g) P articiples th at are predomi nantly verbal in meaning
fellow th e noun, e.g. .4'.\ When ~n ad/·cct ive is qualifi~ by ralll" or quite these
I have answered all the letters reuivtd. " ~ds sO?1etlmes all ow and someumes precede the indefi nite
After the accident the policeman took the names of the u hcle Withou t any d ifference of meaning.
people involvtd. He ptaycd qllile a good game. He played a quilt good game.
We went thr0'!1gh a door open ing on to tile garden. T.hat IS rather a valu able ph-ture. Th is is a rathrr va luable
pict ure.
' Tb~5(: are pe rhaps cond ~n$ed r~l al i ..~ c1a ll""', 'who ll; • • ,', •.... h ich
wa~ , . :. 1 S« la bl~ pp. 9 1-<J.1.

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are cer tain
am Iid icrnatic
i 5
m : nghs~ w~ere ethe
t h ere pbrases i E .
definite article is .used instead of t he possessive adjective g
I have a eold m the head She was sl lot ' ' . .
84 A Co",p, dltlu illt EI.gli sh GMmmar
red in the face . She took ~c b)' the h ~n ;he leg. He got
(5) Enough normally comes before the noun but can come him i n the back. an . he ball struck
alter it with no difference of meaning, e.g .
Occa sion ally ow n is u sed wi th t he - ' . .
W e haven't enough t ime. W e h aven 't time mQugh. usually to express or imply a con trast , c.!>.
P?sse"Sl\'e ad jectives
It can be used with singular nouns or plural ones, e.g. [ have bought my 0Wt1 book . I don 't need .
We have done en0t4gh work for today. ourn dirty work ; don't ask me to do it for ' } OUf!\ . J OII1 po
There are t710ugll chairs to seat everybody . called 'E\"(1)' man his OU'n la"1.er ' . you. Here s a book
(See also Chapter T en , DcUrllli,lativcs,)
P OSSESSIVE AD JECTIV ES
T he possessive adj ectives-with their corresponding personal { OT HE R TY PfS OF AOJ ECTIV J::S i
pronouns arc: a nd
pronoun~ a Jectl\'~ may
I"TERROGATI VE , D1ST RIB UT I\'E ! S OEF l SITE di .
I generally fun ct ion also as The' ,
Chapter E leven (P ro PlOu ,u)', see also C
· h apter
) are dealt WI th in
Personal Possessive Pt1solhll P QSSH SIV(
A dj,ct i~'e
I Ten.
Pronoun Adjective Pronal'"

E XE RCIS ES
I my w, om \ 1 (II) F or m t he neea nve 01 t h f II .
you your add ing o r I;ha~gin. a pr " e 0 owing adjec ti ves b v
thou t thv l
his they their h....... ,
.II enx or a suffix:
iJ~ rJ' P elUa nt' iJlte"tive" j ..
"
.IIOl1est; usefut; , a;ef "l: pll,.e.'p per e~l: ~e:llla,; legal:
'"she h" on. one'S
~afe: , human: f ruitf ul; re5;'''~/ I~~t" o,rd!,mry : hop eful;
;t its IIutciful. ", re ZI ' OIlS; valu able;
, ,
• (b) I nser t an adjective in to ea h
The possessive adjectives change according to the gender t rad it io nal id io m at ic con c , blank space t o make a
a nd number of the possessor , and not , as in some othe r . ipar ason :
a s - as Iron: as - - as r !d
languages. ~cording to t he person or thing possessed. e.g. u - -a$ a .,-host· as ,,0 ; as--as lead' •
• lord ' as
,
_0_ .:
...,.
, C-- as a :\[ar<:h ha re: as -
JU d "e' as
a;
The btJy has lost his dog. as - - asa hunter as ", - u a new pin '
Th e girl has lost her dog . as - as a door-n~ ·" - as a car uoad of monken '·
I , as - a s a dai sy . '
The boys have lost Iheir dog. II Complete these sentences b . .
We have lost our dog. adjecti ve or definit e article: y means of a possessive
The possessive adjective is use d in English wh ere often the (I) I live in the coun t ry; h
definite article would be used in some ot her languages , e.g . a stream . ( l ) "[.ove - -' C--hbo°use sta nds alone near
h netg u r as thv«#-lf " { )
as a ca r but - 3ister hasn 't ( ) ) , _ . 3) c bn
L have had my hair cu t. H e h url his foot . b" __ brother has a m t . 4 oan has a bicyc le
_ houses (6) This is a ~oo~ ~yc~e: (5) They ~ave sold
She has changed ht r mind. If ~ ra m , - - en gine is out
I Some gram marians ea.ll these possessive pronouM, consideri" .
the m as genitive form s 01 the pt'f!lOnal pronoun. We prefer to call them ,
. 'I \
t
poss.essive ad jectives, a nd the fotln s ",i." , }'ou rs , .ete, (see. p. 1081
possessive pronouns . " 111_ and Ilty are .. rehalc or poen"al.
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16
o f d a t e. (7) We have passed - e c auunauon. A dj edit'es 8]
{oB) She has fall~ - - e xam ina t ion . (9) H e w as
s tabbed in - b.' \ck by a ccwardly assaila n t (3) She has no se rv a nt a nd so she has 10 do a ll her
(10) The}' were blue in _ lac c w ith cor d . (It) You hO,usew~r k . (4) Each..g uest m ust hr i n~ hi s s upply o f
c a n' t t r us t h im; he never keeps - prot-uses . d ri n ks. wI~ h h u n, (5) f hey d o n 't pay a ny r euc because
(12) _wile and I cel e br a t e - - s ilver wed ding "exl t he y live In t heir ho use .
m onth . (13) Do com e. and brm g - - fr iend wi th you. v Il I I n \'e nt five sente nces in each o f whic h th ere is a n
(1.4) Farmers like - - crops to be gathered in as 500n ad jectiv e {o t h e r than a n y in Ex, \ 1 used as a n o un an d
as possible in a utu mn. ( IS) Yo u mus t allow this m a tter th ree sentences i ~ eac h o f whic h there is a p roper nou n
to take - proper ti me. (othe r t h a n a ny III Ex . VI used ;u a n adjective.
II I (a) Use the foll ow in g part.iciplcs as a d jectives im - IX Complete t he fo llowin g se n t ences wi th a dject ives form ed
mediat ely preceding a noun : fr o m th e noun s in b rac k e t s.
wi lhctt d; broktll; u his lJing: spoknl: /cr ll; fol d i ng; (I ) In o ld, a ge til e .h a ir often becomes (silver). (l l Th e
humming: !nil/en: ,hou n; U'll n l.. J , col ou r o f ripe c o rn IS (g old). (3) I n Sc andin avia o n e o f te n
(b) Use t hese a s adjcct l\"(~s unmed ia tetv followmg a sees people whose hair is (fla x). [..) I was a p p a lled a t
noun. h is (brass) im p u d en ce. (5) T h e ~",ord o f rlamOO,' ]e'I wa s
l is /fd: I in , a: fprit/ll !td; ",,,de.- IIIl:o lt i,,~; jlaVOlOrtd: suspended loy a (s llk) ll 11l·ad.
~ tuJdtd; wnll,n; sunK: ' Inl o; i"G. X I n E nglish. adj ectives used a t tribu tively usuall y com e
I V Co m pose sent en ces wi th 'q uito". ' ra th er', 'h al f'. before t he no uns t he y q ua lify , Co ns t ru c t five sentences
' d o u ble '. U se all these words once with t h e art icle iIIust~at i n g ex ceptions t o this rul e and (o r eac h sen te nc e
(d e fin it e or indenni te} before them , an d on ce with it explai n why t he exception is made .
a fter them . XI e:om pI~te t h e foll o~i ng sen tenc es b}" mser tin g t he word s
V (a) ~take sen te nces using th e fo llo win g adj ecth'e:> a s gu'e n III b rackets In t heir c o rrec t posi tions.
n OU:'lS sing u la r or pl ural: (a) A loaf is bette r t h a n no b re ad . (h a ll)
E ..,OpUIH; wid td; Ja paut u : ",ait'ldual: ntatJu H. (6) I have t wo sis ters o f wh o m a re o lde r Iha ll I . (bot h )
(Ii) Use th e fo llo win g n ou ns a s a,ljc..:tiv es : (t) At t h e sales t hlll Ss c a n o ft e n be bou gh t a t p rice
(h al f) .
Il a/hl ' ; gold; L onao»; ,iCI ; ""<11: . colloll; lJu 111011<-' /I 1
f..'m't·lrs ity: B unsel s; ga,de ll. (d, 'How ma ny ro ads ar e there t o R o m e ? (lea (lm g)
VI (a) Form a djectives hom t h e following n oun s an d use (,l As a result o f h is a ccident h e is s uflering from a leg
ea ch o f the a d jectiv6 in a sentence. (fractured ) > •
bcal.ty: . ai n; g Aos/ ; "," inler: geo..,,/ry; lad)·; :i4y: man: XII Com plete t h e foll ow in g sen tences by inse rting .in eacf a •
Titan; ","'Ol'lla n; a.t: lou; Paris; ,eoA SO>l: llad; bolt",}"; word c hosen from the fo llo win g; all th e word s can be
sp i te: crimI ; sp .,i/; ability ; h,ro; ", alia; E li:'lbl/h; used . Wh a t d o you n o tic e that is ra t he r u n usual a bou t
,MId (t wo forms]. the adj ecti ves used with t he se wo rds?
(b) Giv e t h e nouns cor re sp onding t o the foll owin g so~nt lhi ng, so.mO nt , somlliody , lIo/ hillg. nobody. l~ n)""
ad jectiv es; tIll 011, t~nybody, a"ylMlll, a>ly o" e, a' ly body .
prowd: .,on i".!; horribll; dr/tlJj"l; IlmpeMfe; UOlll; ( t ) T h e re is - stran"e in his bch:i\"io ur t odav.
j llli; candi d: i .,,'gry ; gran d. (1) Is. t he re - specially in tc r" t in;.: III the paper thOu
mOtlll nl{ ? (3) X" t h e re's - - st:n ll iul-:. ( ~) T ite rI' 1"--
\"n I n t roduc e t he "'-c:.rd 'own' into each o f the fo llo wi n g ver}' Outstan ding in E nglish m mv • rass (5) _
sentences: valuable was taken b y t he b u rgl a rs. (6) - well-known
(1) I c a n s u re ly do as I please w ith m y m a ne)". (2) Yo u III t he t heat re a tt e nd ed t hat lin t lll~ ht . (7) I 'm sure
m us t do y our work an d not cop )' fr om y our INlghbollr, - cle ve.rer t han he Will g et t he p rize. (8) \Vll.~ th ..re
- speCiall y well d re ssed a t the da nc e las t nlcht ?
(9) - i nt ercsted in t he subjec t is in \ited to a tt cnd t h e

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08 A Comp tth<Jlsile Enclish ( ;ra "mMT
lec t ure. (ro) There must be - clever enough to solve

t his problem .
XI II I nsert 'r at her' or 'quite' in the correct po sition in t h ese C U A P TEH r ns
sentences.
(I) He can d o d ifficul t exercises correcny. (:) This ~ a

ID E T E R :\II ~ ,\ TIY E S )
valuable viol in thou gh it is certainly not a Stradivarius .
(3) They arc not very generous people; in fac t t h ey a re It is convenien t to group unde r the te rm 'De terminative, '
mea n . (4l H e was not clever enough to pass hiS exa m . certain classes of .words th e usage of wh ich is d iscussed more
t ho ugh he wor ked v ery h ard . (5) She is an unhealth y- fully elsewhere. 1 hese ar e :
loo king girl. I don' t t h ink . he gets en ough exe rcise. (Uu
both ltIOtds in this se"ll""e. ) -G .(1 !l"u-:sJ a(JI): the.
1
7"~'~.'~'W'2T~'2·· one, 1;; 0, three, etc. (all the cardinal

, ~fJ"''',
\ rCTlV E5 OF
. HU llI IS; m scrcral , nuv; lilliCh, II/,my, (a) [ac, ('I)
liUle, 110, ellougll, etc.
4 DIST RI RI.'T 1VI': .\DJECIIv EsJ ra ch , every , both, lleilllfr, either.
.( I ~ n: 1l 1t00 .\ I IVE All 1U n v l' sl Id ll'ch, u·IUl!. xohose.
..{rH:DJ.' 5i k.-\t1VE .-\ lJIECTl \T s ) lIu·s, that , O, (S( , flu)se.
.4 P6~ ~ I, s ~ I t'J·: .-\D I ECT IVES:I IIIY . y our, ltis, her , its, Illtir , our.
~ ,., .-\;.; , , "-J' IJ H "' SE
, ~ I ~ TI l E 1"'SSESS IVLL\,>" {'.s. J ohn's,
lIe man s, lin O( a y s.
Many of t hese words may stand alone as pronouns , or may
qualify nouns. When they qualify nouns, t hey differ from
• • • qualificative adjectives (bi g, bllle, intelligent, etc.) in two im-
port ant respects:
5) IVord Order: They are a lways placed before any qu alify ing
adjeC tives: ' he red hook, '!Ii.~ old chair, my new brown h at . •
t:J f)jf!t::e!ii:~:?lIc of the appropriate determinatives mus t
always fore a singular coun table noun (see p. 20).
An appropriate dde rminatin.' may be used be fore u ncountable
~Olln S and plu ra l coun table nouns, but is not always needed
In tlH'se cases. Except for t he com binations shown below, only
one dl'lcrm inati vf' call be u sed lx-Iorc a noun
Det erminative" arc used before':a, singular coun table nouns.
":6). plural cou n table nouns, ~c\o uncountable nouns. as show~
In the follov.·ing tables. .
89

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t TABLE A. S IKGU L .... R COU !'> TABLE KotTi'S 1 Detenninntives 9'

- - i K OT,E]Any word may be used with a ny other word in a n I T .\ Il L£ B lpL \L C ~ );ot::- Sl
<l;dJommg colum~ from which it is not separated by a horizontal (see no te ;n 1 . ,
fine. T he words In parenth eses ca n be e ither used or om itt e d
(.-f. dj eclh'c +)
DETI'R ~ll :': ,\T1 VES 110111I
Example of
D ETE RMIN ATIVE S
(adjecti ve -i-} 1I0WI . - (.Yo d.:le n nillallt'c )
a (n) x- I ( tw o ~
[many) another a ll
no t hree
t he any four, c tc.]
t hat what
t his (one ) which
some
good books
any (a ll) the old hats
no book (hath) my large white
wh ich 'gg (all of) YOllr
what new h at cups
(bo t h of) his sharp pe nciis
my red bicycle (enough of) her (few)
houses
he< word (one of) its (ma ny)
{two." t hree, ca ts
his . 1) (two, three, 0"' impo rt ant
its (one) etc . of) etc.)
letters
your (every}' (wh ich of) t h eir cleve r students
0", • • (more 01) whose frien ds
t heir (fewer of) J ohn 's
whose ~ow) (m any of) tile old lady's
hi s father's
J ohn's (a lot of)
these
•
t he man's (plent y of)
an old (some of) those
lad y's, (none of)
etc. • (a ny of)
e very (a few)
each (a lo t)
eithe r fewer
(how) (many)
nei t her
(no}'
on, (some)! more
, T he cumbmatlons WIth .. try are rare . (plent y)!
,
I U sed oll ly wit l . Itlore . • N ot used wit h ail .
DttrTtni/l,Jtivts 93
9' A Comprehensive English Grammar
tTABlE(ill (rQ"timU'J) )
Exa mple's (If (ad;' -i-]
DE TE RMISATI VES (A(ijectivc +) HOlm DETERMI S ATI VE S
/I 0UII
(an }")
(no)
[se veral] fewer
(a little)
{t wo , three, e tc.] mere good books (a l ot ) mo re
(far) old hats (much )
I large wh ite cu ps
sharp pencils
{some)I Ie"
several (plenty)1
houses milk
enough (a ny)
cats t ime
beth (far) money
important letters
some clever stud ents cleverness
tw o, three, etc. (all) (of) the
friends (enough of) that hard work
(how) many cold water
la) Iew
(ho....') (much 01) this
a lot of (more of) my
plenty of (less of) your
(a Jot of) his
[ Dl.E C ;~COl'ST."BLE .. cus s (plenty 01) its
. see note at 1 aOj~ A )
(some of) um
(any of) their
E~-,mlpl~s oj (ad! .;.. ) (more of) whose
DETER ~ ISATI\'E S
nOlln Joh n 's
the old lady's
(N o dttu millatit't )
• I Not used with l eu .
a ll
•
any
what ~ M " U I. ilh ylt-
which . G uchJ is used with uncounta ble (singu lar) nouns, e.g.
enough milk
You haven 't much time if you want to catch that train
no time
He hasn't very milch money.
some money
QIO\\') much cleverness (" um.\J is used with plural counta ble noun s, e.g.
a lot of hard work You haven't many m inu tes t o spare if you wan t to ca tch
plenty of cold water that train.
[a] little How many cig a ret tes a day do you smoke?

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94 A Comp,dunsive English Gra mmar
YoU can h ave as "such wine (as lnimy bottles of wine) as
. '.fhe only occasion when many is used with a singular noun
IS In the phrase many a. e.g. yOUwant. .
I know how much money (how many pounds) t hat n ng cost .
Many a ship has ( = many ships h ave) been wrecked (.1\
t hose rocks. e) when they qualify the subject of t.he sent e~ce . e.g. .
M any a man would he glad of your job. ...( Ma ny Englishmen like t o spend th eir spare t ime working m
I've been there l lUI II)' a time. their gard ens.
C\tucn1 andl marB are most frequently used in negative or ',\fany hands make light work .'. (P rot'a b)
interrogative sen ences. mucAi with singular uncountable nouns M ",lt time would be saved If y ou planned your work
many with plu ra l nouns. ' properly-
I haven't much time. Did you have muds rain on YOCt ...(4) in the case of ",uds, when it st ands alone , i.e. with no noun ,
holidays) Th ere's not much sugar in the suga r bowl. e,g. . . .
Do you know ma ny people in London? There ar e not many M",h depends on what answer t he Prime ~hmst er gIVes to
mistakes in your exercise. that question . . . .
_ I n colloquial use in affirmative statements they are fre- J would give ",,,,.11 to know what he 1S thinking now.
quently replaced by a lot of, lets of . a I4rge qtul1Jtity of, plenty \INCh of wh at he. says is t rue.
of , a good deal of, e.g. :\/ ueh as' I should like to come, I'm afraid I mu st refuse.
lie will have a lot of time to spare when he has finished th .(t ) in the case of '" SKI. , when it is followed by an a~tr a~t noun ,
book he is working on. oedauv_ when the noun is preceded by an ad ject ive, e.g.
"r--
She knows lots of people in Lond on . The book is the fruit of much patient resear ch .
He has done a good deal of resea rch on that subject.
Note that with a lot oj and pknJy of the verb is singular wi th ~ FEW ! L1TTL£~
uncountable nouns, plural with countable ones, e.g., • Few tTasted with many ) is used with plW",,:1 count abl.e
There is plenty of sugar in the sugar bowl. cuns: little (as a det erminative and con trasted "nth .m,"h) IS
~ ~ smgular uncountable nou ns. Both j~ and IltJle haYIC
There are pwuy oj chain for everyone.
a negative implication .
(.ll uch~nd[ma nyl are usually preferred even in affirmat ive •
constracncns:
Fnr has the meaning ' not ma ny' , e.g.
The / ell friends th at he h ad are all dead.
-(a) in I ndirect Questions introduced by trhetheT or if: Ftw people would ag ree WIth you .
I doubt whether there'll be much time for seeing the sight-, LitJle has the mean ing , 'not much ', and the emphasis is on the
of London; you r train leaves at six o'clock . scantiness, e.g.
I wonder if many people will be at the party. The l' ule money t hat he has w ill h ar dly keep hi m in food .
-(b) when preceded by so, too, as, Iww, e.g. The ship.....reeked sailors had no food and /lttle water.
He has so much money and I have so little. A f (lJJ and a lillle h ave a positive implicat ion. T hey mean
There are too many mistakes in your exercise. 'some, though not many (much)'. e.g.
He has drunk too much wine and ough.t not to dr ive his car ' .....cll he re ~ co nceSlI ive (~C p. J~l -~ ) .
home. 1
A Comprtllel,sil'e Englisll Grammar

He has a fetll friends who call to see hi m quite frequently
A ftUJ people would agree with you.
CIl,\ P T E R I-: L EV E S ,
He has a liUle money and can live quite comfortably Oil It.
The ship....-recked sailors had a liul, w at er.
E XE RCI SE S
A pronoun is a word u ~ instead of a noun .
I Use expressions chosen from the follo....-1"g list to corn.
, plete,these sentences: few, a fe w, lit/It, a little, tht liule , Pronouns may be classified into t he following kinds :
[r] 'Is th ere a ny tea left in th e pet } ' ' Yes, - -: (I) Personal (2) Possessive (3) Demonstrative
(2) '00 you smoke at all ?' 'Yes, but very - - : (,,) Retlexi....e (5) Int errogative (6) Indefi nite
(3) ' 00 you smoke at all?' ' Ye s -: (7) Relati,'e (8 ) Distribut ivc
(4) Our driver had had - drinks and wasn' t fit \0 Pronouns may show number , person , gender and case. TJ1C
. take the wheel.
table of personal pronouns will illustrate t his.
(5) Having had - opportunit ies t o practise, I did not
.play the piece as well u I might have done,
(6) H aving had - opport unit ies to pr actise, I pla yed . .\ 1. P ROXOI
-(!)( P ERSOS . ' XS ~
the piece reasonably well,
(7) H e is a lonely man, he has - - frien ds.
(81 I have only - coal in my cellar beca use t he li IXCtJt.A R PU 'I! Al,
coa.! man hu not come, N(l1I1inalive Objectil"- NQII/;1II1til'r Obj ,-rf;ve
(9) We mUlt save - - money we have left for our
journey home.
(10) H I': alw ays has - in reserve for emergen~i'1
1ST P'£RSON I m.
thee
w. u,
2!'1D PE RSON t hou you (ye) you (ye)
( I I) Can you come to our house th is e,-eni ng ? I am 3R D PERSON
inviting _ friends for coffee . (.\flUCuline) h. him}
n I n what cases are ... .,,11 or "",uly used affirmatively ?
I llustrat e ea ch par t of y our answer by construct ing one
sen tence em ploying "uu::11 and another employing m atry.
(Femillille)
(Neuter)
(IlItIefillite)
{ she
it
he<
it
they the m
•
I
0 0' 00'
( P ERSON I S P KOS o( ' XS\
Speech naturally presupposes two persons: a person who

speaks (th e First Persall) and a person spoken to (the Seeolld
Person), So I , Tre , are pronouns of the F irst l'erson:yolj (thcu,
tAee , y e) are pronouns of the Second Person . Beyond these t W II
persons there is the whole world of people and t hings that may
be spoken about, For all these we use the pronouns of t he
• r Third Person , he, she, it, Clle, they . .
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PrO/W Illi S 99. ,
,
A Comprd/msit'e En/!.Iish Gramm ar ,
I Nomi native Objeclit,t X Qminalit,t Objt clit'e
.--
- u,
me we •
1 they _ t hem
I" him
who :,' whom
I slw her
In 'hh:rary' • or lJn lomi.al En glish, when the pronoun comes
after th e verb to be the nominative fonn of the pronoun is
used. e.g. ' " .
c, I (u·(, he, sht , etc.] did t his.
• It ..... as I (ht , she, we, etc .) who did Uris.
•
In informal, colloqui al English the objective form is frequently
- r , used:
• Sl.:BJ l::CT P IU:.D ICAtE Th at's her (hi"' , us, etc.). It's all right ; it's only "Ie.
-- , J'vb , ObjfCt But in sentences where the pronO\m is felt to be the subject of
- H,
, , a verb, e.g. 'It was he.who t old me about it', ' It was 1 who did
b it " it it', the nominative form ;w ould always be used .
'/I bit - ,
him
,
Sh,
, T1I~y
read
plea sed
,,,
them I~OTF.s O K tU E P ER SO"'I:.'l.L P ROS O l" S q
-- - ti II/s r 1'~ ll so:-;J

I is always written with a capit al letter, bu t mI, Il"e and
J : ere i~ one o~er. oc.casion when the object ive form of the us are not . "
pr ~ n. IS used . this IS when a pronoun is governed bv a We (us) is not the plural oi l in the same way as boys is the
preposition, e.g. plural of boy. W e means not 'two or more 1's' but ' I and you'
or ' I and he' or ' I and all these other people'.
I spoke to hi m. It is a qmvcnt ion for a newspaper editor or writer of leading
I had a letter from her. art icles in a newspaper , perhaps from modesty and a desire
T~e pr~nouns him and her are in the object ive case governed not t o sound egot istical or perhaps because he feels th at he is
re:;pcct n:e1y by the prepositions to and f rom. ' speaking not only for h imself but for the whole board of
management of the paper, to use the plural ea ('the Editorial
~h~ronI Y pronoun s, in fact th e only il'Qrds in E nglish that
" .e') when giving his opinions, e.g.
~~a~~I : ifferent forms for nominative and object ive case a're six ' W e believe t hat the Government has made a profound
mistake in imposing this tax.'
I n the same way , formal Royal Proclamations use the ' Royal
In ' . i.e .
' tt'e, George III. King of En gland .. . .

'00 .-t COlll prt h(IISi,'( English G",mlll<Jr P ' un QUI/ S

'0'
In yery colloquial Engl i~h , us is sometimes used lor lilt , and also with expressions of tim e and measurement.
especially after an imperative, e.g. Let's have a l~k (meaning It is ha lf past tw o. .
let me haw a look). Tell us ( = tell sus] .....ha t he said . II is fifteen mi les to l ondon.
I SEco~ u l'Ek:SO~ ) 'It's a long way to Tippera ry,'
Th ou, OUt , yt are archaic and are rarely used in modern and with other impersonal statements, e.g.
English except in poetry. II says herr- t hat Sha kespeare's plays .
t THIRD Pf!KSOS )
Bacon , were wntten by
He, 111 m can be used instead of masc uline nouns; sire , nu

instead of feminine nouns; it instead of neuter nouns. All t he q,; '/t isthusedreaas1 sua biformal subJ'ect
IOns , e ject or
. or obJ·-t in
~~ ,
object usu ally foil
0
t!ser construe,
.' .
others, except tluy and them, are used instead of masculine or finitive or a subordinate cl ause, e.g. o.... mg as an In-
feminine nouns. TIllY, lMm are used instead of masculine,
feminine or neuter nouns. II is easy enoug~ to talk , It was qui te plain tha t he did n't want
She (htr) is somet imes used Icr inanimate objec ts, especially 'fin'"""'d
., d· Iffitoo, k It for.granted that yOIl 'fJ?01 j/d stay wilh us. I
I I cu t to be1lroe that.
sh ips, motor-cars. locomot ives, airc raf t , etc.. to e"pres·s
affection or famil iarity. Countries, and even ci ties, espectallv It may , in sentences beginning: 'It is' or ' It , ,
in rather formal or rhetorical speech , are someti mes made the real subject and a relative clause, e.g. was . .. precede
feminine:
I~ was the training that he had as a young man tha t made
OW ~ E R OF CAR .IOT PETROL STAT ION: 'Fi~ htf up, George.' 111m such a good engincer.
That's t he Queen's yach t, Britannia; she's a beautiful shi p.
England has done what she promised t o do. This construction can be used t o give s........ial hasi h
real subjec t, e g . .-- ~ ~ emp asts to t e
'Oxford taught me as much l atin and Greek as she could '
(Said by J ohn Ruskin.) It was his mother, no t his father, who said that.
A baby can be referred to as it- bu f preferably not tn the (4J It is used idiomatica lly in other sentences or h
hearing of its fond parents. Tusu~filY colJ09uial
or slang) where it seems to have \'e!:' f~:
speer c meamng, c.g. -J
<D The pronou n it is gene rally

GI
applied to things and not to
~?7n the thieve:> saw the policeman coming, they rnn for il .
tne .t eacher sees you domg t hat, you 'll catch it •
people; but it is olten used to identi fy an unknown person. Il an,:: It a ll, we can't wait all day for hi m. .
Then, once this has been done, he (she) wou ld be used , e.g. If you go ca";lpmg you'l l have to rough it.
Someone was moving stealthily about the room ; it was a \~ 'hen I ~ him, I'll have it out with him.
burglar. As we wa tched , he went to the safe and tried to I.lI let him . have ~I, ho t and strong,
open it . ' '\ ou are fairly gomg It: vou've eaten
of chocolates. . nearly th e whole box
G) II is used as a ' formal' subject with verbs concerning
weather conditions, c.g. " 'e'll mak e a day of it . •
It is raining /snowing/freezing. It is very wa rm /cold /wet. €) It Can st and for a whole sen tence, e.g,
It was a bill"')' cold night and at ten o'clock it began to
blow a gale .
t~OU..have saved ~y life; I
shall never forget it. He is try ing
wm a scholarship to Oxford: he won 't find i f easy.

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A. Comprehensive E nglish GrtlmlJlllr
Pr onouns '03
But this construction (it standing for a preceding sentence) i.
not generally used with the verbs know, renumber, tr)', lei! ~So is used also to represent an adjective or noun with the
fo rget , e.g. ' ~rb to be, to remain , to seem , to make:
'We are having a holiday tomorrow.' ' Yes, 1 know: (~o~: He has been very helpful to me in the past and I hope he
I know il. ) will be so (= helpful) in the future.
'You won' t forget to write, will you?' ' Xo . I won't forget.' The country round my house has been unchanged for twenty
(~OT: I won't forget il. )
years; may it long remain so (= unchanged).
'There is nothing either good or bad but t hinking makes it
so.' (= good or bad)-(Shakespeare, Hamlet.)
C8
@ So is similarly used t o stand for an affi rma tive statement,
He has been a teacher here for five years and I hope he wili
be so (= a teacher here] for many more years.
especiall y alter certain verbs (say, Ihink , hope, bdiroe, SllPPosc, €)Note the use of so to mean also in such sentences as:
expect, hear, tell, i magine,fear, be afrai d). Th e word so is used My husband likes French cooking and so do I.
more or less with this function of it, that is to stand for an Peter is wor king hard for his examination , and so is James.
affi rmative st atement , e.g.
(See also p . 185.)
'Will George pass his examinat ion?' 'I think so.'
'Was this cathedra l built in the fourteenth century?' ' I b ~ . lo:-m I
lieve soIl have heard so Il was told so.'
'Is he very ill?' 'I'm afraid $0.' (For this constructi on and One is, of cou rse , a numeral. (e.g. There was only one boy
there, not two), and, like all the-numerals , can be used as a
its negative, see p. 40I.) .
pronoun, e.g.
He'll pay me the money next month; at least I hope so.
Why do you say so? I told you so. One cannot do the work of Iwenty.
You thought Henry stole the money: well, so he did. One of your brothers came to see me today.
'Y ou told me I should go to Oxford to learn. En glish,' The plural of Olle with this usage is some, e.g.
'And so you shall.' Singular: Take one of these chocolates.
We have information that the enemy will attack tonight P lural: Take some of these chocolates.
And if so what are we going t o c o? The other uses of one as a pronoun are as follows: •
The negative of this construction can be ex pressed by two @ ~t. is used to stand for 'people' or ' lor any person in my
forms: position'. It can be a subject or an object; it has the P ossessive
(i) I thin k{believe{suppose/expect{ hope l hear lam afraid flJOi: fonn one's and the Reflexive oneself. It is followed bv a third
if not . . . person singular verb. Exam ples: •
(iil I don 't thi nk fbelieve/suppose fexpc<:t fso. One can only do one's best.
Not ice that the second construction is not used with hellr, One can't be too careful in matters like this.
hope, am r;f raid. The South Pole Expedition film gives one a good idea of the
hardsh ips the men endured.
@ So is used with do to reler to a preceding verb:
I don 't think one should overwork oneself.
I t old him to come and see me the next day, and he did so.
lf you wan t me to help t hem I will do so, It is generally felt that this use of one t oo often in a sentence
IS stylistically clumsy , e.g.

A Comprt!u Plsit·t English Gr"mnlar
when one is given one's choice of cou rses of action , any of

Pronoun s
The one man who coul d ha ve saved the situation w as d..ad.
...,
whic h would be t o O1lt'S di sad van tage. one often has a 1'0 one woma n cou ld run a big house like th at single-handed .
difficulty in deciding what one ought to do. 'The "'It thing t hat could ma ke Charles I dangcrOl15--WaS a
The attempt to avoid t his awkwardness may . unless care is \iolent deat h.' p Jacau lar )
taken, lead to such incorrec t sentences as;
\\1lCn Ollt is given his choic e of courses of action . any of
I Tl IE PR OI"-\\' ORO all' I
which would be t o his d isadvan tage . they often have Jiilj. J(.) 1t is very frequent ly what is sornctimcs <,Il k <l a l'rop.
cul ty in deciding what they ought to do. ''If,,rd , In some construc tions adjectives (includi ng the definite
arttclel cannot stand alone and need the prop-word 011( to
Preferable forms wou ld be: support them. Th is prop-word refers to some pre\10US noun .
..(a) When someone is given his choice of course:" of action, anr If the prop-word ont were not used, the noun would have to be
of which would be to his disa dvantage, he ofte n has diffI_ repeat ed , and for stylistic reasons we want to avoid this.
culty in deciding what he ough t to do. It is only countable nouns that one can replace in this way.
...(b) \ Vh en you are given your choice of courses of action , ant' Examplt s:
of which would be to you r disadvantage, you often have
difficulty in deciding what you ought t o do . Brown 's old car is a good 0 ' 11'; it's much better tha n our
., (§) It may have a genera l indefinite meani ng of 'a person' , eg new one.
There was an old man and a young o1le there.
You are the first olle who has ever explained t his d early, r like a strong cup of tea bet ter than a weak one .
H e is not anI t o be easily frightened. The plural of on( with thi s usage is ants, e.g.
" , . TIlen must you speak
Of 0 111 who loved not wisely but too well.' (Shakespeare) I prefer red roses to white " ' /( 5 (Qll e used in the plural). •
There was a mot her bird in the nest and there were Iour
E t AS PROl'OI; l' OR AD JE CTIVE l young o lles.
Ont can be a prop-word with the definite art ide, e,g.
G) On e is used with something of its meaning as a numeral whee 'Whicb girl is Joa n Robinson ?' 'Th e one in the green dress.'
contrasted with otlu r or an other, e.g. • • •
'Which biscuits do you like bes t?' 'The DiltS w-ith chocolate
There are two choices open to you . You must take eit her on them,'
the one or the othn-, (Pronoun)
The two twins are so much alike til at I can't tell the ont One is not generally used ....-ith oirn , e.g .
from the othn-. (Pronou n) I can 't write properly with your pen ; I'd rather use my own . "
One eveni ng we wen t to the th eatre, an otlicr evening we went (NOT: my own ont ,)
dancing, (Adjec tive) Oll es is never u sed after a cardinal nu meral, e,g.
G) In the follo.....ing cases it has ll?st its numerical meaning and You have th ree books; I have only two. ( ~OT : two orrt s.)
IS used t o express some vague tune :
He always hopes that one day he wiJl ....-in a prize, (Adjec tive) ( Or m :R I DIO~I ATIC VSES or ' O~E "
Otle of th ese da ys I 'll go and see him . (Pronoun)
T m ust h ave met him at one time or another, (Adjective) He can go or he can stay: 11'5 all oll e to me (= it makes no
GJ Occaslcnalty it has the m~an ~ ng 'only~, 'single', With th is
difference),
He was a man that was liked by ont Qnd all (= everybody).
meaning em e IS always an adjective, e.g.

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Pr onouns ,.
' _'s unu sual t o hear of wome n who can
E XERCISES away from a new car l' ..
I For which nouns do the pronouns m the following 'Yes. !n~ eed . Your mother en joys a drive, doesn't
pasuge stand ~ - ? would - - care t o bring _ along?:
~1r. a nd :'0115. Brown were tal king abou t t hl"io . 'Tha t 's yery kind ~f - , bu t --::- is celebrating a
n eighbo urs. Mr . and Mrs. Smith, and t heir new ho use birthday part y on Saturd ay wit h her brother a nd
' H e m us t be m a ki ng a good incom e to be a bl e to ..-0:-- always v isit each oth er on their resv~ti ve
live in a. ho use like th at.' said he, ' to say nothing 01 birt hdays , Dear - ._ must be 0lI! T hank __
the car they have. It 's a Rolls.' for the ' ~o ffer of a ride. _ am looking forw ard
'Ob, I don' t th ink he makes much money,' sl:e to - -, ..
replied. 'but J fancy she has a private income.' I V (01) Ex press these statemen ts in another way, by
'I wonder whether t he )' paid for it themselves or means of the pronoun 'It', altering t he wording
whether her parents ga ve it to her,' he said.
completely w here necessary . In some cases a verb in
She answered . ' Yes. they bought it a lter a !uck\'
week ",ith foot ball pools. But u for th e car, I u n :t brackets i~ given t o help you . .
spea k definitely abou t th a t , though I t hi nk it is he r; (I) John, not James, .rang up,- (t) The te mperat ure is
rather tha n h is .' below zero , (3) The afternoon was bright a nd SUn nY.
.'1 k no w wh ich 01 t he t wo I would soone r h a ve. ' was (4) The journey t o Br igh ton Irom Lon don t akes onfy
his com m e n t. one hou r uy t ram . (5) Some pa rt s of Hing L ear arc
II Complet e each of t he following sentenc es wit h t he ext remely difficul t t o unde rsta nd , (6) (call) We won' t
correc t form o f the personal pronou n, c hoosi ng one do any more wurk toJay. (,) (pig) T hey were IISC,1 to
of the two in brackets: lh' ing primitively and disregardi ng tab'e ma nners
(8) (lord) This cockerel o bv iouslv cons idered him self
( I) This parcel is for Geo rge anJ _ (I, me). (t ) h su penc r.fo the other inmates of t he hen-bou se and
t hat Mary eve r there? Yes, t ha t 's - (her. she),
ac ted acco rd ingly. ('.I) That he ,,;11 fai l I S clear t o every-
(]) - - Scots are always making jokes abou t oc r - one b ut 'l ,imseif.
selves (we, us). (4) ) Iy ..... ife and - - ha ve not been well
recen t ly (I , me). (5) )[y uncle a nd aunt love animals. , . (~) } 'ry',(0 J i sco~'er ot her expressions like ' rough It',
Between - (th ey. th em) u. ey 0 ,,",'Tl four d OI§6 a nd go It , etc. ccnsrstmg of verb a nd 'i t', a nd use t hem in
two cats. One cat was a present from my wife and - - sen teqc,~~. ,
(I, me), V Ex press t bese passive sentences in a different way by
III Complete the followmg passage b'y m ea ns of persona l using t he pronouns 'one'. 'we', ' yo u', or 'they'; .
pronouns: (I ) It is said he is a very rich man, (t) I a m a Lon. •
'This coming week -end my brother and - intend dcner, my dear Wolf~ans, and EnGlish is spoken th ere,
to do a little motoring. BetwCfil - - - - h ave of co.urse. Il) Wb at lall.l: uaJ;e is spoken in :Moscow?
bough t a new Austin. - - 's a lively litt le car Russian, of cou rse . (,.) If a pe rson takes any given
' - - lucky people! I ·ve a lwap wanted a car like action, the -ccnsequ ences must be home. t5l' Such
th at. St ill, - - suppose - must remember th e qcesnons rna}' no t he asked .
Commandment . " - shalt not covet ' ".' VI \\1Jen can a femi nine pronoun be used to represen t an
'- are very welcome t o come with - - , __ WI 1. inanima te t hing ? Usc each example you can find in a
ring my bro ther up and tell - - t here will be t hree se ntence.
of _ . Jessie and Doris h ave decided to spend t he VII Constr uct sen tenc es illus trati ng tile use of 'i t ':
week-end together away from their men-folk, 5 0 --
shall be leaving _ behind.' (I.) as a formal su bject. [a] ....it h expressions of t ime and
distan ce. (J) as a siang expression . (4) as a provisional
'To covet _ to d~re something that ~long5 to :;mot her pen on suuJC(. t . (5) standing for a whole sentence.

>08 A CQmprehensive E'lglish Grammar Pro /lOI/ It S
VII I W rite down a ll th e coll oq u ia l expressio ns y O ll k n ow in
whic h t he pronou n ' it ' ca n be used in an in d efin it e her e~amp l es : . .
sense and explain the m ea n ing o f t he exp ress ions , 01 is the only garden in t he lane that has oak t rees In It .
Ours I ,
I X fa) Giv e an affirm ative a nswer t o each of t he follow ing ev hoUse IS olde r than,y olITs. .
ques tions using t he co ns tr uction with so. 'Th rook tile bone from his dog: a nd gan " It to has.
(I) H a ve we t ime t o fini sh t h is same before goi ng to " ,' I nw book s gladly to my friends and to yvll rs.
lenl , · ' h·
bed ~ (2) The Seve rn is Eng la nd 's lungest l iv er, is n' t It ? radar we went in our ear; to m ~ r~~,~· .. we are ~om!: In ' . el~ ~ .
(3) Will it be fine tomorrow ? (4) W ill o ur e xa m ina tion '\\'jlo strals lily pllrse st eals tra sh ; t ts som ething, notl~lng ,
results come soon' (s) Is h is sala ry £10,000 a year ? 'Twas mine, 'tis his, and has been slave to thousan ds.
(b) Suppl y a negative reply to eac h o f t h e followin g (Sha kespeare, OtMilo)
\lAng th e verb, in brackets. If t wo fanns are possible
give both. 'Tht ~i\'e pton?.!!n Gti}is \'ery ra rely used , but it could
(I) D id t he)' catch t heir t rain yesterday ? (be afraid ) be used fn such a sentence as :
('1 ) Shall we risk going ou t ....-itbcu t u m b rellas? {th mk ) TIlt che rry tree. si,"e~ its sh are of colour to the garden , an d
(3) Ve ry well , I wo n ' t forget t o se nd y ou a card fr om
Puis. (hope) (4) Do you think :Mary will be successful' the Wac tree gn'es lis.
(think) IS) A visa is no longer req uired to enter The possessi\'e pronou ns are used in such phrases. as:
France, is it ? (believe)
X Comrlete the followi ng sentences wi th 'one' or 'you'
as you th ink best .
.and, millt (- my farm y .
.,
~ ' best wishes t o you and you rs (= your family) from me
)
(.j - - told another and $0 the news got around amI 10 the conn-ntion:!.1 ending to letters:
(z ) - can' t make a silk purse oct of a sow's ear . } 'ours sinr rrrl y; tnr1 y 'Iaitb fullv.
(3) Did you see that shooting star? It is the third _
1 have seen toni~h t . (4) H a ve rOll heard this - ?
It's a very funny - - . (S) ---,.. can always try to do f T IIE ' UOl; BU; I'OS~ ESSI\'l:: ' J
a little better than - best .
• • • n itre is an ot her patte rn used with the possessive pronouns
""- \ ,1 \ f @ P OSSESSIVE PRO :- Ol" ~ S
i.e. of + possessive pronoun , e.g.
He is a friend of mint . (:-OT: ' a friend of me')
Possessive adjectives ar e iscussed on pages 14-5. They
can be used only before a noun or the prop-word one. The It Via." no fault of )'Ollrs that we mistook the way.
•
possessive pron oun , however, may st and alone. Here is a li~: I gne him some plants of mine in exchange for some of Ilis.
of the possessive ad jectives a nd the corresponding possessive For a similar construction use d wit h a noun in t he possessive
pronouns: case, see p.'lge 48.
P ou t ssit,t A Jj u tit,t
That is my book.
P ossessive Pronou n
That book is mint . @lti )F ~O!'i qPT.I}· F Il lw ,",o n ,,'
,. ,
That is y our boo k. Tha t book is yoms,
Th at is his book . That book is his. We have noted the demonst rative adjectives, this, tll<lI a nd
That is 1m book, That book is hu s. their plural, these, thost used with nouns, e.g,
That is ()t., book . T hat boo k is ours I want this car, not that car .
That is thtir book . That book is tMlrs. U these word s a rc used without the noun , they are demon-
I History has its lessons and fict ion has its. ~t ra li,"r. pronouns, e.g .

1I0 ,I COlllprdl,'/u h'l E/lglish G fll lIlll1 a r
' H is is what I wa nt you to do.' 'Well, thal's exactlywhl~t I

did: Why are you tell ing me all tltis? T hat's an excellent 511d1I1S has the meaning 'for example', e.g.
idea , T his is where I live. Th is is my brother ; and tltese are 11Iey ex~rt a lot of fruit , such as ~rangt'S , lemons , e tc.
my two sisters . Are tlw se your .sisters ? I believe you : but Sf/cit as . withsome part of the verb to be, is so metime s used
there are those who wouldn't. My seat was next t o' that 01 with a depreclat.o ry" ~onte mpt uo us or apologetic implication .
the Mayor. Compare Chopin' s waltze s with those of tod ay, e.g- . , . .:
ThC5t pronouns, besides t aking the place of a noun , suggest tie gave me,his hel p, stICh " S i t ',~"as (meaning ' but it wasn't
the idea of a positi on with regar d' t o the speaker , this {thest j ofrnuchuse ). ..", •
bei ng nearer in space or ti me, that (t1l0s/) being mo re d ist ant , I expect.his friends, such es they are, \\'-ill be'~t the party.
e g. J. )f)' services, Stich as they are, 'are ~nt irtly at you r d isposal.
There is this scat here, near me, or there is that one 'in t!le .: , ',"
J
fou rth row.. \\'h ich will you h ave . this or thtlt.
Thill is what I thought last year, this is what 1 think now. EX E R CI S ~ ;;,
T he (an t ler and the laller may also be regarded as demon- I ~u~titute possessive pronouns for the words in
st ranv e pronouns. (See also p. 76 .) It alics . In (5) ~ se a different verb too,
The orch<-stra played two Beethoven Sym pho nies, the Third (1) ~is ~lLrks' a re higher than th, onts I gai ned (2)
l Ohn s sis ter has an even better post than the o~e A,
and t he Fifth ; the formiT was played magnificently; the . olds. (3) You have some tine strawberries. T"', ,,"ts
l"lter was not so well done, In O1/r g(m u n are not so good . (.f) \\-'h kh cards shall we
use? Thou j'OU ,/>Ossen or IA o~ IAey "'at·, brou J.t
U ) The coat she IS wearin~ ~on n Ol uf""l 10 .ll".. I .
II Replace the words in ital iCs by possess ive or demon-
Suc1l is a demonstrative pronoun or a demonst rativ e ad- stratrve pronouns.
jecti ve . It is an ad jective in scntencas like: , • ( I ) I like this hat better than tlte hat OlIU /lu,e (~ ) Th
1 haw had SUcll a busy morning. doC you s" h", is t he dog that sa ved my ~ife a ~
daughter: (3) My m othu '$ iitness was the reason for ~y
You shouldn' t say such things. n.ot coming. (,d J ohn is older than James John is
Xote that when the indefinite article is used wit h slleh. t:~e eighteen and J am , s sixteen . /.5) Cuth bert is a Guards •
article comes afte r, not before , sud . offirtcer, and das Gua,d, ' O'!fiCt'l' he ha!J, to m ailn, aln
. n
I never saw such wonder[utstaiotd glass as t hat at Cha rt re s ce am stan ard of living.
They are s rlch cleve r people. III t~ f the foDCNoi ng, ghing reasons for " our correc-
l OllS: ." .
Don't be in sl4l:h a hu rry . ( I) I ~ going out ..ith my wife and a friend of her
It's difficu lt to work indoors on such a lovely day. (2) ThIS parcel is {rom a friend of m y father (3) D'd
It is a pronoun in: you ,take th~t book of me } (~) It's strange the ba~y
Joh n is the captain of the team , and, as m ch, must decide won ~ eat It I , fond, I see you have no difficulty with
your s. (5) It s them who caused all the trouble (6)
who is t o bat first. One ~hollid not do such things if you wish to keep ,. 0 r
H is carelessness is such as to make it unlikely that he wi! dignity. II
pass the ex amination . IV ~pply th,: appropriate dernonstra trve pronouns in

SI4l:Ii is life! e followmg sentences. l;I\ing alternat ive forms
where possible.
- •
, "".' : .l" J
III A Comp rchcJl siw E11gl ish (,mm mar \ .-.j ". ' ..• .•\ Pronouns IIJ
(,) __ are more expensive t ha n - but they are / ' to fh~iibbJeetIYe case form of t he persona l pronouns of the third
worth the extra monev. (2) - is the best way to persoh. ThE1for ms are:
Jearn English. (3) Here is £5, but - .is ali I can ~o '. " :, • r-r ,
for you. (4) Th e University of Durham IS th e oldest m ,, ,.J 'il " " .. '.; , n.
..
'
,""!J:!, :
E ngland after - of Oxford and Cambridge. (5) ; : {. ; i' Singu lar Plural
'Figaro' and t he 'Barber' contain t he sam.e.characters
bot _ _ is by Mo zar t and - by RossIni. •
, , ue •-.. '; I ' I - , -
V Id entify the possessive and demonst rative pronouns
J ;J" ,
,
rst .personjj myself I oursel ves
2nd person:J,:"
in t he following IJassage:
His father and mine have offices in. t~e same "
,
:' 3 rd perscn'."
, you rself (th yself)
himself I you rselves
building , Ours is on the first fl oor. but t heirs IS on the ," r "
r.]
., h erself , th emselves
fourth . That is the building. o" er there, an d th e " itself f
windows just above t he mai n <1oo.r are those o f my
father's offi ce b ut you cannot see hIS bc<.:.ause .they are
,. ; '..- .1 , one self
at th e back. There are two entrances, tbis w hich IS for ,
visitors and that at the side for goods. bn t t hose who ' '' ' 1' " ( " "' - "
k now the building often enter by either. : "',',: T hese ' pronouns ha ve tw o functions. They can be
VI Complete the following sentences with possessive or '!l' • . -{a) Reflexive . -.fb) E m phas izing,
de monstrative pronouns. A HEFLEXIVE PR ON OUN ind icates t hat t he action ex pressed b~'
(I) ' _ were the d ays' is a popular B. RC. pro- t he v~l. p<\Sses rom c subjec t back again to th e su bjec t a nd
gram me. (2) \ .... hat with - - and - , I .hav.e been not t oanyother person or t hing. I n other words t he person
very busy all day. (3) One idea, of eq u~lity 1.S tha,t denot edby the subj ect and the person denoted bv t he ob ject
' \"lhat's _ is _ and what s - IS ~ y own . ate ':identical. .E xamples:
(4) 'Here's to you and - and me and - IS a; good
;'f a m ' t eacnln g myself La tin, " c , .' .
toast. (5) That careless driver has had an accident:
_ i~ what I expected to llappen.. • ffe'·sh!:l.\'es himself every morning . o, ~t · vs , ,
VII Construct sentences using the following words as Tire visirers helped themselves to th e cakes.
(a) pronouns, (b) ad jecti ves: his, those, former, that, Shesew he'rself in t he looking-glass." ; .~::
such. One should t ry to see oneself as oth ers see one.
VIII Say whether 'su ch' in the following sentenc es is used ftis: aplty we can't sec ourselves as others set' us. •
as a djec tive or pronoun. T here is so.rrtuch noise I can h ard ly hear mYSt!fj spe ak .
(I) Such men a re da ngerous. (2) His courage is such Make yourselves at home.
t hat he does not know the meaning of fe.a.r. (3) xteoy 'The cl imat e m akes t he E nglish so d irty th at t hey have to
spor ts, such as clim bing, skiing an.d sailing, call be
practised in Switzerland . (4) George IS such a though t- be perpetually wash ing themselves'.' .
ful person; he is always helpmg people. C..) I ndu st ~lal (Shaw, Arms and the ,'v[0 1l)
areas are generally dirt}', and of such, alas. t here are
'The-reflexive pronou n may have eit her a strong stress or
many in England. a weakstress. I t has th e strong stress when a contrast is stated
or implioed "e ,g.'. . L.
( I V.\ EFLE XI VE A:- D E ~I P H ASI Z I S" G PHO:-OUNS , She thinks only abou t herself, never of ot her people.
The' self pronou ns ' are formed by adding -self (plu ral -seltles; Little Alber t said , ' I don't need nurse to wash me; I can
t o the possessive ad ject ives of the first and second person, a no wash mys.elf, now.'
114 A Comp rehe n s i~'e Eliglish Grammar Pronouns I I 5
In the foJlowing sentence the reflexive pronouns h ave a weak The -self p~onoun , especially myself , is occasionall y used
where the ordinary personal pronoun would also be possible:
stress:
Little Albert is only four, but h e can feed himself, wash My brother is as old as myself.
himself and dress himself. Th at argum.ent is repugnant to a lawyer like my self.
No one realizes that more than myself.
• - The reflexive pronoun can be: 'Cole.r id?e and . my self walked back to Xcthor Stowey that
-(Ii) a direct object as in most of the exam plrs above. evening (Hazlllt).
.-(b) an ind irect object , e.g. \\:tet her the enemy defeats us or not depends upon ourselves
You h ave given y ourselves a great deal of work . I told DId anyone see him besides yourself? .
myself there was not hing to be afraid of. He cooked himself The : s.clf p~onoun in the last two examples seems to be em-
a good meal. She bought herself a new h at, phasizing (i.e.... 'depends upon us ourselves' - 'besides you
-(c) part of the predicat e of the verb to be, in which case it yourself'),
always has a st rong stress:
fl-'E RBS USED REFLEX IVELY '
If he has a holiday at the seaside he will soon be himself·
Ah , that's better. You are y ourself again. ' A few .verbs are practically always used reflexively:
-(il) used after a pre position, e,g. I -pride ~I)'s:lf ?n always having- a tidy garden ,
He availed Jmnself of t he opportunity to speak to her.
She looked at herself in the looking-glass. Wh at have you t o
All the students absented [seb'sen tid] the msetves from t he
say for you rsdf? I want a little ti me to my self· She loves me
class.
for mysdf, not for my money. He ought to be ashamed of
himself. Speak for y ourself. This is str ictly between ourselves, Some are reflexive in certain senses, e,g.
George is very pleased with himsdf. He works for himself , I hope the childre n will behave themselves,
not for an employer. They acquitted themselves well.
But if there is no doubt about the identity of the person I hope y?U \\'.ill mjoy yourself at the party.
denoted by the pronoun, the simple , not t he reflexive form of He app:ltd himself to t he task of organizing the finances of
th e pronoun is used after a preposition , e.g. the Company.
He t ook food for the day with him. She shut the door The verbs acquit, enjoy, behave an d apply can be used non- ..
behind her. \Ve h ave the whole day before us. He put the reflexively:
thoug ht from him. They stood on the cliff looking abo ut The judge acquitted the prisoner.
them. I enjoyed the concert very much
The reflexive pronoun is sometimes u sed instead of the He applied a hot poult ice to the 'sore foot.
ordin ary personal pronoun for added clearness of meaning, e.g. The children beha~'(d very well.
She suspected that they recognized her sister but not herulf. Occasionally the reflexive pronoun is used In a reciproc al
and sometimes because, perhaps, the <sell' form is vaguely felt sense:
t o be more polite-or perh aps because the speaker is not qui te They were busy arguing among themsdt,cs (= with each
sure whether the correct pronoun should be I or me, e.g. other).
My wife and my sd fw ere invited to the party. I But In the well-known poem of Clough there is the line' 'Sa . n
There was an invi tation to my wife and my self. the struggle nought (Juiltill', where the verb is I'lOt used refl~Xi\'~I,..ot
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llO A COlllp rcl~ 'ls i l'e Eliglish C;r,lIJlIJ lolr P r 0 1lQU Il $

"7
I I H I. ~!>ll' ll ~ <;12 I " G- <;"U' I't o -,;( . t·~ ¥j h ave exactly the sam e W ho b roke tha t window ?
form as the ref le xi ve pronouns1)ut their functio n is differen t .
W hich do you prefer , dry sherry or sweet sherry?
They are always strongly st ressed and they are used for the
W hat have y ou wri tten? .
sake of emphasis; generally to point out a contrast such as:
W hose arc t hese gloves?
You yourself {i.e. 'you and not anyone else') told me t he W ho(m) di d yo u sec
story,
The emphasizing pronoun can go, as in the sen tence above, The interrogat ive pron ouns are inv ariable for gender .md
after the word for which it stands, but it is usually placed at I'l umbe r. So thc answe r t o the question ' Who brok e th "
,· be : ' H c!Iry ' (1 ... e ...and
m-
the end of the sentence, e.g : dow . !TIa~· . I'lSm li nt , Sillgula r) or: ' Henry
Fr,e<!e nc ~ p lasm.!'''t, P~l/ ral) o~: ::'I lary' (Ft lllilli"e, Sing"l",)
I saw h im do it my self.
The Duke piloted the plane himself.
or. :'Ira'! F . (f. .:mUllPrt ' Plum -r
' ( If andJ Elizabeth
' '" or'
v- . ' H"enrv, alld
. ary . '!SCl me, ·e'IJI~lIIe). If we say: ' He re are "some
x ever leave t o oth ers what rou
ough t to do )'oll rsdj. "
apples ; whICh WOW? you lik e?' we may be offeri ng one or more
In these and similar sentences the person denoted by the ~h an nne..If we .\\'151. 1 t o ~ak c the number of Id'ich clear, t he
subj ect and the person den oted by the obj ect arc not identical. [nt errc gat tve adj ective WIth one or olles must he used , e.g .
The emphasizing pronouns (but not th e reflexive ones) could :H erc are some apples; u'hi~h O'le would you lik e?' (S i llgu/a ,)
be omitted without destroying the sense of t he sen tence . H ere are some apples: u'h,cll " PIes would yo u like?' (Plla"Z)
Someti mes emphasizing pronouns have the meaning 'alone' or )'\ote ~ h a ~ d ie inte rroga t ive can int roduce a d irect questi on
'without help' . in which case th ey generally have b:>' with them: or an indirect one:
This is a machine that works by itself. ' What happened afte r that ?' (D irect)
The lit tle girl travelled from l ondon to Xew York by herst/f. H e asked me u:hat h ad ha ppened afte r t hat . (/ ndir((t)
' Who is going to the party?' (Dimt)
All can be used with this construction as an intensifying word:
H e ask ed me ;rho was goi ng to the part v. (h rdirt ((l
Don't you feel lonely living here all b:>' ! (JflfsdP •
T he meaning 'withou t hel p' can be suggested without by, e g,
You can't do all the work >'ctmdf in a garden as big as t his {Wllol
•
He tried to move the piano into the othe r room himself. bu : W ho is u sed only for pe rsons. It mar be singular or plural
could n't manage it. and may be used to stand for a mascuhne nou n or a femi nine
F inally , we may note examples like: one. e.g.
Shakespeare himstlf (= even Shakespeare) neve r wrote a 'Who spil t ti le ink? ' 'Henry did.'
better line t han t hat . ' W ho can answer t hat q uesti on ?' ' :'Ilary can.'
It was a portrait that Reynolds Itimstlf ( = no less a pa inter Who is thc nominat ive form ; the objective form is ;AIOPl/, eg,
th an Reynolds) might have pa inted. 'Wh o(m ) dill yo u see?' 'I saw George.'
0 1:\ T EHROGAT1VE P RO:-; Ot: :-; S t 'To IdIOm did yo u give the letter ?' (W lw( m) did \ ' OU give the
letter to') .
The I nterrogative Pronouns are !i:h" (!i'hom , lrhose), !i'hid :, (Who", is. the , 'Ii~erary' Iorrn and is preferred in writing In
uhat , They are used in forming questions and the)' always con\:ersa tlon It IS generally re placed by 11'ho unless it im -
precede the verb, e.g. medintclv follows a preposinon]
Visit www.csstimes.pk to download more E-Books Pronouns
" 9
or: .
II :::' :t CO lllprrhl ll5 ive English GMIIlmaT 'lfh4fs he lIIu as a pianist ?' 'Oh, he's not very good.'
Xcte t he diffe rence in construction be tween t he use of him or
and to:JIO{m) as indirect objects. With u:hQ(m ) t he preposition is 'Wllats his wor k li kr?' ' It :s qui te good .'
always necessarv, with him it may be omitted. 'To wh om did
they give the pri 'ze? ' or 'Wlio(m) did t hey give the prize to?'
'They gave him the prize:
C'lIlcliI
The possessive form is lJ.'hosr, e.g.
WhIch is bi I I t h i ng -~ an d •.......rsons
u sed for . t'11 Iar or 1,1','· '1
~ " ~ , S lll
~u bjec t or 0 jcct . t las 110 possessive case. "'. ,
Wh ose arc these glo ves amlwhosl is th is umbrella?
j W H:\T ... Sll W HICH]
Wh at is usedL.when ~we
., make
. a selection f rom a more or less
W hat is general ly used for tnmgs. It may be singular or . . _.. .
unhtrllh:u numcer: UO"fC/l IS u sed to present , hoi f
plural. subject or object. and It has no . possessive form . it durn'" TI hoi
111m en ....,· · rc c oice WIth {;'hid, is u .u llv c crcc
. d rom a
Examples: explicit by 'wh ich of ', e.g. " "a ~ rna e mo re
Whi.lt is t lllS? Whal ate those strang e ob jects) Whl:ch of. you boys can' t do th is ex ercise?
WI!>ll is his name jao.drcss/tclephone nu mbe r? IVlltch WIll you have, tea or coffee?
' ~l'hal.t h"F
E
T he disti nction between u·ilo (Icr persons) and U'h at (for things) e you taking in your c.'\;amination " 'I'm ta kill'
can be seen clearly in t he sentences: ng!S , "rench , and German.' .
' Who broke tl e window?' and: ' W hat br oke the window?' :n :hic!1 ~ f them is your best ~uhje'n?' 'English.'
' U"/,(iUl did y lll! sec?' and: 'Wholt did you see!' II hat )~\ ~uld you like to study in next rear's litera tu re
course: A Shakespeare play,'
Jl'hat can stand for an act ivuy, in 'wh ich case the answer will
be u suatly a verb III the -Ing Iorru, e.g.
'very Sood ; which would you like?'
-a-hnt are yuu d oing ?' TIO ch-aning t~ e car.' "
' Wh "l"s that thillg forr "l t's for punching holes ill paper.' . • . ( W HO .\S ll WlIlU11
but the answe r ma v con tai n ano ther 101 m of t he verb, e.g . . ',here IS a d ifferent implication in each of these ,
'H"hat have you done?" ' I've knocked the vase off the t able.' sen cnccs : .,.. wo •
What is used also to ask for a person's profession . etc.. e g (a) lI:h~ would like to come for a game of footb 11>
(II) IH ICh of ) ' OU \\.ou ld lik
I 'C to come for a s ame aof .foo tba ll)
'H"hut is that man talking to your lather: ' ' H e's a law yer fa
garde ner,',) \ temher of Parliament.' In (a) the speak er is ed .
(II) he is only Pdrepar to t ake all who wish t o come' in
"S ate the dirfer cnce between this and: 'Who is that man talking prepare to take a certain num ber , '
t o your father?' T o such a question the answer wo uld be: 'He
is ~lr. - ' . O.. n RR " ( ;.... T r\'I' ~ \
Bot h forms ale seen in: The rnte
gativc pro rroganvo
. a d jecuves
i , corresponding' to the iuterro -
J den' t knew u ho or u'h,lt he is ; and I don't care. h nouns are whose utuu -h ' I Lik I . .
I CYarc 'im'ariable T I ' ,U I C I . Ie aJ adjectives
. ley can be used for persons (masculine
"vote, too, the constn tct ion: Wh .It .. - liJu? e.g.
I What is I e like" T o which the answer migh t be :

He ra I, rlo. and handsome.'
120 A CO lllp rcholsil'C EIISII .~ h Gra m llw r
or feminine] or Jor th ings, They can he part of the sub ject Or Pr onouns
of t he obj ect and can be followed by a singul ar ve rb or a plur al
0111', E.t amplrs: What tfier were you thinking of to sugges t such a plan?
'He gets up at five o'clock every morning.' 'What tfJer ror ?'
( WH OSE I word rocr here h as a meaning like 'on earth ', 'in the
WIIOS,: fa r is tha t? W hose little boy (t:lhos"little g irl ) are you; TI"
....orld'.
11' /' 0 5<, house did y OIl like?
' I DJO~IATIC EXf'Rl,SSIO;\,s I
Some idiomatic expressions with l..ho, Ii:hicls , u'h;Jt (not
W hat places did you see? W hat class docs Professor Gr e\" nrcessari1y as interrogatives) are:
t ake ? II'hat assistan ts has he ? W hat man or ~hat womuu What about a cigaret te /somethi ng to eat , etc? (= would you
could have done more ? W hat work have you done ? like; shall we have . . .)
In quest ions t hat ask abou t the nature of a thing or person Oh! There's ~f r. IVlIat'S-his-n4me.} said when you cannot
we ge nerally use, ' Wh 41 kind of?' ' 1I"hat sort of?' e.g . It's a wMt-do-y ou-taIl. it. remember t he name.
W hal kin.d of chocolates do you like best ? What ",th high prices, high taxation and low wages he'<
tl'hal sorl of a girl is she? very ba dly ofL
I It wasso dark I couldn't teJlI.~h o u as uho.
\ wUlCul The t .....o twins are so alike I can' t tell whu.h is whi, h (Of
d o is tf'ho).
H"lii ch boy (girl) has (uh ich bop/gi rls/h ave) answered
co rrectly all th e ques tio ns?
W h ich eye was inju red , his right or his left ?
W hich apples d id you grow yourself?
...
I don't know anyone at this part y; you must tell me lr/,o·s
You'll find his name in Ir ho's n-'Iso ( = a reference book of

contemporary biography).
The rem ark about the interrogative pronouns u'hat and He's a clever fellow; he knov..s w/ud'$ what (= what is good,
uhid. (p age IJ 9J applies also t o t hll. correspo nding jnt cr- useful, profitable, etc. from what is not).
rogative ad jectives. e.g.
' What subjec ts are you t aking in you r exam inati on ?'
' English , French and German.' E XEUCI SES
' What play would you like to stu dy next t erm)' •
I Ident ify th e 'sel f' pronouns in th e following sen t ences
' W hich su bject is your best one?' ' E nglish .' as reflexive or em phasizing.
'What play wou ld yo u like to study next term?' 'One 0: (I) The Archbishop himself preached the sermon .
Shaw's.' ' Very good ; uJ:rch play wou ld you like?' (2) I made this myself but it was you yourself who
gave me th e idea. (l) !>1ake yourself at home and help
{ E mp hM!C Fonns' yourself to an yth ing you fa ncy. (4) If you want a job
well done. do it yourself. (s) Brown doesn't seem verv
Ever is added to Ii'hat or uho or uhich usually t o e x pre~ ' well t hese d ays" Xo, he has not been himself for sorne
more emphatic all y a Ieelmg of surprise, anger, indigna tion, et c time. (6) Th e thie ves quarrelled among th emselves
W ho ever can be calling a t this t ime of nigh t? about the d ivision of the booty. (7) He's a conc eited
Who ever heard of such a silly ide a? young ma n and thinks t oo highly of himself. (8) Your
auceess in life d epends very la rgel y on yourself.
,, {'J) The ) tinist ('r h imself sig-ned the letter.
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A Com p rehen sive English Grillllmar
Pronoun s l ZJ
II Mak e a list of English verbs wh ich a re alwa ys used
re flex ively and co ns truc t one sen tence for each Verb v Ii CO lls t ruc t sen tenc es t o illu s tra te t he use of em-
ph as!z in ~. pro no uns i n t he sense of 'alone ', 'even ' and
illustrat inl!" it s use. 'al50 , W here possible. gl" e t wo form s-e-w it h a nd
111 (uj ) Iak e sen tences. USillf.: cad , of t hc>c vcr!>s twice, without the preposition 'by',
o nce in t ra ns it ively a nd o nce refl exi vely:
v III Delin e th e -self p rono uns in t he follo\\;ng:
was h ; sha ve: d ress; move: bell a , 'e; stop.
( I ) H e is himself a good player , but his son i ~ even
(b) F orm sente nces, usinl: th ese ver bs first no n, better when he is really h im self. (z) Sh e m ade t hat
re flex ively a nd t ra nsitively a nd the n reflex ively: d reM h e rself While she wa s living by her self. (3) Wh a t
faru::y; a pply ; acquit ; e njoy; prove; se ttle; ackno....._ would yo u yours elf do in suc h ci rc umstanc es? (4)
ledge; make; st rain; call; consider. E s pecia lly if yo u h ad r-aused t hose circu m s ta nces
ynurself. (5 ) The heirs q ua rre lled among t hemselves
1\· Fill in t he blanks with pronouns e nding in -sell or a bout t he te rms of the will .
-sl1l:ts , Sa y whe th er t hey a re empha tic or refle x ive,
and , in the case of refl exive pronouns , wh e ther t hey I X Supply the interroga tive words necessary from a mo n~
a re direct or ind irec t objects: - the wo rds 11:4 0 , 11...11 0 111 , ",",ose, ldi~h, ti:IHII, to com plete
( I) I sh all do the job - - . ( ~) The H eadmaster - the follow inl: sen te nces:
will ta ke th is part jcular lesson. (3 ) She stood admirin g (1) - a re you st udying at school? (~) _ is the
_ in fron t 0 1 t he miTror, (4) Wh y don 't you go - · q uickest ....ay fro m he re to t he Bank ? (3) _ is t he
b ) They think - clever. (6) Loo k a fter - , (1) We horse that wo n th e r ac e ? (4 ) - - d id vou m eet at th e
ga ve - - a lo t of tro u ble. (8) The Duke, piloting the party last nigh t ? (5) - - d o y o u tinl easier t o learn ,
p lane _ , took oft am idst lou d c heers. (~) The Duke Engl ish o r Germ an ?
took _ oft in hi gh dudgeon, (10) It's t ime ) UIl got X Ask q uestions t o h ich t he following s ta te m ents a re
- a new coat . anSVo'eTl (the key ord s in each a nswer a re in it alics.
Only interrogative prono un s o r interroga tive ad -
" I n the fo llowing sentences stat e which -stlf prono ut:s jecth~ t o be used .)
are strongly s tressed and which a re not:
(I ) It was P eter th a t gave t he ne ws . h ) It w as P t tn
( I I Ko one WiL$ t here exce pt m )·self. .( ~) George
s topped h imself just in t im e. 0 ) George 's Wife,wlint o n, they chose . (3) T hat is P eter ; t he o th er 00)' is h is
b ut he him self stopped a nd stared . (4) The fa u.lt h~s bro ther , (4) It's a boo k: on " aflmd 1ai!lory t hat I'm
in ou rsel ves, no t in ou r stars. (5) H e worked him self read ing, (5) [ 'm s t udying .' I OOn n L anguages . (6) ..\1
to death , (6) H e sha ves h im.self; he trus ts no barber. O~f~d [ Umvers ity}. (1) T hose glo ves belo ng to m e.
( ) He shaves hi m self at nigh t to save ~lm e In t he (SI Th is parcel is from Illy aunt. (9) H en ry "nd .u"r)'
r:;orning. (8) The Queen herself is no t at liberty t o do are Ge t ting m arried tomo rrow. ( 10) Henry a nd ~tarr •
that. (9) ~I other lS no t feeling herself today, b ~ t I are ,ettin, _ rrit d to mo rrow. ( II) Th a t 's .\fr.
don't think she will do herself any good by worrym g. Sliwlldt,S. (n ) Tha t 's Ii kttv-bo:r. (131 T hat 's fh~ p ost-
rnlill. (14) Ch a rles is iJ p OSlotlllll . (15) I ' ll take Iht ytflou'
VI Com plete the following sent ences ",; th phrases cons ist- O1Ie, (16) l t' l H t nry II l1d .\farY '$ u~ddi.,g that 's tak i n~
ing of t li.e preposition ' b y' together with an em~h ~tl~ pla ce tomo rrow. (171 H e's shorl ll"d Il lbby , 1a1iJi a 5" rrdy
pronoun , or with an e m pha tic pro noun alo ne _ ", h ac h mow$la d e, Ii u:adJle a nd a foul It mp t r. (t S) I lik e
ever makes the better sense. 'Ih rillers' best .
(I ) Poo r Tim othy looks so lonely, si ttin g a U - 1lI
the com er, (2) Were you q uite - wh ~ y ou un ~er . XI Expr ess idioma ticall y by use o f ' wh a t ', 'who', or
t ook t his wo rk ? I t is clear t ha t you don t .hk ~ t he !Ob. 'whic h ' th e word s in italics:
(3) W ere you q ui te - in th e ch urch ? Didn t anyone ( I ) S haU IL't hlll'e a game of d a r ts ! (1) Le t 's look in th ..
co m e in to list en to you pla ying? (4) .D id Jamu do ~he paper to lin d ou t the fi l",s a nd p lay s U't mlghl itt
this work _ or di d h i! siste r help h Im) In Lo ndon. (3) ~I y fathe r kn ows II good lhi llg u'hetl h,
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124 A CClllpr~h tlls ive E nglish Grammar PrOJlCUIl S
stU ONe , (4) Do you know wMch rOfes yo ~ ar~ re sp" .
0 .£5 ON S OME OF T HE I NOE F IS ITE RONOtll':S
li lldy p lQy i >lCJ (,5 ) One of t hese table na p kin S IS Yo urs
the ' ot her is mi ne ; I can n ol di sti >lguisA yours fr o';' AND ADJECTIVES
InJne. a:il,~ean s 'one or the other of two' ; neilher means 'not
XII Com ple te the follo wing se nten ces with inte rr oga nv, th l~ an not ,the other'; it. is ~ rejectiof! of.both of .two, Both
pronou ns or wi th idiom a tic ex pressions usmg m ten o. ·tller and nnth<!r can be distributive adjectives or dist ributive
gan ve p rono uns. ~ronouns. Both are singular in numbe r, e,g.
( I ) _ _ made yo u t rus t h im .....ith all 0 at mo ney?
(2) I ' m a b so lutely parched. - - - a Pin t 0 1 beer) t'jJM' of these machines is suit able for t ile work you want
(3) I can 't re m em ber wha t yo u cal l it . It's a - _ done.
_ . Yo u know wbat I mean, don't you ? (,,1 T ho ot !'InlMr of my friends has come yet.
girls ar e so much alike th a t it " bard to tell- .~ There is a train at 11.30 and one at 12.5: t ithe, train will get
_ . {,51 '- 's - - ' is a re ference book contam mll;
the names of important people. (6) - - - t he n OI~ you to Oxfor~ in time for the meeting (A djtctit'e) , If you
of tnffic outside a nd of typewriters in t he office, I can don't want tltht, of those, there is another one at 10.30
bard ly hear m yself speak. (7) - ca n possib:y be (Pr01JOVOl).
knoc ki ng u la te u this ? I have travelled by the 11.30 train and the 12.5 and neither
tra in had a restaurant car (Adjtctive).
@lll s DEn SITE fjROSOU~f'J I am ~ry surprised that n<ith<!r of them had a restaurant
car. (PrOI\CllOl)
This is a group containing the pronouns:
some (-thing , -body, -01It'I) , any (-thing , -bod)', -one): all , '*' EiJhn Call cccasionallj- mean "one and the other of two:' c g.
no (-th ing , -body , -one), n '"}' (-thin!: , -body , -enf), Gl~
1IMI<\', He came down th e road w ith a girl on either ann.
anothf ' , mll,h, less , (01) fr.;, (OIl litJ!<!, enqr,~h , each , rithr 'On rolw side the river, lie
neither. Long fields of barley and of rye.'-(Tennyson)
Many of these words can also be used adjectivally as Dete.
rninat tves (see Ch apter 10), e.g.
Have you any matches? (A dj ectit'r). •·h k Joh ~ if. he has JlI;I
8
AU can be used as pronoun or as ad jective in the singular
(P r01lovOl). I wish I had some red roses (A dJl~lt'e). ~ n:US; or the plural. It is used -in the singular: •
try to gro..... some next y~ar (Pronoun). 1?e.nohce said: .~ . l1i) as a pronoun with the meaning of n:tr)'thil'lg, e.g.
boys must be in school by 9 o'clock' (A dJ rcJl ~l) . But all Wei!
not there at nine o'clock (P ronoun). We aU like ~Ir. Thorap wh en he saw his troops retreat, t he General cried, ' A ll is
lost. '
son \'ery much (P1t»loun). He t old me a lot of otlur t Jing;
that I can't remember now (Adj u tire). Which one are yo: 'AU's well that ends well.' ' A U is not gold t hat glitters.'
going to choose, that one or the cilia? (P ,olwun). At tt~ ~as an adjective with t he meaning, 'the whole of':
party rlUh child w as given an orange and a bag of ~wert' AU the money is spent . AU the world has heard of his name.
(Adj ective). Each of t hem w as also given a present from tbe He worked hard all the t ime he was here. He spent all last
Christmas tree (P , onoun). week in London. . ~
I Ther e i~ nQ l1i tt:erenee in meanin g or usage be t ween nobody - " , , ", It is used in the plural as an adjective or as a pronoun, e.g.
I la...,body _ 1","1 011' ; "nybody _ any 01lI; ,,'. ry body _ 1l" ' y On. All the pupils were present: (Adj ectiu) A ll are welcome.
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Visit www.csstimes.pk to download more E-Books Pronouns
116 A Comp rehtn5ive Engli sh Grammar
(P ron ou n) I don't like to speak before aU these people. EACII as a pronou n:
(A djective ) H e has written six novels a nd all of them are E ach must do his best, They each signed the paper. ""1'
good. (Pronoun) Brown came to the school with a bag of ap ples, and gave the
When the subject is a noun, all can precede it or follow it , e,g. boys two each. Each of the boys has done his work.
AU the students agreed that the concert was good. EACH as an adjective:
Th e students all agree d that the concert was good. E ach man must do his best . Ea ch person signed the paper.
If the Subject is a pronoun, all generally follows i t, e.g. H e gave each boy two apples. Before choosing a pe n, she
They all (but not' all they') agreed th at the concert was good . looked at cach one in turn.
EVERY as an adjective:
( AU and EVERY I E very man must do his best. E very person signed the paper.
A ll often has the meaning of every. The construct ions are: He gave every boy tw o apples. Everyone of the boys ha s
all + plural ve rb ; every + singular ve rb, e.g . done his work . ' E very cloud has a silve r lining.' (Pro~'rrb)
That's the sort of job that{all boys lik.e doin~.
every boy likes doing. , PHONO MIN,\I. F ORMS OF every l
· b ro ke
Th e exp I0510n {atverywm
ll the WindOW
d
. S} .
ow
In the street. Everyone knows that Rome is the capital of Italy, H e t old
everyone th at he was a lord. E very body was disappointed tha t
All the people were cheering loudly. Et'erybody was cheering yo u could not come. Everything he says is true . E vay/hill;':
loudly.
in the house was destroyed by fire,
The d istinction be tween all and tvery is that in a sen tence
like, 'All the boys were present' , we consider t he boys in a Not ice that cach, every , everyone, ecerybody, tL,tfythillC take a
SI:-IC VT. ...U verb.
m ass; in the sentence, 'Every boy was present', we are thinking
of the many individual boys that make ug the mass. • Observe the differ ence between 'everyone' [tevriwa n], wh ich
In addition to being a pronoun and an adject ive, (Ill is used can be used only for persons , and 'every one' [revr i 'WAn].
adverbially in such expressions as: which can be used also to speak of things, e.g. She has kept
H is face was all covered wit h blood . If you can finish the every one of my letters.
work by Wednesday instead of Thu rsday, ·that wi ll be al! •
t he better. Did you catch your train all right ? If it is all the ( EACH and E VERy l
same t o you, I'd ra ther go by car than by train.
There arc some differences in meaning and usage between
'<fch and every as adjectives. ".
~ EACH, EVERY , (-0:<0 10, -IJODY) \
The feeling of 'd istrib ution' is stronger in each than in every.
E ach and every also express totality and are usually called EVfry tends to gather t he separate items into a whole; (Ilch
DlSTRIBUTIVES. Ea ch can be a pronoun or a determinative focuses attention on t hem individually find so tends to disperse
adject ive. Every can only be an ad jective; its pronominal terms the unity. This can be seen if we consider the sentences:
are ewryolle, everybody , everything Ea ch can be used when th e I visited him (l'cry d ay while he was in hospital.
total number referred to is tw o or more; every can be u sed only
when the total number exceeds two. aIHI: I vi sited him eflch day while he was in hospital.

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128 A Comp rehensive Ene/ish Grammar Visit www.csstimes.pk to download more E-Books
Note. t oo, t he follow ing idiomatic uses of nlery: Pronouns
The cheaper paper is n'")' bit as good as the dearer one t SOME I (-TH ISG , - nOD Y, -OSI·::I
.•. ' tv")' inch a king' (Shakespeare , K it1k Lt ar). He is tvtr)"
inch a gentleman. You have tvery right to be angry. There I Som4has the following uses:
is every reason to think he is speaking the truth. (!) Ai an adjective or a pronoun it is used before, or to
In none of these could each replace tvt ry. Xor could eM n ~ refer to, uncountable nouns and plural nouns, to express an
used in such phrases as: indefinite quant ity or num ber. As an adjective, t he weak form
[sam] is generally used; as a pronoun, the strong form (s..un].
'every other da y'. '(Very tw o days '. '(Very no..... and then' . Examples:
~ote the t..... ~ meanings of t he phrase 'every ot her day', the (A dj tct ille) He wan ts some money. I have spilt some ink on
difference being indicated by a difference of intonation and th e table. There are some co.....s in the field.
stress, e.g. (P , onou lI) I hadn't any cigarettes, so I went out to buy
(a) 'I go there every other day' [evri Ati;J 'dei] means I go some , If you have no money I will lend you some.
on alternate days (e.g. on Monday, Wednesday , Friday, 6) As an adjective or a pronoun it is used before, or to
Sunday). reTer t o, uncountable nouns and plural nouns to suggest
(b) 'we have a lesson on Monday, but en every other day contrast . Both adjective and pronoun are pronounced [sam].
[evri 'A~;1 dei] there are no lessons' , means 'there are no E xamples: .
lessons on all the ot her days' . (A djective) Some people hate cats; others dislike dogs. I
enjoy some music, but much of it bores me.
(P ronosm ) Some of us agree w-ith that statement ; some ,
( BOTH ) disagree. Not all your answers were correct; some were, some
BtHh, like all, as a pronoun or as an adjective, indicat es were not. 'S ome are born great , some achieve greatness and
totality, but is applied t o only two persons or things. It is some have greatness thrust upon t hem'. (Shakespeare)
used only before plural nouns, and takes : plural verb. •
Both can be a pronoun or a determinative adjective.I
tr.. As an adjective onl?: it is used before singular count able
n<rons with themeaning a particular. but unidentified person,
Bolh as a pronoun: or thing' (often with derogatory mean ing). With thi s meaning it
I have t w o brothers: t hey are both engineers. is always pronounced [sam]. Examples: •
I don't know which book is the better; I shall read both. . S ome fool had left the lawn-mower on the garden path , and
: Which of the two girls is he in love with?' 'B othl : in th e dark I fell over it . He arrived with some old book that
B oth as an adjective: he had picked up at a second-hand book-shop.
B oln his legs were broken in the accident. There arc house, Sot>Uthi71l and some ts..un] '[the latter before a numeral) have
on both sides of the street . B olh (the) men were found guilty. t he meaning 'approximately' , e.g.
I 'll whistle the tune for you; it goes somd llinc like t his.
Both is used adverbially in such a sentence as:
I t happe ned some twenty years ago.
The book is both useful and amusing. It will t ake some t hree or four t housand pounds to rebuild
the house.
I F or t h.e potiho o o llA/.1J as a determlll ative. see p . 53

PrQnC14 ns
130 A Comprtkn5i~ Eng/i sJ, Gra mPPl4r '3'
am looking for some matches (Affirmative).
I A S Y (-T H ING, -BODY . -oSE) 1 k~~ven't
'e yoU a"y matches? {Interrogative].
<:D A ny, used emphatically, h as th e general meanin any matches (Negative).
doesn 't matter who, which or what ', e.g. g, 'it I re is someone in the room (Affi rmat ive).
~me a.ny day you like. Get me some cigarettes, please; '" i~ere a"JO"' e in t he room? (Interrogative),
kind ....'111 do . A fly student can answer the question. He ' II) ~ re isn't a"y01l( in the room (Negative).
man who will do anything for money. You must gi\'elS l Th:re's sDllUthing I want to ask you (Affirmative).
excuse for not going ; any excuse will do. I have any nUrn~ I there anything you wan t to ask me? (Int errogati ve),
of ("'" a great many) small plants in my garden ; I will giv ~ere isn't anything I want to ask you (Negative).
you as many as you want . e gati\'e meaning may be conveyed by words like never,
~,seldom, etc., in which case lJ"y is used , e.g.
@.Any used unemphat ically b as the same meaning as $~
(1. above); but see below. ile ~tr had any luck.
He worked hard bu t u:i/hOflt a"y success.
Q) A"y can be used with a singular countable or uncOuntablt .\.n interrog ati v~ meaning is sometimes conveyed by a con-
noun or a plural one, e.g.
ditional clause, m whic h case also any IS used , e.g.
Any sane person would have acted as you did .
If there are lJ " y good apples in the shop, bring me two
Haven't you any work t o do?
Are there a"y cows in the field? pounds. . . .
Moreenr, some as w ell as IJny can be used m interrogative
6) .A fly is used adver bially in such sentences as : sentences; it depends on the reply e.xpected. If. th e reply
I am sorry to say he isn't a"y better. expected is ' Yes', we te nd to use sOllie m the questton . e.g.
I couldn't come any sooner. 'Didn't you put some matches in your pocket ?' has the
In spite of your careful explanation , I don' t think he is all) mtaning: 'I'm almost sure 1 saw you put some matches in
th e wiser. . )'QUI" pocket : Or: ' You put some matches in your pocket ,
• • •
didn't you?'
t SO ME and A OSY 1 The question: ' Are you expecting someone this aftemoon?'
expects the answer ' Yes' , If the an swe ~ 'Ko' were e~ pec te d ,
Note the difference in mean ing between the sentences: the question would be: 'Are you expecting anyo"e this after- •
R ichard is older t han stmu of the other boys in his class noon? '
(= he is not the youngest, bu t he is not the oldest). similarly:
Richard is 01der than any of the other boys in his class 'Is s(mUD'lt coming this afternoon ?' (implication: ' I see tha t
(= he is the oldest), preparations are being made.')
T hat firm does more business than some of its competitors 'Have you lost somelhil1g? ' ('You seem to be searching.')
(= a number of, but not all). The same conditi ons apply t o the ad verbs somc,phae, an)'U'here:
That firm does more business than any of its compe titors 'Have you seen him before so~"ert.) ' (' 'You seem to
( ~ all) . recognize him.')
A general rough, and ready, distinct ion between some and all)' ,\ gain, if the question is really a request , an invitation, or a
is th at some is used in affirmat ive sente nces, any in int ern)' command in the form of a question , some is used, e.g.
gat ive and negative sentences, e.g.

1 3Z A Co ,.,prehm slve English Gra mma r Prc nollllS
' 33
Will you ask .scmeone to carry this bag for me. please? The singular verb with nOll e is considered by some grammarians
"fay I give you wme more tea? to be the more correct,
Won 't you try some of this cake? N one, noJlliflg, n obody , no c"e are freq uently used in 'short
Could you let me have some money, father? answers'. e.g .
'How many of the exercises d id you get right ?'
(so, S OTH I S G 1'"O BOD Y , N O O",E, l'W l' E ] ·.""opu:
Gen~r.all r speaking, the, ~ iffere.nc~ be ~ ween notlli"g and no"e
The" determinative , n o is only used attributively and has u,~ is that m shor t answers not hing might be th e reply to a
meanmg not any. e.g.
question beginn ing 'Wh at? ' or 'Who? ' whereas 'none' might
There is n o (there isn't any) salt on t he t able, and no ( th er~ be the reply to one beginning 'Ho w many?' or 'How much )'
aren 't any) glasses The same dis tinction applies to tlobody and n On e. e.g. '
•....· 0 smoking all ow ed.' ' 1V1lat is on th e t able?' 'Notlling:
..,,'0 ha s the meaning 'not a' in such sentences as: ' H w maMy books are on th e table?' 'l\'Otl~ .'
He is 110 h ero. ' Who is in the dining-room ?' 'Nobody (no one ).'
,'\' olhi"C can be replaced by 1IOt l an)'thi"C; PWbody (or no Olk 'HOII MaftY people are in the d ining-room?' ' .\'()tIe.'
by 'lol l aftybody (-one), except .....he n they are the subject of tf.~ 'HOII much petrol is t here in the car?' '",,,'011 el'
sentence. No, sometAi"g. flothiMg can also be used ad verbially, e.g.
Th ere ..... as nothi ftg (wasn't anythillg) in the sho p th at I w an t~ He is no better and is still very ill.
t o buy, It is n O faster to go th ere by train th an by car,
Can n o one (Can' t anyone) answer th e question ? No sooner had I let t he cat out of the room than she wanted
There' s n obody (There isn't any body ) in the room . to come in again.
N obody and n o one are used of persons; n one is u sed of pe rscrs He is somethi"g like what hi s father was at that age.
and things. e.g. Your work is nothing (isn' t any thi ng) like so good. as Henry 's.
•
S o one came to the class. There was noOOdy in the room.
• •
It is a peculiarit y of tlO th at it can be used , as in th e above
I wanted some more coffee but t here was " one lef t . three exa~pl es , with . ~e compa rati ve form of an adjective
~ t not. with t he posruve (except with diiferrnt and certam
NOM is a pronoun and is equivalent to 'not cne'or 'not any',e g. MiiomatlC senses of good) or ....-jth superlative forms •
Sene of his pu pils failed their exami nation.
'How many fish did you catch ?' ·,V one.' l OTHE R , A~OTIIER l
'Sone so blind as those who will not see.' (P roverb)
. 9lher .may be an adjective or a pronoun . As an adjective it
N obody, nothing and no one are singular in number an d.m ;s invariable ; as a p.r0~oun it is. countable and has the plur al
used with a singular verb, arm others. Wh en It IS used With the indefinit e article (all)
None is used with a singular or with a plural ve rb , e.g. they are written as one word a llother. '
N one of us is perfect ; we all make mistakes. The other (singu lar) means 'the second of two'. ego
'There are nOlle so de af as those who will not hear.' (P ro;'(Tb; He held a sword in one hand and a pistol in the othu.
'owt ....ill generally be in t he contracte<1 form and attached to !te One of my brot hers is na med R ichard the other is na med
a ppropriate Spec:i.:1l F init e. This cOI1~t 1"lKhon is t he 11.$....1 " r. c .. Frederick. •
convc.......l ion .

134 A Comprehensive E,,€lisn Gramma r Pronouns ' 35

wh en we got to t ha t rou ndabout we ough t to h ave ta ken
the other road. EXERCISES
T he ot.\er(s) means the remaining (ones), e_g. I F!11 ~n ~e blanJu; with .u i~ble indefinite pronouns.
dlStnbutive pronoun. or adjectives.
We got home by 6 o'clock, but the others did n' t get back (I ) ' h t here - ink in t he po t ?' ' X o, _ :
until a bout 8 o'clock. (2) W ill you have - more tea ? There's plenty in
Th e otlier guests t ha t we had ex pected didn't come. th e pot.
Othtr(s) may simply mean 'different ', 'additional', ' remaining', () You don' t want - more cake. do you ? I want
to eave - for tomorrow ,
e.g. (.) ' Are you doing - tonight ?' 'X o, _ '.
T here are other ways of doing this exercise. (j ) Call - tell me the righ t t ime?
I have no other friend bu t you. (6) Te ll me - you know, and - will be well.
Some li ke milk chocolate, others prefer plain chocola te. (7) we - know how ha rd you have wor ked. _
A lIother means: shares your joy at your success.
(8) - - are agreed th at t he government has taken a
..(I).. 'an addit ional one', e.g. bold decision .
Joe is terribly greedy; his hostess offered hi m another cake (9) ' Who is in the corridor?' ' _ .'
but he t ook one cake, t hen allother and anotker, :Mr . BrO\\TI (10) 'How - does th a t cost ?' ' Very _ , only a few
pence.'
al ready has two cars, and now he has bought allot,,"_
(II) Look at my ha nds; - is on th e lable and t he
~2~ ' a difteren t,pne',es - - OIl m )' knee.
T he point of t his pencil is broken; ca n you lend me anolha , (n) Now they are - under t he table!
please ? (I )) I have only t wo eyes; - are good, but if I had
On one day he will say one t hing a nd on allother day so me- six, I shoul d need them _ to su pen·iS<! t hose
chi ldren proper ly.
t hing quite different , (14) ' \\'bich ann have I raised ?' 'The lef t - .'
• • • (Ij ) 'Which o r my hands is in my pocke t ?' ._ ; t he y
are - on t he table.'
l E ACH OT HER , O~E AS OTHE R)
(16) ' \\'bich - do you want ?' '- will do.'
Each other and O7It {"rolher are used after t ra nsitive verbs to (17) There will be a prize for - of you. •
e xpress reciprocit y , i.e. t ha t t he feeling or acti on I!> mu tual. (I S) - - sat for the examination, but - - passed it.
Some grammarians make t he distinction t hat wit h edeh oiN' (19) One man's meat is - 's poison.
t here a re two people concerned, e.g. (20) - - must look after lutnself.
T he tw o sisters love each other. (2J) 'Who is going to t he lecture?' ' X _ . '
(n) 'How - went last week?' ' X-!'
while with 07It arwther t here are more people concerned, e _g_ (2)) 'Ha ve you - money]" ' Yes. - bu t not _ .'
Little children , love C'Ilt (lrwther. II Use t hese words as adjectives and as pronouns :
This usage, however, is frequentl y not observed, each; a ll ; either; some; a not her ; other (adjective only);
Note t he posit ion of the preposi tions when used with each oth ers (pronou n only).
o/ntr a nd 07It (llIother. II I State t he part 01 speech of th e words in i t al i~s;
They gave presents to each other. (I) Don 't leav e all your books on t he floor. (2) E I"CTY
T hey are very fond of one a nothe r. dog has his da y. (ll E vtry ont of the eggs "as t l'acked.

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A C(mIp reJunsiw English Gramma
(..) EII,ryon, in that house is mad. (5) Et·try penny "HI Wbat a re th e words opposite in meaning t o the fol-
count s; ead should try to con tribut e a t least OJU . lowing:
(61 EMil penny on the t able was given by a different JOmeone. no ne, anybod y, neither, eac h, everythi ng ,
person . (7) Please all join In. (8) A ll t he gffi t lemen littl e, something, nothing, many.
were in e\'ening dress. (9) He ....as kind boIlI to his If altern at ive forms are possible men t ion them .
equals and to h is inferiors . (10) H e was kind to bal h
his father and his mot her. (1I ) He was kind to bolh his IX Wh ich n um ber (singula r or plural) ma y be used wit h
siste rs . (u ) He was both kind and generous. (13) Th is the followi ng pronouns or aujoctives? ~1ake sent ences
may please som" bu t not all. to illustrate their use:
IV I nsert ' each ' or ' every ' in the blanks, which ever is neither, eve ry, both, nobody . none, another, all ,
some, any .
more sui table.
(I) I take a lesson - - ot her da y. (2) This method is X Are the word s in italics in the following sentences
- bit as good u the other. C31 On - - occasion he ad j«ri"es or prono uns ?
has been la te. (..I He seizes - opportu nity to get (I) Have you allY pennies in yo ur pocket? I need s_
away from th e hou se. (5) - t ime you do that y ou for the t elephone. (2) ElI#ry child born in E ng land
will be p un ished . (6) He shou ted her name twice, - must be vaccinated. (3) Ead of the first t hree ru nners
time banging his fist on the table. received a prize. (..I I d on 't like ritller of t hese. Can
you show me some others? (5) Some people are born
V Correct or improve the following sentences: clever, but many find study very d ifficul t .
(I) Wh ich pu llover will you have. t he green or th e
blue? (2) ~ly brother has three children and my siste r XI Rewr it e the following sent ences so t hat t he same
two ones . (3) We see us twice a week. (,d Mary h as sense is expressed with the words in italics used as
prceoans .
any friends but her sister hall nothing. (5) !'\ooe of th e
two boys is suitable for th is post . (6) Both o f th ese (I) Almost all boys like sport. (2) Ead guest received
boys is unsui table for thill post . (7) One of th e laws of a present . (3) I think the OI11#r books are more in ter .
Christ ianity ill: 'Love yourselves.' esting than t hese. (..) E ll"'" road "ill take you to t he
rail....ay station. (5) Nnt1ler hotel had ae v rooms
VI Complet e th e following sentences with ind efinite pro- vacant. .
nouns or adjectives:
•
(I) I wanted - - of th ose nice red apples but t he
• • XII Complete t he followin g sentences and justify your
greengrocer h adn't _ . (2) \ Vill you have - suga r choice of the word s you usc. I f more tha n one word can
in your tea? Yes, a - p lease. (3) These shoes ar e be used, exp lain in what senses.
almost worn out. I must buy _ new - - . (..) He is (I) Do you t hink the postman has brough t _ •
a most obliging man; _ is t oo much trouble for letters today ? (2) That bicycle must ha ve cos t _
him. 1.5) I wan t two seats for t onight's concert. Have about £25. () ) - succeeded, -failed, but _
yo, - -? (6) We began our holiday with plenty of had worked hard . C.. I Has - lost th is purse? Yes.
money, but now we have h ardl y - - t o get home - hu. but - ca n d iscover who. lJ} _ his
with. (7) :S-o member. were a bsent from the mee ting; ~ were broken in the &Cciden t . (6) If you haven't
_ were present. (8) - of those present agreed th~ make ~f razor-blade, _ will do . (7) _ was
vdth the ch airman . (9) There is little money in my debgh ted Wlth the cru ise. (8) Wh at work is he doing l
pocket and - - In my banking account. (10) _ has He never does - . (9) There Is a penny in One of my
t aken my umbrella. hand l . Is it in t hi. - or the - I (to ) _ knows
VII Conltruc t sen tences t o l1Jus trate t he uses of 'a ll' as a. the trou ble I 've t aken over th is ex ercise.
pronoun and explain t he sense in which it is used in XIII Comment on the use of the words in ita licl In the
tach sentence. follOWing sentences;
--
A Comp reMnsive English Grammar
Pronouns
(I) T hese Impor ted apples are swee t er than SOmf I ' 39
have tasted but they are inferior to any grown at badly th is season. The team . l1:hQ are just getting their
home . (:z) H ow much money have you in you r pocket? t ickets, will meet on the platform at 2.30.
W hi ch. is ~d when t.he an tecedent is a whole sentence, eg.
I have hard ly any . (3) Let t ers. if any , should be
forwarded at on ce . (4) Did n 't you hope ~ hear
sO"lIl"i", of your f&m ily '. plans today ? (5) WaI' you He Invited us to dinn er, which was very kind of him.
send sonu(l1'I' to repair m y wireless set ~
(TII.u l
IVII.I @ELATIVEPROS OUS S] T hat is invariable (i.e. it may be nominative or objective
The Relative Pronouns are who (nominati ve), w~ (ob- case, singular or plura l nu mber) and is used for persons or
jective), whose (possessive), which, that , what and occasionally things. Wh en used as a relative pronou n t},(lt is a lways pro-
as and buI. They have the same forms for singular or plural. nou nced wit h th e weak fonn [&t]. E%ampl~s:
masculine or feminine. . Shakespeare is the greatest poet that E ngland has ever had .
The relative pronouns WM and which are pronounced ~'lth a
The plays that he wrote han been perfonned in almost every
weaker stress than the interrogative pronouns who, u:lm h. country in the world.
Th e following account gi':C5 general p~nciples for the.use of
relative pronouns. The choice of a relative p.ron?M 'will al~ They live in a house that was built in 1600.
be determined according to whether t he .adJectIve cJa:use. In Have you everyt hing that you need ?
which it appears is defining or non-definmg. (For adjective T hat (not rrho or which ) is used:
clauses, defining and non-de fming, see pp. 324-].) I'f'iih fter an adjective in the superlative (including fi rsJ and
'ti$t ) and after most indefi nite pronouns, e.g.
. ( W HO, WH OY . WH OSE I
Yesterday was one of the coU t st days tkat I have ever
Who, ",Mm, wMse are used of persons, e.g. known.
T he man who spoke was my brother. • H is book is the best thafhas ever been written on that subject ..
•
He is one of the men whom I feel I can trust. and yet you say this is the first time that you have heard of it.
He is a man Ulhose word is as good as his bond. He never says anything that is worth listening to.
'A U thai glitters is not gold.'
Wh i<:h as a relat ive pronoun is used only of things or animals. Th ere's not much thai can be done.
e.g. •
Th e current, which is very rapid , makes the river dangerous. «!D after th e openings 'It is .. .', ' It was . . .', etc., and the
corresponding interrogative forms:
The dog which was lost has been found.
'It's an ill wind that blows nobody good.' (Proverb)
But if the animal is named . it is thought of as a 'person' and
the pronoun wll() would be used , e.g. . It is the teacher that is important, not the kind of school he
teaches in.
Our dog J ock, who had been lost for two days, was found ano Wh at was it that he wanted ?
brought home by a policeman.
I n which play of Shakespeare's is it that Viola appears?
With collective nouns denoting persons, which is used if the Was it you that broke the window?
noun is regarded as singular, who(m) if it is regarded as plural.
e.g. qw when the antecedent is both a person and a th ing , e.g.
The London team. which played so well last season, has done He talked brillian tly of the men and the books thai interested
him,
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That cannot be used in non-defining clauses (see P. 3 26 ) allll J-{e waV'ed his hand to Brown, whom he saw buying cigaret tes
it can not be preceded by a prepositio n, as which or u'hom can in the shop. (Correct ) AND :
the preposition mu st be at the end of the clause, Compare th~
sentences: lie waved hi s hand to Brown, who, he saw, was buying
cigarettes in the shop. (Corred)
H ere is the car about u'hich I told you.
H ere is the car that I told you about . In the first sentence whom is the object of satt'_ In the second
That can be used as a relative pronoun after the word sail\(: ntence VM is the subject of the verb 'was buying'.
se,Another pitfall is the number of th e verb in relative clauses
She wore the same dress that she wore at Mary's wedding. when ()JU is used in the principal clause:
but the usual relative pronoun after same , and the one that is ,All th e following sentences are correct :
always used after stull, is as: This is one of tbe most difficult questions that ha t'e been
I shall be surprised if he does this in the same way as I dQ. ""<d.
She wean the same kind of clothes as her sister usually does Th at is one of the books that !rete given to us for study.
I neve r heard sucll stories as he tells. Richard is one of t he boys who always do good work for me,
'We are such stuff as dreams are made on: (Sh akespear~
The antecedent in each case is not one but tpUslio'fs , books,
The TtmptSt.) bc7s, respectively.
. IWHAd The relative pronoun should be as close as possible to its
antecedent. This will avoid 5u,cb absurdities as:
What is used when the antecedent is not expressed. It is I
relative pronoun and an antecedent in one word, e.g. After the wedding the bride and bridegroom left in a car
Tell me !l'ha, you want to knew . for London which bad been given as a present by th e bride's
father.
Here, whai has th e general meaning of 'the things (a nttceJm,
which (, tWive proM 'u.)'. _ .
What is also used when the antecedent IS a sentence whid: E XERCISES
Icllcws whai: . ' • I Combine the following pairs of sentences by means 01
H e is an interesting speake r. and, unat is more important. relath-e pronouns (th e words in italics in each sen te nce
he knows his subject thoroughly. are to be replaced by the pronoun).
(I) The gentleman ismy uncle. You met him yesterda}'.
WlicMveT, whaievn, w1uJever are compound relative pre- (2) The gentleman u my uncle. H , impressed ) ·0 1,1 •
nouns, e.g. when you met him. (3) The gentleman oyer there is
You can have JIlwUveT you want. my uncle. H, u ninety yeara old. (..) The gentleman
Take whicheveT you like . over there is my uncle. You would do well to humour
hi,". (5) The gentleman oyer there is my uncle. His
She can marry whoever she chooses. face must be familiar to you. (6) The gentleman o....er
there is my uncle. I know you have a great respect for
hi m . (7) Th e gent leman is my uncle. You were intro-
[c OS CO RD IS RELATIVE P RO S Ol:S 5 ] duced to ohm yesterday. (8) In an effort to improve
The relative pronoun agree s with its antecedent in number discipline, boys are to be 'diss uaded' from running
along the cor rido rs. T liis is a step in the right d irec-
and person bu t not nece~ly in case. tion. (9) The cow has disappo inted us th is year, /1 gave
Care should be taken WIth such sentences as: so much milk last year . ( 10) Our cat, Peter, didn't eat
his nsh th is morning. He is usually fond of h is food .

- - -- - - - - - -"""'" Of'A.lflt >l4 l' ) (of .. ;" "I.j .( lot rt) ~ ~nl.i~J wi ""
'.' A Comp rt Mm iv. Engli:sJs Grammar

II EXPTeN differently, using a r elative pr.onoun. (In-
dications to hel p you are sometimes given 10 brac kets.]
(I) T his is an excellent film: I like it ~tteI than any CHAPTER TW ELVE
other I have seen. (Use a auperlative.]
(z) Someo ne is r inging you up t onigh t . "'ho? I VE RB S ]
(3) You said something. ' '''baH Though it is possible to have a sentence wit hout a verb (if our
(of) Did yow tell me that, or was it someone else. (Was defi nition oC a sente nce is wide enough ),1 it is true tha t , in th e
it - ? ) . great majority of sentences, the verb is the word that plays
(s) Wh at you My matters less th an how you say It . the most importan t part. It is primarily the 'act ion' word in a
(It is not - .J sentence, the term 'action ' embracing not only the meaning
III Supply the words missing Ircm the followi ng sen. 'doing an action ' but also 'having an action done t o a pe rson or
tecces: th ing '; nor must it exclude the absenu of action, the idea oC
(I ) The crowd. - wu very angry. shou ted down th e 'being in a state oC rest '. This conception is expressed , mo re or
• aker. (:) The lpectaton, _ wer~ " cry numerous, less in the traditional definitions of a verb:
~ld Dot al l find _tl. (3) The a udience, _ 'A verb ;s a word for saying soffiCthing abou t some person
most entbusiutic. applauded the $OI015t. (of' Our or thing : " .
viaiton - we were very pleased to see. stayed until '• . . th e part oC s~ bY,which we ou:e able to say what a
midnigh t . (5) He is one of the kindest me n --:- I have person or anunal or thing IS (e.g. 'Jock u a dog ., or does (e.g.
ever met. (6) Everything - - he S<I..YS shows hun to be 'He uralk, and TU II" ) or What is done to that person or a nimaJ
an intolerant man . (7) There was httle - .- could be or thing (e.g. 'He is bTushed and combed every day').
done for the injured man. (8) He systemaueally over- '. . . th e part of speech tha t predicates, assists in predication ,
worked, - - grad uaUy ruined his health . (9) T~ey ask s a question and ex presses a comma nd.'
spoke appreciath-ely of the teachers and th e teaclung
- had helped them . (10) The Tower of London. Verbs have certain featu res that are not shared by ot her
- the Crown Jewels are kept, stands on the left parts of speech: they have forms that indicate the time of an
bank of the Thama. action [prese nt , past or future); they can indicate the durat ion,
I V State ....ith ~xamples the rules gO \·.e!'oing the agree- • com pleteness. or incompleteness of an action ; they can show
ment of relative pronoun' wi th th eir a ntecedents . whether a person or thmg is doing or recei\i.ng an action. and
V Comment on and. if necessary, correct the following
(an even express , in certain cases, the emotional attitude of
sentences: the speaker toward the action. On t he other hand the}' do not
ind icate gender, com parison or case. •
(I ) Tha t is one of the Ci ty .churches that .... as ~e
secyee by bombing. (2) He 1$ one of the ~ys .... ho
always does ....ell at ecbccl. (3) He took off hIS hat to ! FI NITE S " !iD ~ON"·FlS1TE S I
the lady whom he passed in. the street. (., He wa ved TIle verb form s tha t can form the predicate by themselves
to his COusin whom, he ncnced, was c~mlfolg to meet are f i NITE verbs, the ones that cannot are Sos-nSITEverbs. The
him. (5) He is a brillia nt soloist and , which 1$ unusual, non· nl te !!.e t e In mtn- (e.g. to speak, to fllT;te, to beto
he is also a sound orchestra.! player . ve s 0 en,tohave","IUlI, 0 ve been) e restn ICI es
a nd erun (e.g. ,peaking, writillg, being an t e t par-
tlclp e e.g, spoken, !l"TiUlff , been ). All other parts 0 tneve.rb
Me --!1..C1!.
Most English verbs have four inflectional Corms, e.g. walk_
T#alk s - walked - walking. Some have five, e.g. give _ gjV('

I
..,
See page ) 18
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144 A Comprehe7l~jl!e E ngli sh Grammar (bl Verb s that end in -ie change this t bef '
/0 die has the present participle dying. 0 -y uerore -lilt:; so
_ gatil - given - giving. No verb has mor e than five eXec
bl (be. am, are, is . was , Wefe, bun, being). Some have oll~t (e), ~~bs th ~t end in y preceded by a consonant change the
three, e.g. put - puts - putting; can has only two, call ~ y to l ore -e , e.g. marry - married; try _ t ried.
could: and mUS# has no ot her forms. There a re I e {und.l, (d) Th e final c~ms~man t .letter is doubled before -ed and _j
m n forms the ' "uti s' ; the are e m nJ IV' il th~ consonan~ IS smgle, IS preceded by a single vowel lett:!
(0 esen t imp c tense e sun p e ast tense an ~ and If the verb 1$ monosyllabic or stressed on the las t II bl '
lei 'I lese e o er orms o t ever ca n be~ e.g-. fi J -:- fitted; con1701_ r:ottf7()lled; stop _ stopped~1 \~r~
e past participle is used with various pa rts of the verb to 6r ending I? -J double the final consonant even when the las t
to Icrm the passive voice, and with the verb have to form th s}'l1a~le IS . no~ stressed " e.g, t7avel - trat'elled; maroa _ mar-
perfect tenses. e wild, also. kidnap - kidnapped; w()'fslliP _ !J;()'fshipped
I RE GVLAR ASll..1RREGU L .-\R VERBS ]
(I) The form from to Jingl (= to bu m eli htl ) . . ' .
compare this with singing (from the ve rb to ~i1lJ. IS slngnng;
All E nglish verbs belong t o one of two con juga tions ; th ey art
either RECULAR verbs or IRREGULAR l verbs. Regular verbs ar~
th ese that form their past tense and past participle by addiq (IR RECCLAR VE RBS)
.ed t o the present tense. Th is ending is pronounced [t] if e, The following are the principal parts f the i I
root of the verb ends in a voiceless consonant sound other tha:: arranged according to th eir meth ods of f~nru.ng e rrregu ar verbs
{t} {e.g. /Uk _ asluJ [aiskt]; fi nish - finished (,finiJt2; it I past participle. Where tw o forms are 'v past tense an.d
pronounced lid) if it ends with [t] or [d] [e.g. u pe" - uPtdli is the latter that is used adjectival ly. gJ. en , one marked - , It
[ks' pekt id]: intnul- i1ltended{in 't ~ndid] ; it is pronounced [d] iI
t he root of the verb ends in a vowel sound or a voiced consonaa P"Ullt Tense Past Trese Past
as p a' , ICl
. .p Ie
sound oth er than \d] e.g .. a1lSlttT-aKStCtTed [ ta rnssd]: cpt.
[al [., )
- t>Pttled ('oup:md .
I rregular verbs form their past tense and past participe begin began begun
generally by a change of vowel, e.g..cit'e - gave - ~iw1l ; j1y - drink drank drunk , drunken er
jlt:lll _ jltnr1I: eaJ - su - ealen, o n( ran g rung
Some spelling changes should be noted in th e forma tion a run
past tense, present participle (and gerund):
' an run
shrink shrank sh ru nk , sh runken- z
(a) Verbs ending in e add d only for the ir past tense, el sing
•
...g ","g
dance _ danced ; love -loved. Th is e is emitted before .j", sink
in the present part iciple and gerund, e.g , dan(ing , lov j"g, etc. ...k sunk, sunkenu
spring sprang sprung •
I ~o lla. verb huadopted t ba I rregul&t conju gation since 'EngJish calllll stink stank
10 Eng1aDd. The Regukr conj llgilti on has become the invariab le lD ethll4 stunk
of fann ing tll a Sim ple Put a nd Put Pa.rticip le wh enever ne .... ,~,. swrm swam swum
are called 1nto emte DCe. ' H iotoric&l ' grammaTla n~ div id e . erbo ,nltl
the categor ies 'W eak ' and 'Strong', " 'h ich correspond in t he main 10
tbe categoril!l ' Regula r' and 'I rregular ' gh'en her e, btlt t here are ~Illl X OTE S A l'i D EX .U IPl ES
ve rbe wh ich ar e, .ty mologieally, 'Weak' b ut are no t 'Regular ' In I<
m ilch .. t hey N Y. vo", el cha ngC!ll in for m ing t heir Pa~t Tense a ndf'll:
Partlcipl. (e g. b" y _ />0.. , 111: , ,,11 - 10..,111: Iu d - Id .: lIid, - /s ld -
~: ~: ~I~t"hk'in dm a~ had drunk a lot of wine. He was d'ull /..'
lIi 4d, ..), As this i, a p urely historical point and of no p ract ica l ,'~lu~ ~
t he for eiRD learn er "' ~ have clanified verbs not a5 'W.,,,k' a nd '~tro:ll
checks of the man showed how ill he wa:.'
ra s"runk after being wash d Th 11 i'."
e s 7U II...-t ll
but u ' Regular ' a nd ' Irregular' ,

14 6 If Comprehensive English Grammar Vtrbs
3. The ship has surek wi th aU hands on board. In his gTOUfllh, ~ . strid tn is used in certain phrases, e_g. 'collS(:ience-
there is a su"ken rose garden. strickm'. 'poyerty-strickrn·. ' terror+s/rickell', 'shicktll with
Jisease'; bu t 'strmk by light ning', 'thunderstruck',
Prese"t Tem' Plut TlXSe Past Participle J rrta~·ttl is used with t he figurative meaning 'th read (a way)
[Aj [Aj through ', e.g. He tttllt'rd his way through the crowd.
4- born· The form bor" is used with the verb to fH in such
cling clung clnng sentences as 'Shakespeare tta$ born in Stratford'. It is
. dig dug dug always passive. I n all other cases borne is used . e.g. He
fung flung flnng has bon,e t he pain bravely. Th e boat was borne ou t to sea
hang hung. hanged hung. hanged ' by a strong t ide . She has borne thr ee ch ildren.
sling slung slung
Presellt Tmse Past Tense Past Participle
slink slunk slunk
Spin spun spun [. j [.j
stuck stuck bereav e bereaved , bereft bereaved . bereft!
st ick
strike stru ck struck . stric ken" bleed bled bled
sting stung stun g breed bred bred
.-.ing >woug swung creep crept crept
wm won won dream dreamed. dreamt dreamed . dreamt !
wnng ~ng wrung Ieed fed fed
f,,1 felt felt
[ou) [ou) fl" fled fled
break broke broken k"p kept kept
cboose chose chosen kneel knelt kn elt
treat f"",. frozen lead led led
,,<a1 stole "stolen • • leap leapt [lept] leapt
speak spoke spoken lea ve lett left
wake woke .....oke , woken mean meant [ment] meant
weave wove. weaved! woven , weaved moot met met •
read read (red] read
[o,J [o ,j sleep slept slept
b'" bolO borne. born' smell smelt, smelled smelt, smelled
swear swore sw om ,poed sped, speeded I sped , speeded
to" torn spell spelled. spelt spelled . spelt
""
wear wore worn sweep
weep
swept swept
wept wep t
[:S OTES A~D EX.".\l.PLEs l [u'j [o,j
draw drew d rawn
/la ngetl refers to death by hanging . e.g. The man hllllg•.;i
overdraw overdrew overdrawn
I. himself. The murderer was Ita"gtd.
withd raw withdrew wit hdrawn
-
148 A Comp rehmsive English Grammar Verbs

Pres ent T ,nse Pa st Tense P a st Particip le P as! Tense Pasl Particip le
[u :J [au] (no (~nge)
blew
g>"ow
blew
grev-'
blown
grown "',
bun t
bet, betted
burst
bet
burst
know knew known
cast
threw thrown cast cas t
th row
broadcast broadcast , broadcast,
fly Hew flown
broadcasted broadcasted
(~OTES AS D EX."~ PLES I cost cost cost
I. bereaved ;: 'h aving lost someone by death'. <U, cut cu t
bereft _ 'deprived of', e.g. I was so surprised that, tor the hit hi t hi t
moment I was bereft of speech . hurt hu rt hurt
2 . ireamed is preferred in poetry or emoti onal prose. Drear/I! let let let
is pron ounced (dremt]. pu t pu t
3. sp eeded is used with the meani ng 'went at a !P'eat speed', P"'
rid rid rid
e.g. The car speeded along t he road at 80 miles an hour. set set
With 'up' it has the meanin g ' made (aster ', e.g . Production
"t
shed shed shed
h as been speeded up by the introd uction of new machmery shut sh ut shut
PreSt1tt T ,nu P ast T,nu Pa st P articiple slit slit slit
[o'l [o'J split split split
beseech besough t besought spread spread spread
bnng brought brought thrust thrust thrust
buy bought • bough t • [-end)
• [--ent] [cen t]
fight fought fought
bend bent bent I
,..,k sought sought
lend lent lent
think thought thought
caught caught rend rent rent •
catch
send sent sent
teach taught taught
spen d spen t spent
[ou) [i] [ail [au] [au ]
drive dr ove driven bind bound bound
ride rode ridden fi nd fou nd fou nd
(a)rise (a)rose (a)risen grind ground ground
shrive shrove shriven wind [waind] wound [waund] wound [waund]
smite smote smitten
stride strode st ridden \ N OTE S AND E XAMPLE S)
strive strove striven
thrive t hrove, thrived t hriven, thrived I. The usual past participle is ben' , e.g. See how the wind has
....-rite wrote written fwnJ that tree . The adject ival use, t oo, is generally boll,
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150 A Comprehtn~il!e English Grammar
e,g. a bent pin: a bent old man. But bellded is used in th
f N OTE S ASD EX AMPLES ]
phrase 'bended knees', e.g. He went down on his bfll dt: Mum is the usual form. But the proverbial ph rase is ' the
knees before the Emperor. t - biter bit',
bid, Th ere are really two verbs here. B id, bade, bidden is
PrlSellt T tnse Pa st Tense PIl ~t P (lrticiple 1· used in such sentences as, He bade us goodbye. I was
bidden to t he weddi ng, I bade him go , ....-ith the meaning
[I'} [ou] [ou] say, in ti " , comma nd, etc. (Bu t a customary ph rase is: Do
,,11 w id w id as you are l>id.) Th e forms bid, bid, bid are used with the
told told meaning 't o make an offer at a sale or auction' , e.g. th e
tell
auct ioneer migh t say, ' You, sir, bid £50 for this pictur e,
[ai] [il [il but this lady M.s bid £60',
bite bit bitten' bdl, f orbade have altern ative pronunciation [bed]
chide chid chidden {f. 'bzdl.
hide hid hidden
[ei] (M isu Il,m tou.s)
[ei] [ul
forsake forsook forsaken puSlftJ Te1l$e P ast Tense Past P articiple
sh ake shock sh aken abide .bod, abode
taken
take
mistake
too k
mistook mistaken
(be), am, is
beat
w" boen
beaten
beat
pa rtake partook partaken budd built built
{iJ [1'1] [il burn bu rn ed , burnt burned, burnt -
bidden, b id clothe clot hed, clad ' cloth ed , clad
bid' bade, bid
came come
forbid forbade • forbidden • • '0'"'
become became become
forgive forgave forgiven
e vercorne overcame overcome
gl\'e ga\'e S'!'-en
do did done
[il [. J 1. 1 outdo outdid outdone •
• •
sit sat sat dwell dwelt dwelt
spit 'pat 'pat " t .to eaten
faU fell fallen
(.d1 [-nJ
Iorget forgot forgotten
hew hewed hewn g,t got got!
mow mo w ed mo n go went gone
sew sewed se n undergo undet\\~en t undergcn e
sho w she.....ed shown ha ve had h. d
sowed sown hear heard [ha rd] heard
saw sawed sawn overhear overheard overheard
strew strewed st rewn

.,
152 A Comprehensive English Grllmmar F.., bs 153

Present Tlf1st Past Tense Pllst Participk @ The cu-<;t o~arr A~erican u~g e_ for . the past participle I~
hold he ld held goum . Th IS, form IS found In English in t he phrase 'ill-
behold beheld beheld , beholden J go/tm gam s ,
withhold withheld withheld Mlu>/dm ha s a qui te different mea ning from bthdd. It
knit kn itted, kn it knitted , kn it · ·
(j) means 'obliged to', 'indebted t o', c.g. r am not asking for
a favour; I don 't wish to be beholden to him lor an ything ,
lay laid laid
mislay mislaid mislaid IP K llil has th e meani ng 'joined together', e.g . 'a udl-J.m it
learn learned, learn t Ieamed .t Iearnt Co" story', ' a wt fl·klll'l body ',
lie lay lain (f) ltarnt d is used as an adjective to mean 'of great learn ing',
light lit, lighted' Iit,lighted* e.g. 'a Itll" It,1 man'. It IS then pronounced [, Ia :nid].
load loaded loaded, laden ' G) LighliJ is used (I) when it is adjectival, e,g. a lighled lamp
lose lost lost (2) when the meaning is ' to provide ligh t', e.g. The moon
make made made lig1ltt d us on ou r way,
melt melted melted, molten U -1' Ifldm is only used adjectivally meani ng 'burdened (with)'
pay
rot
say
paid
rotted
said [sed]
paid
rotted, rotten"
said
e
\"Y e.g. He came in laden with parcels,
molfm is only used ad jectivally, e,g , The mou ld was fi lled
with moUm metal. The word is restricted to substances
'
see saw seen that arc normally hard: so we can speak of mtJ/ltIl iron,
shave shaved shaved , shaven*'o lead , steel, etc" bu t not of 'molten SIIOW' or ' molten
shear sheared sheared, shorn *n butter ". In these cases mt ltt d woul d be used .
shine shone shone (!) , otli1J is only used adjecti vally, e.g. Th e wood had rOllt d
shoe shod shod away, The trun k of the tree was qu ite ro/len. There were
some rot/en apples on the floor.
shoot
slide
spill
shot
slid
spilled , spi lt
• sho t
slid
' •
spi lled, spilt*lt

e I have shavt d twice tod ay. lie is clean SJIII;JCII [i.e. he hasn' t
whiskers or a moustache]. "'uP"'f) ';r!
spoil spoiled spoiled, spoil t > <0 The farmer ha s shmredhis shee p" 'God tem rers th e wind.
to th e shorn lamb (Protub _ Hut . ,nm IS used as a ....
stand stood stood
understand understood understood participle with the meaning ' e nv 0 egoWolscy--was
withstand withs tood withstood shorll of his wealth and honours r enrv vur:-
swell swelled swollen , S'welled 'J @ For example: ' It's no use crying over spilt milk' (Prow rb),
tread trod trodden, trod U <!D swlled is used in the colloquial expression 'He is suffering
work work ed worked, \\TOUght l ~ from sw !ltd head ' (= He is very conceited}. 5 li't /ltd is
also used when the mean ing is ' increased ', e.g. T he small
ri ver ha d swelled t o a roaring torrent with th e heavy rains.
\ NOTE S AND EXAMPLE S) My class has swtlltd fro m IO studen ts to 30.
@ Ir~ is used as a past part iciple with the meaning 'walked
(!) Cldd is more us ual in till! passive, e.g. The poor man was on , e.g. '?of an}' people have /rod this ancient road ': an d as
clad in rags. an adjec tive in such phr ases as 'a well-trod pa th',

154 A Comp,ehens iv~ English G, a"lma, Verbs ' 55

@ In''"CliJ is seJdom used in modem English except in such / l nl1a l'l sitive! { T' ansitit'e J
phrases as 'a UTr""ChI iron gate ', and (as a verb in the past
tense) 'Tnought ha v-cc', e-g. The frost 1170ugltt havoc vl.-ith The class begins at g o'clock, He began h is speech with a
the fruit blossom. . . humorous story,
T he fire III quic kly. I ha\'e lit the fire.
T RA S StTJV E AS D IsTR A SStTIV t: V E RB S ( C AUS,\ T IVE U SE OF V E RBS )
With some verbs t he t ra nsitiv e use is the CAl,;SJ. T! \' E funct ion
An action expressed by a verb may pass over from a subject of the verb.
t o an object . For example, in th e sentence: ' 1 hit the ball', the
action of 'hitting' is not confined t o the doer only, but goes The boy ran well. She ran t he car into the
over from I t o the ball, When the act ion expressed by the verb garage (= sh e caused it
goes from a subject to an object, th at verb iscalled a TRANSt T t\'E to ru n).
verb . Coffee gn)ws in Brazil. They grow coffee (= cause
it t o grow) in Braz il.
In t he sentences: The sun rose. The child cried. A leal fell, Water boils at 100 °C. She boil/d the water (or tea.
the actions do not go beyond the persons or objects per·
Iorming them. T hese verbs, as used in these sentences, have T he piece of woodjloattd on H e fioaltd his boat on t he
no objects. They are INTRAN SITIVE verbs , the .....ater. lake.
The only object t hat an intransitive verb can have is a . Someti mes a differen t form of the verb is used to mark the
CQGS AT E OBJECT , i.e. an object already implied more or less in difference between the t ra nsit ive and the int ransiti ...-e fonn, e.g.
th e verb itself, e.g. lrlt , ansitive
H e lived a happy life. He died a sad deatls . The girl laughed The tree ftll (...-erb to falI) . The woodmenfelld the t ree
a merry laugh. She slept a peaceful skep and dreamed a
{ve r b to feU) .
h appy d" am. H e sighed a sigh. . • • T he book lay on the t able T he ~Ia yor will toy t he
Quite often the same verb may be used transitively or (verb to lie) foundat ion sto ne (verb to
intransitively. e.g. lilY)·
T he su n ris es in t he east Th e fi rm have raiu d his ·
( I nt, ansitivej , I T ransit ivej (verb 10 ,is,,). salar y {verb 10 mise).
The bell ,ings, , The wai ter ,ings the bell . They a ll sal d own (verb to The innkeeper stl food and
The window b,oke with the T he burglar broke the win- sit ). drink be fore the travel-
frost . dow. Jers (verb to set),
The door optpud. Tom opened the door.
T hings have elsal'lled since I will go and cha",e my EXE RCISES
I saw you. clothes. I Give e :u~p[es, naming the forms used, of one English
T ime PIUUf slowly when Will you pass the salt , ve,~ having Iour intlec::tional forms. one of a verb
you are alone . please? having five such forms, and all such forms of the verb
~[ y watch has stopped, The dri ver sJopped the car 'to be' .
and got out. 11 """hat <LTe the principal parts of the Icllc....ing verbs:
l a"l , Wolle, mell , st" " , rot, lfti/, bid, bend, lie, lil1lt!
A Comp 1eJrensive E nglish Grammar
11 an)' of them have special forms used in spe c-at
senses, give those forms and construct sent enu:s
illustrating their use, C IU , P TER T H IR TE E N
III Exp lain fully, giving examj,les, the terms 'finite' aCi U
'non-fi nite' , (VERBSl ~ TnSE]
IV Sho..... by examples. one using a regular verb and t he
other using an irregular verb, how the oth er form$ of ... d ear ~ist inct ! on should be ma~e bctween.' tensc ' and 'ti me' ,
a verb can be made from the three fundament al forms The not ion of t1 me-:-of present nrnc, past t ~me , futu re tll ue-
(principal parts). is unh'ersal. and IS mdependent of any particular la nguage, or
V Explain the difference bet w een regular and irregular of language at all.
verbs in E r,glish and indicate how a regular verb ca:l Tense, on t he other ha nd , is a linguistic device, varying from
be identified . language t o language. It mea ns the vcr b-Icrm or forms USl.'<I
\ '1 Cons truc t five sentences emp loying verbs which call to ('xpress certam time relations. Thus, one form , e.g, I sPi<lk
be transitive or intransitive. indicates present time, l another form, I spoke indica tes pas t
V 11 State the rules for the pronunciation 0 1 the past rime.l still an other fonn I sAaU Sp t ak indic ates the future
tenses and past participles of regular verbs a nd grve tJnle . l
examples to illustrate your a nswer. There are in English only two 'S imple' tenses. i.e. tense
VIII Give a list 01 aU the verb$; you know of .....hich the three forms th at consist of one word. They are the Sim ple Present
principal paru are the same. Tense, e.g. It'dlk , and the Simple Past Tense , e.g. lC.:Uktd. In the
I X Correct the following where necessary: earliest form of Old English these two forms alone h ad to serve
b.., ..,d toast, a u4,.,11 man. a sJu4rtd sheep. spilled for the expression of all the various ideas of prese nt, past a nd
milk. a spqiud child. future th at are now expressed by the elaborate system of
X Constru ct for each of the following verbs two sente nces tenses that has since grown up.
in one of which the verb is used transitively and III TIle other tenses are 'Com pound ' ones, i.e. they consist of two
the other intransItively: of mort verb forms , for example:
• • •
si ft"~ "'OI/t , walk, ta lk. clI4 ..ge. He is ttluhi"K his class at present .
We M Ve j"iSMd our work.
Verbs (like bt. h.lvt ) wh ich help t o form tenses , moods, etc"
are called AUXIU ARY verbs. •
It is very important to not e two poi nts:
~ A Present Tense does not necessarily express an action
t:kirig place in the prese nt time. nor does a Past Tense
n«essarily express an act ion ta king place in t he past t ime.
In the sentence:
We feed our ca t on fish.
The verb fe td is in the Present Tense. But that sentence docs
not mean that the action of feed ing t akes place only in the
present. We have fed her for some years in t he pas t , and shall,
I T~j. i. " generaliu tion th. t i. only I'"rtl}' tr ue. The m"tt.n i.
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Verbs: (2) Tense ' 59

IS 8 A C07llp"htflSive English Grammar
~
we hope, feed her for some years in the future. Thus the Pru ent ot~ ~ ~ _=
=._ =.• ..>11
r=
U '- .>l "
Tense can express actions taking place in the present, the past U
... ..>II" .:.c,,!!.
,-
• ee ~
,
or the fu ture.
,,! ;i~=..IC~
.= · 1 *-~*-~ . e ~ :f:El
~ .• =
Here are two oth er sentences:

If I trusted him I would lend him the mone y.
'0
.
, ; ~:.il; ~ . ~ ~~ ~ l· il]
.:l ~- -~ ~::. j -,'
,.. - .. =
-' 1 .•= .>( ._ .-
" -,, .>l ",..
.
It is time I flIlnt h ome .
In both these sentences the verbs have a Past Tense form, buj - ]~]].
•
"~
.~ ,,] " ~ ""
~:- :-~
az ] ~ ;> "
"..:::"..::: :- " .t::
'if 1 trusted him' implies 'i f 1 trusted him s ow', i.e. it expresses
a present time. And though U'e", is a Past Tense form , the t im~
~"
> ~ rd •
>
>~
"- ]11,,;;11
-e ,.<; 01 ,.<;
" _.t::'<: >.
-• ; -';i;:.-.
,.<; - ,.<; - =
..
:::
:- -~ 'i
-• ,
" >.
;:l ..:::..::; ~
of 'going home ' cannot be the past; it must surely be t he future,
f'7ill Time is not the only concept expressed by the tense of
..::; 0 ~ ~ ~
... >..<: ;t ...
.t::5~~'"
... >...:::;t 'S
O ~ <> J::
>.,.<; ;t =
a~ . Tense may also indicate th e completeness or inccm, 'j
,
pleteness of an action1-whether it is or was st ill continuing , ,
l: :.o l:<>
~.>lj"9li
.,.-• 8. ~ 8. :o :O
(expressed by a Continuous Tense), whether it took place-",,'ithin § e ....
C: .>l= "' ~ ~ 5",= '2'"
a time that began in the past but extends t o and includes t r.e
present (expressed by a Perfect T ense), and so on. i~~l;;
=."..
~~-"
-" s, 8..i :r
... ......
~ ~ !: ~ ~
<:> '"
On the opposite page are the t ense forms (Active) of t~.e

verb to speak.
~ ... 8.."'''''
", :- .. u~
~ ]:3 ;; .c:
~~
":i ,<:~
. ~] - ,... -;a '.
",,<;
,,-= ".::;
..::;_.t::_
<lIi_ 'ii::~
;:
[I}fI HE S I MPLE TE NSES ) -

" :l "<; "<;
"::: ~"''''~
..::;~ ...
>.
...
;:l -= ,.<; >.
.t:. ~ .c:
~ if;
"' ~
...
.t:. ., >.
.. =: '" ... '"
... >, -= ;r; ;
ec ~ ~
W E siM t'LE PRE SENT TENSE l
u ~ ,u u ~
_ __ ~" C--
='- I;\C""
'-
,:,I. __ ,:,I. -"
•, "", ,:,1. =._,, " lr" ll lr

•,, ._. ., .-" = ,:,1. ~ ._~:;;"~;;
.- <lC " ..>II
The Simple Present Tense is used: • • " "".S
-(a) F or a habitual , permanent or repeated action, e.g. " ,:,I. ="!t' '_,:,1.,..
"" . :;
- ."..
-" " t ;;; t;;;;;
-" " ,:,I. " "
I ccme to the class every day.

'0
, i '"~~!<ii~ .e, "",t _ .... .,,,,
" 2" ·Ul
"' t 2_2: - •
She speaks French . .:l ,•
.. :ii .. ~ :'l :::; ';: ;: ;; .i:
" ;~t iJ
~ _ :rif;>-
. ... -,. .::;
-
_ .!l<ll >. ~ _ ]!: '" >-
He al.....ays slups 'with his windows open .
H e smokes t oo much.
..(b) For a gener al statement , or a prov erb , where no particular
- ~~ ,;
"" c ,.<;'" ...;t -5'"
>. ;; is .c:<> :r:'" ;'"
_ >->
.x ..:.r..>l
'Il,:,l. <l ~
...
,:,I.
t ime is thought of, e.g. "l5..;:;!t:;;;;;
SI " lot
T he earth moves round the sun. ~i~~ • " .., ..
''".
... '" ",,:,I.
i~8.8. t'~
;:::
E .IIi ~ 8- ' Ol - ' ", - oj '"
;: .:::;
Actions speak louder th an words.. " . ., l5.. .. OJ ]!::;:-= $
~:l ""~ ?
The river 'Tweed sepa~ates England and Scotland.
H is fami ly come from Wales.
Shakespeare says: 'Neither a borrow er nor a lender be.'
.. 0 '" U ~
... >. .c: if; '::
•
.. 0
:l .. .,
'" U ~
... >. .t:. if; '::
- ,•
. ~
>' .t:.
......iJ 'S'"
:l :J ., >.
• ' Aetio n' here. and in simila.r cont exts, ahould be under5tood :~ •"" ••< •
,•
include bot h 'ad iv ity ' and ' . tat lll 01 being '. ••" ,
• "
- - - - - - - - - - - -
160 A Comp, ehellsit'l English G, amma, Vtt bs: (2) T ense 16r
..(el In subordinate clauses of Time or Condition expressing . The Simple Past Tense is usual w-it h .....ords or phrases that
future action , e.g. q are t ime ind icators , e.g. )'estmJay , last u'U k , in 1956, or when
When you sa (NOT: •....ill see') Jack tomorr ow, remember m, the sentence is a question about time, e.g.
to him. . When did you go there? What time was it .....hen you arrived ?
Unless he sends t he money before Friday, I shall consa:t -{b) in some conditional sentences, and sentences expressing 1
my lawyer. supposition , e.g.
Don' t write unt il I tell you.
I! you go to the party you will meet E lizabeth . If H enry worked he would pass the examinati on.
If I were in your place I shou ld accept h is offer:
-{d) Sometimes in giving the summary of a story, e.g. H e act s as if he wanted to make trouble.
'Bassanic want s to go to Belmont to woo Port ia. He a 5 ~1 I wish I had a garden like yours.
his friend Antonio, the merchant of Venice, to lend I:ir:-. Fred wishes he spoke F rench as well as you do.
money . Antonio says that he M.sPl 't any at the moment ur.:jJ Su ppose I asktd you what you w ould like for a birt hday
• his ships come t o port; but Shylock offers to lend him 3.00c present .
ducats.' It's (high) t ime I weill .
Th is could. of course, be told in the Simple Past Tense, but I'd rather you told me the tru th.
th e Simple Present is felt to be rather more dramatic. It isn't as if we /mew the people well .
"", ) Sometimes to express a future action about which a It would be better if you went there you rself.
decision has already been taken, e.g. Note that in all these sentences the Past Tense form indicates
H e sets sail t omorrow for New York , and comes back next frequently both present time and future time. T he Past Tense
month. form in t hese cases is not used to ind icate t ime at all bu t rather
suppositions implying non-fulfilment or desirability, and would
My tr ain leaves at 6,3° , • be more correctl y described as the Past Subj unctive.' It
The Thompsons arr ive at 7 o' clock this evening. indicates t hat the subord inate clause does not ex press a fact.
We att.uk at dawn. • T his is known as the MODAL PRETERITE. This modal preterite is
Th e ,:erbs used like this are frequently ones expressing com:ng also used in the principal clause bu t only with t he prete rites of
or gorog. &all , may and rrill (i.e. clndd, Mighl, rtt>ulJ):
•
..lj) In exclamatory sentences: He could tell you a story that would mak e your hair stand
H ere comes the bride! There g~s our train! Here they are! on end .
You might give the fellow a chance; he's doing his best; he
might tum out a success.
I THE S IMPLE PAST TEN slt f I would ask you to t hink carefully before you speak.
The Simple Past (or Preterite) Tense is used:
-(a) to express an action wholly comple ted at some point , or [TilE FUT URE TF.NSJ]
during some period , in tbe past, e.g.
The Future Tense is formed by using the auxiliaries Irill and
Peter arrived at our house yesterday. shall. The origin al meaning of will w as 'to resolve' ; it denoted
We lived at Bournemouth for six years.
I tl"ent to the cinema last night . 1 Se-e page. 216, u s. 3~O .

162 A Comprtlunsive E Piglish Grammar Verbs: (2) Tense 163

volitio~ , ,T~e original me~ng . of shall w~ 'to be Und '\"ou'll ne\'er. pass the ~~na~on.', ' ~~oPI 't ~ ?' (me,acing:
neeesstry': It expressed obligation, compulsion , neeeSSit ~ I 'J aI1\ determmed to pass It . or: Don t ) ou thmk so? )
coost ~ain t. Th e verbs still retain some remn ants of t1 ~ ')fY brother can't come to play ten nis with you this eve~ing.
meanmgs. tlt WiU I do instead?' {i.e. 'Am I an adequate subshtu te? )
. One of the ma in causes of the d iffic ulty with shall and '
IS th at we use two verbs to express three tllings, viz . Volit~
Sll411 /? (shall ~?) often has the mean ing 'Would you like
obligation and fu turity. Moreover, the dist inction betu...~ ee (us) to - ? e.g.
th ese th ree concept ions cannot always be clear-cut ; fut - ~ SJJall I open the window?
may be tinged ....-ith volition , and volition is alm ost cert a't:;-ty Shall l get you a cup of t ea? .
take effect in the future ra ther than at the present moment.4 SllllU we all go to the theatre tcnight?
ShaU we begin work now? Let's begin now, shall we,'
I 'Pure' Future!
lfiUyou? often has the meaning 'Are you willing to' or 'Would
To express merely futurity uncoloured by anyone's indin you like t o', e.g.
tions or intentions, the norma l usage is shall for the tirst per~ 'WiU you help me to carry this heavy bag, please!'
singular and plural and wiU for all other perscns.!
'Will you han' another cu p of tea?'
If the subject of SMU is I (we) joined w!th a noun or pronoun
I shall .....e shall in the second or third person , we use tnll and not shall. Thus:
you will you will 'We shaU go on the four o'clock t rain.'
he, she, it will they will
but:
You and I (Mary and I) will go on the fOllr o'clock t rain.
In conversation will is generally shortened to 'U, e.g. Ht'~,
You'U, etc ., and the negat ive wiU not to tWP! 't. The Interre- ' OIlier uses oj 'shall' «tid 'rrill'!
gative is made by inversion. e.g. SMU 1? IViU the)"? • It often hapJ?:l:os that in addition t o futurity, some oth er
-{jumeiii.
I
'Zis< ,~:" i::"{{ursday.
be tw ent y-one on
shall
feeling, e.g. WIllingness, determina tion, promise, command ,
ete.. colours t he pure fu turity . In that case the usage may be
If we take the II o'clock train we shall be in Oxford at 12 -30. different from t hat shown in t he table on page 162. Note, first, •
the usage wit h shall.
I th ink it Ulill rain tomorr ow.
Next year Chris tmas Day will be on a Tu esday. ( SHA LL I
Y ou'll get wet if you go out withou t an umbrella. S1t4ll wi th the first person may ex press determinat ion or
When shall I see you again? rQOlution,1 e.g.
When UIill you be in London again? I sItall do what I like. I S1r4U go t here if I wan t to.
It looks as if H enry won't be in time for his train. 'We shall defend our island , whatever the cost may be. We
In England l t he first person interrogative is almost alwa)1 s1uall tight on the beaches, we shaU fight on the landing-
S hall It though there ar e one or two exceptions, e.g. grounds, we shall fight in the fields and in the streets, we
, sJsaU tight in the hills; we shall never surrcnder.'- (Prom a
, I n U.S.A., and to some degree ill Scot land and Ireland u~ 1I j< u!('.O speech by Winston Churchill, June 1 940 .)
lor a.U three persons .
• The usage is not the ""me in Scot land, Ireland a nd U.S.A 1 Will &lso ill uM!d for t hill pl1rpose (we P . 6j l.

164 A Comp rthmsive E ngli sh Grammar Verbs: (2) T ense ' 65

The second person you shaUl and third person he, 51u " Shall is also used alter such const ruct ions as: 'I inte nd that
sh4lJ den ote determination or promise or threat On ~ th . , 'It has been decid ed that . . .", e.g.
, .' ,
of the speaker. e.g. e~ I intend th at this school shall be the best in the country.
If you work hard you shall have a holiday on SatUt\lo. It has been decided that he shall be given tile job.
(Promise) J 'We here highly resolve that this nation under God , sh,,1t
You shall have the money as soon as I get it . (P70n:i$t') have a new birth of freedom, and tha t government of the
If you children won't do as I tell you, you Shall 't go te , people by the people, for the people, shall not perish from
party. (TJmat) t.:,. the earth .' (Abraham Lincoln, GdtysburC Address, IS63.)
He sMU suffer for this; he sllall par you what he oWes ~
(Th reat and Detnmil'l4lion)
These people want to buy my house. but they shan' , have
l WILL I
(Dttnm i nati01l) ( WiU is used to exp ress willingness , promise or det erminati on
The enemy $hdU not pass. (Determination) and it is with this meaning that Ir£ll ....-ith the first person ~
most commonly used. Exampks:
• The form with shall occurs in literature in orat~ All right; 1 UtiU pay you at the rate you ask. (lViUinglUss)
prophetic utterance. The speaker wants to express things ~ I !#On', forget little Margaret's birthd ay. 1 rria send her a
he believes are bound to happen: God, Destiny, Fate bu .. present. (P romiu)
willed it . Examples occur in, for example, the Bible: I UtiU make t his radio work even if I have to stay up all
'They sJwll beat their swords into ploughshares and t:.c night. (DekrminaJi011 )
spears into pruning-hooks; nation shall not lift up 5T':rr. ' W iU you take t his wom an to be you r lawful wedded wife?'
against nation , neither shall they learn war any more " ' I ll'ill.' ( WiUi~u. Promise)
for the earth sAaU be full of th e knowledge of t he Lord" In the exam ples where s1tall was used in the second or third
t he waters cover the sea: person to express determination or resolution , note t hat the
• • •
So, t oo, Mark Antony, prophesying over the body' of ~ detennination is in the mind of the speaker.
murdered caesar, says in Shakespeare's J ulius Caesar: 'He sJuaU pay you what he owes you,' meaning, ' I (th e
'A curse shall ligh t upon the limbs of men; speak er) wi ll make him do it.'
Domestic fury and fierce civil strife But th e det eff!lination mar be in the mind not of t he speaker
•
Shall cumber all the parts of Italy; OOt of th e subject of t he sen tence. In that case ll'iU not shall
Blood and des truc tion shall be so in use, is used. Th e !rill is strongly st ressed , and conseq~enthf t h ~
And dreadful objects so familiar, contracted forms I'll, he'U , erc.. are not used . .
That mothers shall but smile when th ey behold We ha ve not ed , in the examples above, this usage in the
1 heir inf ants quartered with the hands of war .' fint person, bu t it occurs also wit h the second and th ird
person, e.g.
1 The seoond Parton singular 't hou shalt' i. an ar<:haic for'" uJIl Ceorge Irill go out without his overcoat although it is a
onl y in poetry or old er prose, ego. Th~ dlall not kiU. Thou , b 'l kl" bitterly cold day,
thy neig-hbolU' ''' tbyself.
'That t hou ,1Ia11 see the diflerence of our spirits The sentence; 'George shall go without his coat' means: ' I
I pardon thee tby life before thou ask it .' (':he speak er) am dete rmined to make George So ou t without
(Sha kespear e, .'ofercll",,1 01 Ve" iu ). hIS coat.' The sentence: 'George will go with out his coa t' means

166 A Comp rehensive English Gram mar

Verbs: (2) Tense r67
th a~ the speaker'swill is of no avail: it is the will of George, the
subject of the sentence, t hat wms the struggle.
&V Strong probability :
~ th ~ nk i ~ is going to rain [i.e, I th ink it is very prcbabl I'
Further examples of lhis usage: It will rain), e lac
Oh , R ichard . why will you always do the oppos ite of what I am afraid that the repairs to our ho use are "oing "
I tell you? lot of money . .. cost a
Boys '"ll be boys. ~ The speaker's certai nty:
That silly dog l'iU ch ase meter-cars.
Look ou t! Th at mil k is going to boil over
I 've tried t o get my cat to eat that tinned meat, but she ~fy wife's going to have a baby. '
U'On't even look at it.
He's going to regret the day he ever- wro te that let ter
Peaches won ', ripen outside in the north of England.
. The g~'ng to construc ! ion cannot be used for pure fu;urrt l'
(In this last sentence we give the human attribute of a .....ill to r.e. futu rity not depending on any person's will . I .. .
an in animate object .) You cannot say: or In ennon.
The tendency to use rnll in the second and third persons is SO
strong that even where it is the volit ion of the speaker and not I am going to be 15 years old in )[ay ; or;
of the subject of the sentence, the re are cases where we use Toda y is the 19th of October, tomorrow is going to be the
v ill, e.g. aoth.
You will go at once and pick up all the paper you ha\'c (;qi~ ~ is no t often used when the fu tu rity is conti n ent on a
scattered on the floor. ~ondltlon, because then the int ent ion of the person ' g ,
Importa nt , e.g. . IS no onger
"All members of the tearn !#ill be at the st ation at 2.I5
sharp . If}'OU ever go to France you Tl'iU like (no t; are ooinC to like)
No one will leave the examination room before 12 o'clock. the food there. ..
\Ve seem to use this form where no res~tance to the command,
or refusal to obey it, is an ticipated. E XERCISE S
WiU is also used to express possibility or assumption, e.g . I re~:mare twelve tense forms in the active vosce of
That man with the umbrella Trill be the Prime ~[ inister. ng . verbs. Constru, t tweh-e sentencn each em-
ploymg one of these fonns. Use any person singular ·
Th ere are other ways of expressing fu turity , e.g. by the use or plural. '
of the Present Continuous Tense (see P. 169) the Simple
Present Tense (see p. 160 ) and by going to. :d
II Complete .the. follOWing senten, cs wlth 'shall' or 'will'
explain, In e~h case, wh}· you have chosen one or
e other, and which type of fut ure each exem plifin.
(I) The y - not pass. h) I t hink he _ soon arrtve
( GOI NG TO 1 no~, (J) .You - have a rise in pay next month if
d~ e cOD ~t ruction (to bet(oing to is used to exCress: ~~ sl.n ess IS good. (<I) All members - sign the book on
~?~Fg the club. (.s) We - leave London on Friday
\J.!JJ ntennon: :t ' goes wel.1. (6) J ohn and I - share the driving as
I am goi", to write to Margaret this evening. d lS a lo.ng ]0u,rney. (7) He - not go ou t till the
Mr. Brown says he is going to buy a new car next year. octor glvn him permission, (8) Orangl'S _ not
Wh en are they going to pay you the money they owe you ? grow ou t ·o.f.d~rs. i n Engla nd . (9) We _ ne..er get
to the .tatl~m In tim e for the train. (10) Will you help
I know what you are going to say, me With this exercise? Certainly 1 _ ,
168 A CompreMnsive English Grammar V...rt.-s." (z) T ense 169
III Show, by constr ucting one sen tence for eac h t ype 01 fh is feeling of immediate present is often emphasized by usms
usa ge, the lenaes in which {~) t he S~mpl e F!estnt , and
(bl the Simple Past ten ses are u sed 11\ E nglish . ,;-strh:'~hi1dren are j ust having breakfast ,
IV I n . whose mind is the determ inat ion ex pressed III the t he action m~y not necessarily be literall y 'cont inuous' at t hr-
following sentences? Which auxiha ry-c-tehall' 0 ' ''' iIl '_ irnt of speakmg, e.g.
should be used to co m ple te them ?
(I ) He _ never m UT)' my d aughter ,(1) ~fe has mad", t f AME:'' ' (to SCIIOO U I ASTER): 'Is my son worf.,'i'lg hard this
up his m ind t hat he - - succ ",~ th \~. time. (]) T'ell tenn ?'
h im t hat I - neve r speak t o him again , (.-1 He - SCHOOLMASTER: ' Dh , yes, lit'S Iryi"J; h is best now.'
mak e good the da mage caused by h is c ar~I ~~~5 , (5) t he boy may not be work ing at that pa rt icular moment but
He _ take unnecessary risks when he I S drl', nK.
in the 'general present' he is tryi ng and working.
V I n which of the following sent ences can the ' going to'
constru ction correctly replace the fut ure t ense used . ..(11) To express fut uri ty, especially with verbs of movement
( I) If you go t o E ngland you " ill not ice man y dl tter. like 8", come, lea~ , etc., e,g.
enc es t ro m your o"m cou nt ry. (1) Will you be able to We ar e g<Hng to Paris on Frida}"; we are !eatoing (rom London
fi nd your way about in Lo ndon whe n you arrlVe ~ Airport.
()) He will take his fina l examin ation ne xt su m m.er. John is coming here next week and is Sltiying here until
(. 1 I ex pec t I shall teet very much a str anger d unng
my first few weeks in England . (.5) If t he crc:--sm g 1S August.
rough I expec t I sh an be ill , (6) ~ good h.oh day by What are you doing ned Satu rday?
the sea will do you good . (7) I t will not ralll as long William , I have put the visitors in your room, so you are
as th is wi nd keeps up. (8) This t rain will take me to sk.. ping in the small bedroom to night .
Birmingham without stopping. (91 You WQn 't . learn
a foreign langu ag e perfectly unless you live In the j V trbs not used i n the COlltilluous Tensel
co untry where it is spoken. (10) I shall be t wenty -five
ne xt A ugust . €)Certain verbs (' Verbs of Perception', e.g. see, hear ,Jul, tou ...,
• • r..tll) are not generally used in the Conti nuous Tenses. Wh en
• <me of these verbs is used to express an activity or a state th at
[IT)frllECOS-TIS-Va liS T ENSEs 1] is stiUcontinuing, the Simrle Present Tense, not the Present
Continuous Tense, is used, e.g, •
lim: PRESENT COSTI)'l UOVS lE'>s r\
I don't su anything there (:-OT: 'I am net -seeing'). I sa
Th is t ense is formed by using the Simple Prese nt Tense of (- understand) wh at you mean. Do you luar that noise?
the verb to be +a present participle, e.g. I am u'ritillg , you I smell something burni ng. I Jed a sharp pain in my chest,
are writing, he is u'riting, etc. It is used : Do you taste (NOT: Are you tas ting) the sherry in t his
-(a) For an action which began in the past and " .'ill t.e ~ i n ate padding?
in the future, but which at th e moment of speaking I S incom- . Some of these verbs, however, may be used in t he Con·
plete and is st ill conti nuing, e.g. tlnuous Tense form , when they have special meanings, e,g.
The sun is sltining, th e bees are humming, the birds are 1111111 seeil'!( (= meeting, visit ing) Margar et to morr ow ,
siMging, the fru it is ripns ing, Summer is here. Wh at are you They au sui"C their cousin off (= saying goodbye to) at t he
doiflg~ I am resting in a deck-chair, station.
• Th e continuous te nses &l'1t . . metim. called p.,Of"u ; ," T, ... "s. • See also e~ ..., p. s98, 2]9

\
170 .A: Comprehensive English Grammar Verbs: (2) Tense 171

I am ~ heari", as well as I used to (= my sense of h ' \\'e sUrl work at nine o'cloc k (usual arrangemelll), bu t for t his
is not so good as it used to be). tar- ",eek only we are starting at 8,3° . {Temporary arrangmunlj
Henry was f etling (... groping) his way along the f I this last sent ence, th ough t he action may be a repeated
the cliff. al:~
.,..n we want to imply th at it is not a regular or permanent ,
G)There are a number of ot her ver bs which denote , not at
but states of mind , feelings or relationsh ips. These Vt rbs (ll\f:ihe 'Adverbs of Frequency 'l are generally used with th e
not generally used in the Conti nuous Tenses. The S· ~ple Present T ense since this tense expresses repeated
Present Tense used in the following examples could
replaced by a Present Continuous Tense:
n:;
I ~
tion. But altrays and words of similar meaning can be used
~th the Continuous Tense when repeated act ion-especially
Betty loves swimming, but hates dlving .
::me acti on that is causing annoyanc e or irri tat ion-is
indicated, e.g,
John knOUls your brother.
}tichard is always trying to borrow money from me.
Henry understands Spanish.
You lire CMl1itlually finding fault with me.
I re1fllmber what you told me.
Alice is an annoying guest ; she is constantly cClIIplaitl ing that
I ru ognize you now; you are Margaret's brother.
the house is cold .
I believe you are telling the truth .
'I'm 1M ever blowing bubbles.' ( ~fusic Hall song.)
The poor dog sums /looks/appears ill.
This box ccmtains/holds tins of fru it. Sote that th e meaning in t hese sentences is not really ' always'
That house bdmtfs to me. but rather ' very ett en'.
We 01I1I /posset1 a house in Oxford ,
What you are saying mailers a lot to me. ( TH E PAST COS T IS l'OU S TEs sd
That hat suitslfits you very well. This is formed by using u'as (lu re) and the present part iciple.
This applies t o most verbs that irra cduce noun claus es, e.g. It is used to express an action th at was going on during a
certain time in the past , c.g
I think that , . , I suppose that .. . As I was lIlnning to the st ation I met the Browns. They
wre Jrit'i ng horne. •
!Present ContinUQNs and S impk Present TtI4StI I INS p14yi", t ennis all th is afternoon. What trere you doing?
As was stated before, the Continuous Tense is used for a: Q It is often used t o indicate th at an action was going on
action that is continuing but th at is expected t o end sooner" (hke a 'background ') at a time when something else, more
later. ~f the acti~n is, by its nature, permanent or last ing fori important and more dramat ic (the 'foreground ' action)
long tune, t~e .Slmple Pres,ent is used. The following pairs ~ happened. The new action is. c.xpresscd by t he Simple Past
sente nces will Illustrate this point : Tense, e,g.
Where 4 MS Henry work? (= in his permanent job). \\'ht:t .-\$ I UOat walking along Piccadilly ("background' action), a
is he uoorkitlg at present? (= he has made a nu mber ~ car MOU ,utd th e pavement {foreground' act ion) and crashed
changes; what is his, more or less, temporary job?) into a shop .
Westminster Bridge crosses the Th ames near t he House While the man was loo king at t he picture. the thief stoIc his
of P arliament . (PermalUnJ) Our bus is now crossing the Watch .
Thames at \....estrninster Bridge. (Temporary)

172 A ComprtJt a rsivt English Gram mar

V erbs: (2) T ense J 73
If. however, you want t o state that tw o actions were !: . My friend wdl be waili"g for me at ~I adr i u a irpo rt. I hope
on a t the same t im e in the past and it is t h e conCUtTl! ncOlfl(
both rather than the striking interest of one that is ~ 0{ the plane will arrive on time. If it is late he tMll be wolldrri llg
indicated. then the Past Continuous is used in both parts ~i what has happened .
the sentence, e.g. aI It is also u sed to indicate futu re plans that have already been
Th e th ieves took precautions against surprise; While
,
1t"J$ IIOTking on the sale. th e othe r U'QS kup ing u aU.\ one
.
po Icemen.
~ This tense occurs in reported speech.! e.g.
,
. ,Iedded on , e,g.
The Rcbinsons will be sl4ying with us again th is ye ar.
The Future Continuous is some times used ins tead of the
Simple Future when the speaker wishes to give the impression
.
He said t hat he U'a.s working a ll day on Saturday. of casualness, that t he action will happen by ch ance and not
She said th a t Alice Il'QS al w ays complainillg t hat the hOll.!t
by his design,
was cold. I sAaJJ be muting her this evening and will give her your
awIt is used with some condit ional sentences! (af ter Ifl all(!
Wi th suppositions! (after I wish, etc.), e.g.
message .
W ill y OfI be goill! to Lon don next week ? If so , perhaps you
cou ld buy some thing for me.
If your foreign visitors were staying longer they would SOOn
per fect their English . ('Will you go , , ,?' might be interp reted as a req ues t.]
They wouldn't have spent all that money on the houle
unless they u'ere thinking of Jiving there themselves. EXERCISES
The y wish they were coming to England again t his year.
I Complete these sentences with the Present Cont inuous
L J Th ere is one fur ther point to be noted. Compare the form c t .tbe verbs given in brac kets. changing the word
'roi"lowing answers to the question, 'Did you hear ab out Henry's order where necessary.
new job?': (I) I - a holiday today (take). (2) He _ his best to
-<a) Yes, my wife was telling me about it this mortling. win the prtae this term (do). (J ) They - - from Pa ris
-<b) Yes, my wife told me about it this morni ng. next 'Monday and - - in Rome on Wed nesday (start.
arr ive). (4) What play you - at the theatre on
The Past Continu ous Tense in (. ) sug gests: 'I have heard I Saturday? (_ ) (5) The house is full, so you - next
little about it , but I should like to hear more.' door (slee p), (6) I - on him tomorrow (call), (7) Where •
The Simple Past Tense in (b) suggests: 'I know, more or less, w, - - th ls evening? (go), (8) M )' pa rtner _ to see
all about it; I don't need any further information.' me tomorrow on business (come). (9 ) How you __
after your lin t week in London ? (feel), ( I O) We _ as
( TH E Fl'-T URE COS TJS l,;Ot.'S T ES SE}
hard as pD$$ible to inc rease our turnover (try),
II In the following eeet eee es t urn the verbs in itaUcs intn
Th e Future Continuous Tense is formed by using th e Simp:t the Past Continuous tense and rewrite the sentences
Future Tense of be + present participle. It is used to expres using th at form.
a future activi ty, begi nning before and finishing after some (II She &1way. WO'lted while they a.....$Id th emselves. 50<)
given time in the future, e.g. natllrally she passed her examination. (l) If YO Ii sfl$y r d
What will you be doillg this t ime tomorrow? longer YOIi would soon make a lot of friends. (.ll If you
dug the garden and Mary playrd tennis all morning,
Th is t ime tomorrow 1 shdll be flyi"g to Spain. who cooked the dinner ? (<I) What did y ow say about you r
• S«- pal{l:s )61-72. • See p,ages 343, 3H-51. 'See page'!> 178, He, latest girl friend ? (5) It rained as Uley preparrd for the
picnic .

' 74 A Comp rehensive E nglish Grammar

Verbs: (2) Tenst 175
III T urn the verbs in it alics in th ese sentences into th
F uture Continuous tense: e I hav' never met your sister. (Up to xow.j
( I) The orches ~a will. gi ll' six con~ erts du.rin g the I have studied all the documents in this case. (So s ow I am
wint er. (2) My fn end will m ttt my train when It arriVe, fuUy infonned on t he matter.)
at Victoria Station. (3) A week t oday I ~Jsall ' ross the We havi bought our yearly stock of coal. (So sow our cellar
Atla ntic Ocean . (4) I shall oft en think of you when YOu is full; NOW we are all righ t for t he winter.)
have left England . b ) We m ust go home now Or
Mother wiUfttl anxious about us. [ h' !'E~n' J'iil"" 'f1ii~ IT","]
r I II .V,THE PERFECT TESSEs l ...{r) For an ac tion just concluded when the resulting state is
still present. e.g.
The th ree tenses, Simple Present, Simple Past and the J 'uwe JosJ my pen; I am una ble to do my exercises.
Future, are .concerned mainly with ~e aspec.t of. time of all He has ~nlocked the door; there is nothing to prevent you
action. But In th e Perfect Tenses our mtere:>t IS pnmanly ncr from gOing out .
in the t ime of the action bu t in the fact of Its occurrence and This watch was working all right a momen t ago but now it
in its result. Thus in the sentences Au stopp ed .
Henry 1uu hem to Paris three t imes.
With acti vities completed in the inunediate pas t , jusJ is etten
I Mtrt motm the lawn. used, e.g.
!tlary has bought a new dress. The post has just come.
the attention is direct ed not on the time in th e past wher,
these actions .....ere done but sim ply on the fact that Henry's Sote ~ at though j ust. is an adverbial of the present , j us4 now
visits have taken place , that the grass is cut and that ~f ar~v now (- a little time ago) 15 an adverbial of the past and the verb
used with it will be a Pas t Tense. e.g;
has a. new dress. If we wan ted t o direct attention to th e tune
of those actions we should use a P ast Tense and, generally, an The post carne ju st now.
adverbial that indicated definite past time, e.g.
• •
-12) For duration of·~ ~ tion or of absence of an action begun
Henry W1U to Paris in 1956, 1957-and 1958. m the past and contmumg to the present (and possibly to the
I mqwJ the lawn this afternoon . future),l e.g.
Mary ~1U a new dress on Friday. I ,uN not t'isited h im for ten rears.
I Mve tallght this class for te n years (and am still teaching it). -
( T il E PRESENT PE RFECT- T ESSE l Compare th is with :
The Present perfect Tense is made by using th e Present I tau,ght th is class for ten rears (but no longer te ach it).
Tense of t he verb to haw and a past participle. The interroga-
tive, as with all Perfect Tenses, is fonned by inversion of hat" -<J) Wh en th e t ime of the action is indefini te, e.g.
and th e subject ; the negat iv·e by the addition of nol, e.g. I have Set" this film before.
- AffirnMtiw : George has eaten all the sweets. Compare this w-ith:
_ I nterrogative: Has George eaten all the sweets? I saw it last January when it was fi rst shown in London.
_ Negative: George h4s not (h4sn' t) eaten all the sweets. -h@'fe the t ime is definite.
Th e Present Perfect Tense, though it indicates an action
that took place in the past , is associated with the p resort idea ~ut note that to ~xpr~ affirmative d ura lion u ntil the prese nt. Il,,'
of NOW , eg o 'ee at Perfect Continuous tense is normally used (u :cept with
page 179,
jQ be)'
'

176 A Comprehensive Engli sh Gramt/Ul r Vn bs: (2) T ense
Note th e d ifference in me aning suggest ed by t he foUOwi I TilE P.\ ST P ERFE CT j P l UPE RFECT) TE :-; ~ E I
two sentences: lit
This tense is formed RY hatl..+ a pa st part iciple It is used:
!iJiFSPiI PERFECT f Have you sun Sir Lau~en~e O.1ivier's {ltt..
duc tion o f TiU4S A ndronicus? (T he production IS shU run nin, ...{I) To speak of an ac tion concluded before a certain t ime in
I N~ <; T Tt:s SEj!DiJ you see Sir Lau~enc~ 0 1m er 5 prad uc.tiontjI
> > > the past or before the ti me of the occurrence of another action
(denoted by the Sim ple Past Tense) and yet continuing into
Titus AndrOflitU5! (The prod uction IS no longer tunntng.) it, e.g.
There are some words or phrases or construct ions that ~
usually associated wi th the Present Perfect Ten se. Thus, ~ Lucille had learned English before she came to En gland .
verb in sent ences modified. by phrases or clauses kginnite When we got 'to the fi eld the football match .had alreJ.d ~'
with sinu is almost always In t he Presen t Perfect , e,g staru ti.
He has bttll here since two o'd ock/yesterdayrruesdaY;I ~~l 1 didn ' t go to the cinema because r IlIJd al ready su n the fi lm.
et c. J ust as t l~ c Presen t Perfect is used when the resu lt an t state is
They hat'( not visited us sirsce Henrv wen t to America. still 'now , so the Past Perfect Tense would be used to refer , at
a subsequent time, to this prio r action. So the examples on
Th is tense is usual with already : page 175 would, in th e Pas t Perfect Tense , read:
I have iJIwuiy explained that.
I had lost my pe n and I was unable to do the exercises.
with t he Ad verbs of Frequency: (see pages I SS, 252) lie had unlocked th e door; t here was noth ing to prevent
He has oflt1tlneverJalU!ays, etc. done that. you from going out.
H ave ),ou efI" heard of such a thing?
..(1:) T o express d uration up to a certain time in the past , e go
and with the words: ~, tod4y , Ihis week /mlJPtth /J'ea' , ett, By th e t ime r left tile school I had tmlght that class for ten
up to flOU', up W tJu present, so [e r riot y et, latdy" . years.
The Present Perfec t is used with n '" an.~ ft tveT If they bIll
the meaning 'at any time up W ~'. \\ ith other mea!Ullp oJJ) In ind irect speec h! to express an idea that , in d Irect
almost an)' tense can be used . • • • speech, had been in the Present Perfect Tense, e.g.
Bu t the exclamatory sentence' Did you eye r h ill' of such I Direct He sa id. ' I h ave writ ten her a letter.'
thing!' has the Past Tense. IT« . He said that he had U'rif/m he r a letter.
The Present Perfect t ense is not used with: [)ired Mary said. 'J ohn has just set ou t for the office.' •
ago (I , euived r OUl letter two days ago), then , at t~ Ii"" Ired.j~lary said that John had just set out for the office,
y esterday, last week /fnQftth /yea r, etc., irl 1950, at Chnsl~ Or in th e Simple P ast Tense:
etc.: with words and phrases like this the Past Tense showe 'Di rtd: A great ba ttle was fought on this spo t in 1815 .
be used. J ired: he guide told us that a great battle 1IIJd been j Oft.ght
. can be u sed. \liththIa
This fIIo,nlr.g, thi s ajt~rlI/N'll , tIll.S e1itn lnc. on t at spo t in ISI S· ~ (AhI -rW. )OaJt
Present Perfect or a Past Tense de pending on the t une -<i ) To express a past condi tion or supposi tion with an im plied
sta tement is made , e.g. . . , _ thI negati ve ,' e,g.
I hal'e u:riltm two letters this mornmg (said during Il I had knOtt'n t ha t you wanted the boo k, 1 woul d have sent
mor ning], .. . nit it. (Im plied negative 'but 1 did n 't kn ow'.)
I wrote two letters this mormng (said m the aft ernoc
evening),
178 A Comlmhe,uiw E "C1is4 Grammar V erbs: (z) T tnse 179

If he W llIork_ steadily he would have passed the It is now 6.30 p.m.; I shall have fi nished my work by S
aminatlon (. . . but he didn 't work steadily). e~. o'clock.
If only I /uul known that you wanted to meet him ! (... b The taxi u'ill have arrived by the time you fmish dressing.
I didn't know). lit In another year or so, YO Il !i·ill have [orgotten a ll about him.
....(5) with such verbs as wish, Iwpe, expect, etc ., to el( pr~ '2) duration up to a time in the future, e.g.
past wish, hope, etc. that was not realized, e.g. I -'t When I leave the school next week I shall "at'e tallght this
He wishes now that he had taken your advice. class for ten years,
We had exp«Ud you t o stay at leas t a week . On December r Sth we shall have bun ma rried for 25 years.
I had hoped/intended imtant/to take a good holiday this j" • Note that in t ime clauses beginning U'hrn, et c., the Fut ure
but I wasn •t able to get away. • perfect is n ot used ; the correct tense is the Present Perfect . e.g.
-i6) with 'as if. e.g. I will repair your bicycle when I hat" fin ished (SOT: 'shall
h01\'e finished') this job.
He described the scene as vividly as if he Md bun there By the time you haw read (NOT: 'shall have read ') that book ,
Some of t he conj unctions with which t he Past Perfect tense you ....;11 know .all the answers. . '
is oft en associated ar e; belore, u·hen, after, InlCe , as soon Gl I will come WIth you; but walt until I haw u:,ittm (SOT:
untd , e.g. ' 'shall have written') this letter.
He came round to our ho use before I had fi nished my break. -0) possibility or assumption, e.g.
fast. You !riU have heard, I expect , that E lizabeth is going 10 be
When/A/tv/th e cheering had died de....'n, the Prime ~( lOister married.
began his speech. It's five o'clock: the)' trill have arriu d home by now.
Ona /A s soon as/approval of the pla ns had been givt n, the
work went ahead rapidly. . •
I THE PRESENT Pt:ltfECT CO:'l I!;.;uou ij
It was not until I had read your letter that I understood the
true st ate of affairs. This te nse is formed by the Present Perfect of t he verb to be
and the present participle. It is used to express the duration
01 an action up to the present. The tense suggests th at the
action is still cont inuing at the moment of speaking . T he
action may continue into the fu ture, e.g.
Thi s tense is formed by the Future Tense of ha ve + a past
participle. It is used to indicate: I have been teach ing this class for two years (and am still
"'(I ) an action that will be completed before a certain time teaching it).
or another action in the future. The state it brings about .."iIl He /WS been learn ing English {or six mont hs.
still exist at that time or at the ti me of that action. So the The boy's hat" been wak hi" t te levi sion since seven o'clock .
Fu ture Perfect bears the same relation to a future moment a! (... and are still watching now and ....; 11 probably go on
the Present Perfect bears to a present moment and the p~ watching for some time).
Perfect to a past moment. Th is tense is often associated \11th This tense, and t he other Perfect Continuous tenses, are
the preposition by and th e const ruction 'by the t ime (that)'. particular ly associated with the words [or and since (sec pp.
Examples: 176 and 299).
ru bs: (2) T ense l SI
I So A Co".p reh(1ls!t'e E llglish GM.m"ar
{oJ Two wars of using t he exprc$!>ion ' th IS a ue rncc n',
~ THE PAST PE RFECT COS Tlst:ot'S T Es !'.EI
one ernplo)'mr.;- t he Presen t Perfect and one t he
Simple Past tense.
This is formed by had bun + present participle and is 1\. loxplain t he ditler ences of mean ing expressed by the
-( 1) To express t he duration of an act ion up to a Certaill~: tense of the ver b in t he fo llowing pa irs of sentences:
in the p ast , e.g. I~ ( I ) (<1) I ha ve subsc r ibed to t his l1I ag a ~ i l1 C fur several
When I got to the meeting the lect urer had already be years ,
speakillg for half an hour. t, (b) I t ook ou t a su bscr sption t o t h is magazine last
January,
T he telephone had ken ,itlgi"g {or t hree minutes befott
was answered. ~ (1) (a ) Ha ve you read ma ny books by Dic ke ns?
(b) Did you read the leading art icle in T ilt TimlS
..{:z) To exp ress the Present Perfect Continuous in rePottt:! yesterda y ?
speech, e_g, \' Insert the correct form of t hc verb to ll'"J [Simple
I ask ed her what she had bten doing since she <lTrl ved II Pas t te nse or Present Perfect t ense) in each of the
England . following sen tences, a nd give a reaso n for your ch oice.
She told me that she hdd been studying English Iiteraturt , (I ) I t his book .
(l l I - t h is book last week .
hUEFy TURE PERFECT CONTISUOUS Tg S SE J
0) I
14} I
t his book since you Wefe here.
this book oft en .
Th is tense is formed by the Future T ense of hat'{ + ~tfl ~ (,5) I - th is book this morn ing.
a present part iciple, and is used to exp ress the duration of c. VI List t he various uses o f t he Past r'ert ecr tense and
action up to a certain time in th e future. Exaffl/'les: (onstfuct sentences t o exelLlplif)' each of t hem . How
On April and, l cjjo, we shdll have bUll living in t h is hOllle is the t ense formed?
exactly thirty years. VlI Correct th c followi ng sent ences where necessary. and
give rea sons for your corrections,
I n anot her mont h's t ime, Henry will hat'e bun 'l'Or ki'lg il
(I) As soon as I shall have mastered t he E ngli sl1
the weavewell Woollen Company's office for f l\"e years, laub uage I sha ll begm to st ud y Spanish. C~) !\e xt
J' ebruary we hav e been married for ten years,
EXERCI SES OJ Don 't COllie t o see me again before I sha ll hav e
I Rewrite the following sentences using the Prescot
told y ou t o do so. (4) We have learn t E nglish since we •
are twelve years old. (5) I asked t hem what they have
Perfect t ense of the verbs and omitting o.r changing been d oing since our I,"'t meet ing . (6) I n a few days
words rendered incorr ect o.r unnecessary by the change we shall have worked for t he firm for t welve mon ths.
of tense: ( 7) You hear the ne....s of her engagement , I expec t .
(I) I saw him tw ice la$t week, (1) Did you go to (S) It w as not till aft er you r letter has a rrived t hat
London aft er ou r last meeti ng? (3) Do you go t o Pam I knew of your promotion . (9) Th ey told t he star)' as
oft en ? (..) He began t o study English when be .... :u i( it has happened t o t hem . (10) The}' di ,1 nut wr it e to
sixt een, (5) We fin t lived in t his house in 19..9. us since t hey left England ,
II Explain, wit h an example of each, how the Present VII I Const ruct sentences illu st rat lll,t: the use of t he P resent
Perfect, Past Perfect and Future Perfect tenses are Perfect Conttnuous, th e Pa st Perfect Con tinuous a nd
formed . t he F ut ure Perfect Continuous tenses.
III Const ruct sentences t o illust rate t he following:
(..) Adverbs specially asscc tat ed ...i th the Present
Perfect t ense,

V erbs: (3) Th e Sprc ial Finites 183
..(2)lf ORMATION OF THE IS TE RROGATlV E I

- CH APT ER FOURTE E N . t rrogative of special finites is made by inv ersion, i.e.
fhet~fn; the verb before its subject:
{ VE R BS:l<@ THE SPECIAL FI:->ITES '(81 111 Pu AfJi rtlUA liVI I ,,/(frog,,!iI't ,.
There are certain verbs that demand special attent ion. Th speak English. Can he speak English ?
are sometimes called the 'au xiliary' verbs because thev 'h ~ ~" ;ncome to the party. WiU shteome to the part)'?
oth er verbs to fonn inte rrogat ive, negative and emphtl~ ;W "to answer the letter. Ought I to answer the letter?
forms of speech ~d to f0':O tenses, mood and voice. There~llr: I"" .
twelve' of them 1R all. VlZ . be. h"t,t, can, do, shall , u,U ~ tber verbs use tio (dots. dili) and the infinitive, e.g.
0
m"5l. tmd.. hJ dart MStd (to). ' . , .o\l1 td.h EJl#lish . Doa he speak English ?
trhe term aUXI ane ' for all these verbs is not quite Canet! IJ:,S~"u to the party. Did she come to th e party?
as some 0 t em, e.g. be, have, do, are sometimes the only \~ H, .1ffTIItrtd the let ter, Did Iu ,z nsu'(J' the let ter?
in the sentence, e.g. ' Keats was a poet'. 'They have a l~
house.' ' He did the work well: A bette r tenn is Special Finl
or Anomalow Finites. !l
-o:
I Q UEST IOS PHRASES '
They have certai n characteristics which the)', and they OUlT '(be spe<:ial fin ites alone have the ability form 'Question to
possess and which distinguish them from all other verbs. ~ Pbrase5', We freq uent ly , espec ially in conversation -. a~d one
following are thei r special feat ures: fA these phrases to a stat ement , t hereby turnmg It mt o a
"""',on, e.g. .
...(l lI F ORloI ATlOS OF THE SEGATIVE I IfI a fiDe day, im'J iN You knew him qui te well, didn', ycu?
The negative' of these verbs is formed by placing .. €)To an affumatin statement a negative Question Phrase
immediately after them. e.g. IS added:
• • • Mr. Brown is a doctor, is,,'t he?
Affi,matit'e Negatit·(
You can speak Spanish, u ,,'t you.'
He is here. He is «ot here. Your friends will come, U'Oft 't they?
They can speak English. They cannot speak Englist •
Oro a negative st atement an affirmative Quest ion Phrase
They would help us. T hey would n ot help us.
II added, e.g.
The word JWt is generally, in conversation, contracted and Mr, Smith isn't a doctor , is he?
fused with the verb, e.g. He im't here. They can'l speu You can' t speak Spanish, c"" you.'
English, They tt1Otdd,,'t help us. They didn't answer. YOIlt Iriends won't come, will tluy?
The special finites are t he only verbs that t ake the contracted That job is ~ su itable for Peter, is it.'l ~"'I
I form of not,
Sote that the sub ject of the Question Phrase must be a pro-
• Or t..-enty.four if we reckon tw elve other de rived forms (e "dud~ llOun (or tlu , e), e.g.
the imperative) lor tense , nllm ber and pe rson, ViI. a m, i5, ar,.....
There's no one in th e house. is thrre? ,
_ ,,; !I41, 1144: dOll , lI id; 1}w..1d: Tl>l,nUII; ",,,til; ..,it/ot.
The words IIwl/)' , ulllOfA, $,,,,"1)', etc., ~ !!'-.! :9u~~~s of

I Except for t he I mpera tive. Only three of these "er bs has e u
imperat ive form lb" /o4~' , II ,,). The negnuve im perath'e is formed lI1a 4Illp~
110 and 11 01, e.g . Do " 0' {D""'I) b, ...tllpid . D",, ', Ii",.., too muc h to tIt t ementl . -
I .. ,- r.,
e"' ''( :l
D",,'I 110 that.
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}Oerbs: (J) TIle SptcioJ[ F i Hitt s
18.4 A CQ11Iprdtell$ivl English Gram mar
(JJIf t he verb in t he stateme n t is a special fini te, a for m of tho._ ...(4)( sn OR T AS SWERS I
verb is used in the Quest ion Phra se, eg. '
The special finites are used for 'Short Answers ' to avoid
T hey were there, U'rTtll' / tllty.- repetit ion of the verb , e.g.
He ollght t o know the a ns wer, ollght,,'t he? _ QllesliOll: 'Can you speak R ussian?'
You haven', answered the h-ttcr, 11m'! )'alt .~ Full Ansil't'r: 'Yes, I can speak Russian .' ' Xc, I can 't speak
TI le work ha$ been done, hasn't If.'
Rnssian.'
[Note that if there are two auxili aries in the verb, only t: _ Sltort A ns".l'tr: ' Yes, I can : 'So, J can't:
fi rst one is used in th e question ph rase.] These Short Answers may be of seve ral types:
trJIf the verb in the st ateme nt is not a special (mit e, do (.h, ~~}{' Y($ ' or 'N o' answTl e g.
'ttid, don't, do<sn't ) is used in the Question Phrase, e.g. ' WiJI he help us?' ' Yes, he will.' ' No, he won't.'
He speaks Spanish . doesn't he? 'Could he come to the party?' 'Y es, he catdd. ' 'Xc. he couldll't, '
They (Ilmt to t he party. didn't they? 'Dare you go there alone?' 'Yes, I da re.' ' Sc. J darttl'l.'
He didn't help t hem , did he? '00 you spea k Spanish? ' 'Yes, I do.' 'xe, J don'l.'
She dot s" ', t eac h Frenc h , dlUs she? 'Did you he ar me?' 'Yes, J did .' ':So , J didll 'C
Note that there are tw o meanings to some of these phra..', < .Wr /A lIst6lT to a quesJiOll ull,Oduced by an inJerrogatlt'e,le,g.
according to t he tone of voice used . 'Who was here first, Henry or R ichard?' ' 1It ll' Y teas.'.
-(i) If informa tion or confirma tion of an op inion is wanttu ' \ \110 can ans..wer the quest ion?' 'L call.'
the Question Phrase is said with a rising inton at ion , e.g . '\Vho doesn' t understand this?' 'J don't.' 'My f riend doesn 't.'
I t's raining, ? isn' t it? (R isi Hg Itllanatioll) e a eS4f3- 1' ./..c)["short A HSU·tTS erprtSS I'ng agrumentJe.g.
Your name's Brown,? fsn t rr r ( R iSl~g IH anatlon .
'I th ink J ohn is working well.' ' Yes, Itt' is.'
(The speaker is not quite sure whether it is raining Of not 'Mary has done well in her examina tion .' 'Yes, sht has.'
whether th e man's name is or is no t Bro.....n. The answe r m:g! :
be , 'Xo, the ra in has stopped now'. ' Xc , it's Smith .' ) ' He' ll pay th e money, won't he ?' ' Yes, he triU:
..(ii) But when th e sentence is the expression 01 an opinion 01 1 ..( Shor t A KSU't'TS ex resSlng uagreemuu , ,g.
statement of wh ich no contradiction is expected , the Question ' It will take hours t o 0 t 15 war , ~' N o, i l won't .'
Phrase is said wit h a falling intona tion, e.g. 'That car must have cost a lot 01 money .' 'Oh. no, it didn't.'
It's a terrible day, '>t isn't it ? (F alling I nlanatiall) ' He will pay the money.' 'Of course M won't.'
'Richard works hard.' 'I'm afraid he dot sn 't .'
I (It is a cold , foggy day, and you know it. The answer, ':-;.
would somewhat nonplus the questioner and woul d be ce ..(e';.{ililditiolls aJ&J TlsfXinu s to senYH"!. )
sidered rather impolite. ) -(i). with so, meaning 'alSo':
I You are Brown,"" aren 't you ? (F"lling Intonation ) ' I have w ritten a letter to J ean.' 'So hat'e I .'
'John has given the right an swer.' 'And so has,M a,y.'
{You arc pract ically sure he is; you h ad met him before or tee
I told abou t him.] 'Pedro can speak E nglish well and so can Olaf.
In both fonns th e only verbs th at can be used in QuesliC! J ohn will help and so wiU AtaTga ret.
P hrases are the Special F inites, Henry must come and so mu st Cha,les.

rubs: (3) The Spt 6 al Finites 187
If Comp rehensive English G" mmlllT
fot a swim every day. Do y OIl? (= go for a swim every
L~cill~ speaks French and so deus A nna
~~e allSW'ered the question well and so' did Ja'l' . II"
dI:~,t understand a word he says. Can y ou? (= Can you
as bom free as Caesar so we" you' (Shak
Caesar) • . espeare.lklilq I nderstand a word he sa}'5:')
~e onl}' cerbs th at can be used for these elliptical sentences
.(ii~ ,The nega~i'''~ construction parallel to (i):
the special finites._
,John hasn. t gwen the right answer. Ofdlhi, (PI") has \
.~~odcan.t speak Russian. S tithu (nar) tan Dial' . !ll~/.'
'" -(6H TlII:: H n 'lIAT IC FO RM)
... ~e idn t answer the questions. mitlu , (flOr) did Ja'l~ ' 1M Emphatic form of the verb is expressed by using one .of
-{ll~) ~Ith so, expressing sUrp rised agreement . " s~ial fmites. There is a strong stress on the special finite
It sIthe r yth today;,and you ' ve dated
., t::e arennative em ph asis, a strong stress on the tlot (never)
'So Juzve.' ~our letter the 14th ' ~ediatelY following the special tinite for negative emphasis.
'Th at's William coming in at the ga t "S ., . , .
{IN . . 0 I IS . e,g· / A ffirmative Emph asiSf
in°mil,he Inversion of subject and verb in (i) and (ii), but nut
~y sister Il'i l{ be pleased to see you.
-+ (F inall)'.l t here is a construc tion that bi We /uJve enjoyed our visit .
AIlS\Po'er an d tJ:le Question Phrase. It is u~~r:;,'hl~~sw~he Shor. y ou can sing beautif ully.
express surprised and truculen t di Want to I s1IotJd like a holiday in Switzerland.
voice indicates the feel"mg. H ere are • isapproval. The tone of
some examples: I ~ enjoy good music.
''I've
1 left' my book at h orne. " 0 h, vou have have. vcu"
~a:v.~er;:u~:ou the money -os, ):ou can' t: can't ~'<rJ: ' ! .''; tgativI Emphasis/
I did nol take your book.
'I w on't be spoken to like 'Qh, you won't , WOQ·t you" They will nt1ier agree to that .
. th is.' You ought I«Jt to do that.
' I don't like you.' 'Oh, you don 't, don't veu" Sometimes we want t o be emphatic t o assert an affirmat ive
:R ichard tore up his book.' 'Oh , he did. d id he?' . when the listener seems to assume a negative. e.g. •
Olga hates English coffee.' 'Oh , she does, does she)' 'Why don't you work hard? ' ' But I dowork hard.'
~he~eO~ylYpe:e~~: "hh,atspecla
ca~ bl'fiu~ed
rutes.
for Short Answers of a~y of 'Why didn't she give him
the book?'
' But she did give 'him the
book.'
'Why won't th ey keep th eir 'But they will kee p their
~>1 ELliPTIC ~l SF~ TE :"CF S l promise?' promise.'
Th is construction avoids repetition of the ver b etc in su.:h 'Why haven't you t idied ' But I hat'e tidied my room.'
sentences as: ' " your room?'
J:!~ dcesn't jaten co~e to the class. and when he Jon The only verbs that can take this stress for affirmative em-
k does come) ~e .is § enerally_late. - --
e speaks Spanish better than Henry ,an (= can spuk it),
f1hasis ate the special fmites. If an ordin ary verb is emphasized
It is the mlaning of the verb that is being str~, not its
affirmative nature. If. for example. instead of saying : 'But she
better than Henry ever Il'iU (_ will speak it ). ,
188 A Comprehensive Etlglish Gr<l ,nmar Verbs: (3) The Sp«ial F i..ites
1 did give h im t h e book ', you said: ' Bu t she gat·e h im th e t., ( 2) You will write t o me _ 1 (131 She can come
you r sente nce would now suggest: "'-'01(' ~mOITOw - 1 (14) He gives a Jesson every day -- '
She d idn' t und him the book, or uU him the book n (15) Y ou read m odern "Titers - ? (16) Shaw wrot e
he sfeal it; sh e Kat'e it to him. ' Or dio:l 51. Joa. - ? (11) They gave h er a clock - )
(18) You went t o the theatre -? ( 191 I wrote to you
-17) ! roSITI9 S OF ADVERBS! _ 1 (20 ) He spea ks English - 1 (:H ) You are no t
coming to the class tom orrow - ? (:n ) You haven 't
W ith the special finites cert ain mid-position ad verb> d' finished your work yet - ? (23) The stu dents are not
t h e 'adver bs of frequency ' (alWQy s , o/tel'l, Stml tt inu s .lefty aU Turkish - 1 (24) He ca n' t play football well
h ave a d ifferent posit ion fr om t he posit ion t h ey ha.\'~ etc.). _ ? (25) H e isn' t a good player - 1 (26) H e
oth er v er bs. F or t h is , see page 265. WIth doesn ' t play very well - ? (27) H e didn't play ver y
well _ 1 (28) He couldn 't play v ery well - 1
.-(8 ) ' TH IRD PE RSOS SI'lGl'lA R J 1 = ::':: (29) H e hasn't played very we1l - -1 (30) That Wa!ln't
you r brother who spoke to me _ 1u ll Y ou didn't
ha\"Cany letters this mo rning - 1 (32) I ough tn' t t o
One fin al pec uliari ty:
ask the drive r for a t icket - 1 (33) She won't play
T h e th ird pe:son s!n gula r of t he Pres:nt. T en se in all I'err. tenn is tomorrow - 1 () 4) You won' t forget to send
except t h e special finites has a characteristic regular ending ill a Christmas present - - 1 (3S) You d idn 't forget to
-s added t o the firs t person singular, ego lend a Ouistmas present - ? (36) You haven't
he speaks, 'Antes , reads, sings, e tc . forgott en to lend a Christmas present - -? (37 ) Th ey
don' t come here every day - ? (38) They didn ' t
Compare t h e correspondi ng forms of the special finit es: come here y esterday - ?
he ca n, shall, w ill , may, must, is , has. does, ncedt ougr'l IV !>take th e following sentences (II) negative, (b) inter.
dare,' used t o . rOiative, {,j in terrogat ive by add ing question phrases
expect ing t he a ns.....er, ' Yes', (ti) int errogati ve by
E X ERCIS ES ad ding q uestion phrases expecting the answer , ' X o'.
(e.g. It i~ r aining. (II) It isn't ra inin g.
I Wri te ;a list of all the formseyou know in wh ic. special (b) Is it raini n g ?
fi nit es used with ' not' are spoken, and sometimes ('I I t is r aining. isn't it ?
written, in contract ed form. Give bo th full form il1ld (lI) It isn 't ra ining. is it 1)
contracted form in each case.
( I ) These ve rbs are diffi cult. (t ) My a unt is awake.
II Give exampl es of Special F inites hetpmg: (a) t , form (J) You saw Georg e in London. (4) H e ough t to ch an ge
a nega tive, (b) an interrogative, (el a t ense. •
his doctor. 151 T he students can !~ak Italian . (61
III Complete t he followin g sentences with Question Mary spoke Italian well . (7) The policeman will
Phrases: arrest the t h ief. (8) He had onl y an apple a nd some
(I) I t' s a finl;! da y - ? (2) You are studying E n.o:lis~l chocolate for lunch . (9) George ptays tennis well.
- 1 (3) H e is a handsome man - - 1 (.i l She is very (10 ) H e h as a new t ennis racket. ( I I) We shall a rran ge
well-d ressed - ? (5) Lucille has a new car _1 a party for ou r friends. (u ) You ca n go now . ( I ))
(6) M y watch is righ t - - ? (71 You were in E ng tand The boys could swim across the Thames. (I..) T hey
last yea r _ ? (S) H e ca n spea k English _ 1 (91 did it easily. ( IS) Your fn end was wrong . (16) You
I You cou ld understand me _ _ ? (10) They m ust do shou ld polish your shoes every morn ing. ( I 7) He
t he work - ? ( I I) You don' t mind waiting _1 found a better job. (18) He went for a swim . (19) You
can fi nd y our way in t he moonligh t . (10) It will be
.....nen t he forms _Ils and /J4.u are u sed , t hese ,·erb. ate lid warm on the beach, (21) H e o ugh t to grow a beard .
funct ioning u speci.alfip jles (Me pp_ 209, Ut ). (H ) You have quite finiShed.

, "'0 A Co",pre~nsive E nglish Grammar Verbs: (3) The Speci,1l Fin it, s ] 91
; V G'
Ive the full anSwer a nd the ( I) 1 d on 't like th is exercise. (2) Ric hard has n' t done
&
( ffi , ~~tive.
(b) negative, to t~e~O~J~~~~~:a.l] swer. (4) his homework , (3) You mus t n' t open tha t box. (4)
I he speak Russia ? ()
........., " I 'm very fond o f ch ocolate. (,5) I 'd rather have
dinner t omorrow1 ( ) Ou n 2 \ \ ill th ey Corn chocola tes than ca ke. (6) I hate sausages. (7) We ' \'l~
(~) Did he lind the m~ney ~~~ I t~O( the let~~~
",!lOwer ucee dogs in our house. (8) The st udents wan t a holi-
plCtures often ? (6) Did ce n 5 0 )'OU go to th ' day t omorr ow. (9) I thou ght you would gtve us one.
(7) H ave you spoken to hi~o~~eou: wha t he Sa.id ~ (10) I told him what you said.
you tomorrow? (9) Will a u ~ t It 1 (8) Shall I ~ X I nvent quest ions t o wh ich t he following sen tences are
morro,w? ( IO) Didn 't they ~nis.h that the party to. th e answers :
r~ dinewith me this evening ? (12) ~~~~ ? rJ Can 51 (I) But 1 did pos t your letter. (2) But 1 call walk
o ,see us to mOlTaw? (l J) Wh o r ic h you come fast er. (3) Hut t hey did t elephone t hq morning.
ga:1tc ? ( I.,) Can r et ac l es t e ~ avou r Of
mmutes ? (I, ) Are the: COmin~ it~::~~. III fiftee::.
VI Give 5h....... A
," . nswers to the f 11 '
I.!I evemngl
'
,:===;;; (,,) But he has finished his exerc ise. (3) Bu t the
dinner i s ready punctuall y,
XI Sa y t he following sentences. stressing one of the ver bs
Ir,GIlIt:EM£N T: 0 oWing exp r essi ng in each to make the sentences emphatic:
(I) Henry is a very lucky fellow ( , H ' (1) Ma.rgaret can p lay t he violin well. (2) Andr ew is
tomon ow, won 't he ? (J ) L "ll' 2 e II come again a big bey for his age. (3) I sh all be glad to be home
C..' William answered ~~~ e spea~s English well. again , (4) We were JOlT)' you had to go JO early.
(5) Don't YOu think he ough t t q uest ion correctly. (,5) You will try to com e ag ain, won 't you 1 (6) 1 mu st
You said that before So 0 pay the money ? (6) get t his work done be fore Friday. .
ra in . So _
_ .
_
.
is) Th~ --;--. (7) It's begun to
a wmdow s open. So _ XII \\'rite the following sentences in the emph at ic form
by in trod ucing a Special Finit e in to eac h one:
Vn Give Short Answers t o th . ( I) Ric hard likes cake. (z) He en joyed t he ones he
DISI,CRJtUIJtNY: e followin g exprCS$ing ate at t he party, (J) I like t he cakes t hat your mot he r
bakes. (4) We had a good swim t his a fternoon , (,5) You
( I) I t will be two hours before '0
hOuse was su rely buil t be t }' u get t here . (2) That bought a lot of chocola te , (6) Andrew runs fast.
house before 19 40 (., ~~'1'1940 . (3) Th e)' L u ~l t th t (7) T he wind blew hard when we were at sea. (8) You
bon-OWed ( ) y ' retu rn the book 11 brought a lot of clot hes with you. (9) Henry came here
e
tell me S~? ,5ButO~r~s well. (6) Why d idn 't
with me ? Bu t _ _ S·{7) \'1l:o:: arc you angry
)'0: q uickly . (10) H enr y comes here q uickly, (I I) Richard
d ran k a lo t o f lemonade, (12) The}' took a long time
lot of money , Oh, no, ---:....(~rd ~ortbwood has a t o come here. (13) Th ose shoes I bought wore well.
(14) Ife promised he would wr ite and he wrote. (15) I t
VIII Cons -.... IIct sen tences tai . froze h ard las t n ight. (16) You told me t o see the •
finites u sed to a v id con a:n~ ng the fOllOWing ~ pedal p icture at the cinema a nd I saw it . (17} He asked m e
Answers: 01 repentton o f t he verb in Short to t each him French an d I tau ght l.im. ( IS) You d id
t hese exe rcises well,
IX wUl, ' " " 'do
. " "" (II r" Will ), )"w', """'It, 'o",Td.
(II) To what re:nub cou ld th t il ' XI II Disagree with t he assumptions in t he following
~ appropriate a n"" ers a nd Wh~t ~ ~':"l n gd' expressions sentences:
II exp reued by each ? ee Ing 0 you t hm:': ( I) Why don ' t you come by bus? (2) Wh y hasn't he
written t o h is brotherf (3) Why won 't he sign the
(I) Oh, I mustn 't m t 'e Jl
wouldn ' tlne? ' II I n " (2) Oh, sbe wouldn 't. paper? (4) Wh y isn't h e willing t o come here? (5) Wh y
did did the 1 ((')) OO.h, you WIll, WIl! you 1 (4) 0 11 t hy aren't you going to the d a nce?
, Y,5 , It wu was itl ' •
Ib) Make responsecll e .' .' XI V Expla in the di fference betw een :
follOwing. xpreu mg l urpnse or anger to the ' But 1 did uril, t o him', and ' Bu t I u.,.olt t o him',
,,,

- --- ,
192 A Comprehensive E nglish Grammar V.,b,,' (3) TIl, 5pl',. 1F '-Mil" 11)3
(TH E SPECIAL FI NITES Em) WhAtover i. II rllhto

'I think; thoroforl I a".,'
rTO IH: ] Thof1l a" people who try to htlp other"
The parts of this: verb are: am , is, are, was , were, being, been.
The Present Tense hu the ecntracted (weak) fonns :
Th, memory of whit Ikt, IH,"and nlVor mort ,,,.U
N,
'Can eueh thin,. bf
I'm (aim], he's (hi:z), she's Ui:z), it's [its) we're [wia] And ov'rtom, UI like .. IUnlmor', cloud
you're (ju~l. th ey're [ee~]. • J' Without our , peelal wond. rP
The con.tracted negative has two forms, except for the first l4, A/art of the Vlrb " H followed by an lnflnltlyt with "
person Singular: " '1M to expl'lll In 1"lftItmmt, I " ,
I .... to haw tn, with UfUY tltl, Afternoon,
r , Thl wtddinc i. to 1Ike plaee on SltUrdl Y,
If wt . " to b- ,t the etltian by nlnl o'clock WI mUlt 10 now,
II con.tructlon Impllea futurit)' or, II In the followtnr
I'm not
he's (she's. it's) not
-he (she, it) isn't IXl mple, Futur, In thl P..t:~
.....e're not we aren 't My II,ter &net htl' hUlb&nd ~ ~ come I nd toO UI thll
you're not you aren 't wHk-end, but they couldn't como, Sho I' to let me know
they're not th ey aren 't If they can corne next week , -
.u ~ Tho I&mI con. tructlon eltpl'ellOo Ileo what t. equiYaltn t
The shortened interrogative negative is "rt1!'t yOfl. is.,'J M , to I command, I -I.
etc.. and for the first person "ren ', U (or a',, 't 1)1, e.g.
I'm righ t . am, ', IJ
You ." to lOt the hudmu ter in hlll'OOm I t 4 o'clock,
You . " not to loave the bulldlnl without pennlMlon.
..(I) The ,'er~ .to be is used. as an aux iliary verb , with the ..lao p. 101).)
present participle t o fonn the Continuous Tenses. e,g.
)-Tho CONtNCtlon 'If I (he, Ule,lt) ,"" , , ,'II one 01the few
' He ~s ~lking' . 'She was speaking ', and it is used with the past remalnlnl . ubJunctive lntl:!S!lw in modem EntUeh,1 -
participle to form the passive voice, e.g.
He lias asked to sign his name. ..(7}-.Somo of the 5poclal Flnit.. art uacd with do,' but the yerb
10 6e tt novor uNCi with 110 eM!lpt in the lmp!!ltlve. With the •
You 1m invited to the birthday part y.
latiVCI lmperatlvI, 110 mUlt Oil uHdl un!o,,----rflIreplaced b)'
~ 2) Th 7 verb to be. is a verb of IN COMPLETE PREDJCATIO~ , i.e .
~t requires ~methmg else (called the Complement) to complete
J!!' e
d~t ovor) , 0·1·
ItS mearung In such sentences as: ..rr J.""rr II Tt".it ?o, " Q ~ ~ f i
DIM" '~ lito tomorrow,
Your din ~er u r: ad y:. 1 5 "'1 J" l,U " rraJ, . NIlJ" "cru, t or unJu. t,
~
In four rrunutes It U>iJl be nine o'clock . Do Inl)' bt ueod with tho .tftrm..tlvG impcfll,tlvo and u lul lI)'
H is father was a famous man . ~" 1I 1<.: . ~ Ioon.<- ,..- ... f.o. ... ,......) "'l." tmpliea moro omotlon of .ome kind, 0,',
" 0 .n,. o'
i ~ ~ ........ .~ .'-\ .. ... ,"",<0 ... \ ... I<\. V\ 1 ~ Do be caroful whon )'Ou crOll tho road; thore I. I \WI )'II lot
.;u). I ~
.IS a full verb, .when it has the general meaning of 'to of tro. ffic o.t thllt Ipo t. (APP,.1I, ", io1l)
exist In such expressions as: ~,
l ID Scot la nd a nd Irela.nd A"''' ·' n ['Z ID~ n t a iJ. 1Mo\Obllh OJ! ..li n, ' hi rhOI\ of &nquo,
' s.. pa.. III , B" , A.lIIf, "H~, 41,. (tOO pp, Ill', 100, 1111,

194 A Comprehmsive English Grammar Verbs: (3) Th e Special Finites 195
Do be as nice to him as you can; he 's terribl '
rather than Commanding) ) shy. (Be4i t does not beJta~e l~egpecial fin ite r 'hen i~ m.B.!!!ngs
6lI~~"lo.n , e.g.
The usual imperative form is simply 'Be . . . " "c ~~ /kIve ("'" receive) a letter h om home this morning?
..(8~ The verb be is not used in the Perfect Con timuous tellsta. iii"" /kIve (= eat) any b reakfast this morning.
~ you lJav e (= drink) tea or coffee for breakfast?
......,.JI' ( TO HAVE I 1 ;q,a'I have (= find, experience) much d ifficulty with
The parts are hat·, 1IJu had L - . ' t)t81ish grammar ,
r,'H {h~JI . " . ,,"tlng. pi. )'ou we (= experience, enjoy) a good t ime at the dance
e;' ,n ', - / IS used to fonn the Perfect Tenses
I hdlle ami,;,,'ered yo ur question. Ha s he finish:de.~. . laSt night ?
They had" t heard t hat storv beIOr I ~ h IS dill/lle:; fJa these sentences got could not be used with hat'e,
but I d idn't. .~ e. cugn t to hllt·~ $po~
Note these three sentences (all correct),
Wh en. 1itfinisrte.
" used like thi15 as an Auxiliary
.. verb'It IIS al.....ays f{p you a headache? (Special Finite)
~
la Yes, but I IuJdn', one when I came here . (Sped al Finite)
, Have may also be a 'full' verb i e u ' Do you often have headach es? (1IOt Spuial Finite)
e sentence. I n conv Ion and " sed as t he onlY\'erbia
formal style, got IS ofte n added • ,- ,g. ess frequen tly , in .Tn....!
6 •
You don't often have headaches, do you ? (riot S pecial Finite
The eneral rind Ie is thatL'tavilis treated as s ial fmite:
~lr. Brown has (got) a dog named F ido a) w en t e possession' is a pennanent thing, e.g. ue eyes,
• ~hey have (got) a new car. . J,
the three sides of a triangle , etc.
I V l (got) a bad cold. ~) when we are speak ing of one particular occasion, e.g. Have
(j.)\Vhen it is used as a full verb it . yON a headache now? But when the 'possession' is a recurring
'iiehaves like -a special finite for some~lmes, but not alwaYI, or habitual th ing , e.g, •Do you often have a headache?' then
ative by.inversion and its ~esat~~~~ep/yor:In~J~s interro-
gheh Mile is not treated as a special finite, e.g.
.avesth Iike a special
,r -- fin it..... wh en I', IS
' d enottng not, J:
va _inS ••. Have y ou anyone st aying with you at present?
(usmg
H e word possession' in its widest sense), e.g.possessse Do you often have visit ors staying with you)
0 ....: many brothers and sisters have you (gotp ID the past t~ however , t he Interrogative form 'Did you
A tnangle IJ,u three sides. . bpve , . .' is 0 ten preferred where the above rule would
You ha ll~n 't (got) much room here. demand 'Had you , ' " •
H; 1J,u" t a lot of time to spare,
\\ e hat'en ', .much(gmoney, but we do see 1"1 {Till': CA USATIVE l 'SE O F 'H ,W E]
II ue.
.as your SlSter ot) blue eyes or bro....-n eves?' ISJA construct ion cont aining Mt'e + a past participle is used
• 'f!.rnerican 1l!OL.si4 is difle~ t A · .
~ show t hat , without doing something ourselves, we cause it
speo; w 6nit e UI these n-all~ , merlC<Ull would not t re at .~,t » 1
u )' : - .. or Interrog3.tl ve sen te nces. They ~ to be done, e.g,
We have just Jwj our house painted (= caused our house
"!ow ~y brothers 3.rld si$lers dlJ yo w ~~'IJ to be painted),
'\ au IIqro ' '''1'1 m\lC.h room hue I.lr.ave just had my hair cu t ; why don't you hal:( yours done?
H e 11.,.$>1" ...U I. lot 0 1 t ime to spare
D.,.J you r sister ...1·1 blue eves Or bro.... n ey 1 wby didn't you hat'e that suit cleaned?
We 110'0" M U m lKh JQOney 'but we do see li~: Did you take the car to the garage t o have it overhauled?

I¢ A Comp rehensive E nglish Grammar Verb!: (3) The Special Fillite! l rj]
Why don't you have. t hese knives sh arpened? The w . 'J1Ie co,n;;truction have not to is not generally used to express
Y
Th e trousers of this suit are too long> I m t ' on t cUt. obibltiOn .
shortened. • us at'e the a ~or 1t4Jl beUer,/uul rtUMr, see pages 11, 228, 23 1, 395·
\\'11 d "d ' llI.
/F\ Th Y ~ n t ~o~ Mve your luggage sent on in ad' -ance?
\.lV er~ 15 a similar construction wh .
I CAN ;
somethmg, you suffer somethi • ere, instead of CQlcsi,,- fbe verb can is defect ive; it has neith er infin itive, past
I had mg. e.g. -~
.-rticiple, -inc forms, nor imperative. Its only other form is
. my pocket picked [i.e, someth ing stolen from "t)
mormng. I this ,;p.st tense could. The missing forms are supplied by the
~¢ate form of to be abU, e.g.
r~~ won't M t', y our house burgled easily if you keep a gOOd
I sJuJll be able to do the work. (F uture)
Ralph h4d h'15 licence endorsed for careless d . .
I ~ been abU to do th e work. (Present Perf ret)
I n most of t hese exam J th . nVlng . I bope to be able to do th e work. (I nfi nitive)
replaced by ga, e.g. pes e causative have could ht Ij)Can an~ .cmJd are always. special finites . They are used to
&:preSS ability , power, capacity, e.g.
~\'h Y didn't you gel that suit cleaned?
\ 'hy don't you s« your hair cut? . John can speak French well.
Can you swim?
Mary could play th e piano well when she was quite young .
{HAVE TO (_ MUST)' l €; In colloquial speech can is used to replace th e more formal
l7.'Uave (got) to is used to express compulsion,
'i(<<essity, e.g.
.
obligation or ...y to express .Jll;r~ission; the n egative cannot (can't) is used
to express prohi bition , e.g. .
You havl to (you'v e got to) work hard nowadays to make a
living. In London buse s you can smoke on the upper deck, but you
call" smoke downstairs.
My car wouldn't start this mommg
> and I '-J You can have my seat , I am going now.
the offic e. na t~ ....alk to
Father said we c014ld go to the concert.
We had to (we'd ot t )
examina tion. g 0 answer all the questions in the &:a" is also used to express a poss ibility:
You can attend an Ad vanced Class or an Intermediate Class..
The negative of ha t . but you Cd1l " attend both as the)' take place at the same time.
necessi ty' is e essed ve 0 , ""th th e meaning 'there is 110
(don") have to,~ . by have not to, haun', got to or do not thCa" is used in quest ions and exclamations to express the
~ , ' Is it possible .. .?' e.g.
i~ey have"', gol to go t o school every day C,I1I it be true?
ey don', have to go to school every cia . Can he really believe that h~ can deceive us so easil y?
~ ;V~'I got to go to the dentist this aft~oon It surely C1~ tI't be four o'clock already!
on t hat't to go to th e dentis t this atte CoWd anyone be such a fool as to believe that!
Th . "moon .
>
. ere IS perhaps a tendency to h d . IrXati is also used t o express whatm'ay be possible, or what a
habitual actions and th e ha ,use t e o construction for
particular occasion but t bi .w " t (got) co.lstruction for one "ling or person is occasionally or generally ca pable of (usually,
, 15 15 bY no mean s always observed. bat not always. some thing unpleasant), e.g .
• S« allo ..... Jt (p o 208). Driving on these roads can be a very nerve-racking business.
• ' >

198 A Ct:m1prehensille English G,.amm", Ver bs: CJ) The S pecial Fin ites 199
Our house is on the top of a hill, and in winter toe w if th e implicat ion is achievement, that is if the meaning
'tin be pretty cold. "lnds ~t age<! to', 'succeed ed in doing', then , ltraJ able and not
is IJ1Sll ould normally be u sed, e.g.
But . for a part icular occasion rathe r than for a gen
conditio n, may would be used, e,g. croll ;"JJ 'tVuse he worked ha rd he was able (_ managed) to pass
Jl<C' .
Driving on this frosty road may be dan serous today So
. examinatIon.
carefully. . go b~ed my work early and SO raJ able (= managed) to
J to the concert t his afternoon. .
Can sugg~ts previous experience, may merely uncert aint}'. r' eth ing went wrong with my car whe n 1 w~ c~~lng
He is a bad-tempered fellow, but he can be quite charm SoJU, ' W"e y ou able to drive (_ did you succeed In driving]
when he wishes. mg b~:me or had you to t ake it to a garage?'
@ CannoJ(can't ) is also used to ex press a virtual impossibil It with the negative, either cOllld or be able is possible.
e.g, It Y,l
B~~ wonder why J ane has~'t ~ome yet ?'. ' Perh~ps she U'4$ not
Gecrge can't have (,.., it's practically impossible tha t he has) ,Me w(couldn't) get (= did n t succeed m getting) away from
missed th e way. I ex pla ined the route carefull y a nd drellr the office:
him a map.
AJ Both can and could are used to make rather informal
I7)\Vi~h 'verbs of percep tion ' (see pp . 169. 239) t he Continuous 'requests, e.g.
'ilnse IS not used : the use of can gwes an appropriate equ ivaler,l Cll n you change a pound note lor me, please?
to the Contmuow tense, e.g. CotJd you t ell me the righ t time, please?
Listen ! I think I can he.z,. (no t: am MiUiflg) the sou nd of the
sea . In this case, coul!i is felt to be rath er more polite than can .
I ca n SHUU (not: am sHUUing ) SOmething burning In the t.;:l CmJ4 is also used to express a rather gent1~ d~~t , e.g .
kitchen. lJIy es his story could be true, but I hardly think It IS. .
We1i, I c(I14M do the job today , but I'd rather put it off un t il
( CO OLO r ' •• Friday.
tf,J Could, besides being the Past tense, is also the cond it ional I S UlU f ARY OF TH E TENSES O F Clln (to be ablt")f
of can , e.g.
If you tried, you could do that work. p,,,,,,, •
to be able PasJ Pt"Tft"Ct I had been
Could you finish the exercise if you had more time?
I ftfi nin !!e able
Even if he had been there he couldn't have he lped you. to have·,.:been
Pllst Fu ture I shall have
6J Could is not always 6quivalen t to was able. If the reference Infi nitive able Perf ect been able
IS to someth ing that can be done because of kn owledge or skill, S,mpk
eit her (.ould or was able may be used , e.g. I can (I am Condi:;onlll 1 could (I
Prum t able) (P resent) should be
I cOllld (uoas lI ble to) sw im when I was only six years old Simpk Past I could (1 was abl e)
Richard hurt his foot , and could n't (ttasn't lI ble to) p!ay able) Conditional 1 coul d have
football.
Pruent I have been (Past) (I sho uld have
The door was locked, and I couldn't (wasn 't able to) open it. Petfect able been able)
, See also "' ''S/ (p. :<XI),

•
A CompreMnsilJe E nglish Grammar Verbs: <.3) T M Spu ial FiniUs
EXERCISE S (6) Someone picked H enry's pocket at the foot ball
JUAteh. (7) It's time your ha ir ....as cut . (8) W illiam
I In vent a series of sen tences each one of which ill broke his leg p lal'ing football. (9) This knife "'-on't ' ut;
trates one of the uses of the verb ' to be ', IIs_ we must ask someone to sharpen it . {IO) His house
II Expl.a in the term ' ve rb of incomplete predicat ion' was burgled while he was away on holiday .
and Illustrate you r answer by examples. ' V Change the cons truction of the following sentences in
III (01) Describe the function_ fuU verb or Special Fi • IWch a way t hat the verb emplOl'ed is .IUll'" in its
-of the verb 'bave' in each of the follo"'i ng lIenten~~~ ,ausat ive form. Alte r each sentence give an alternative
(I) I have no dou bt th at he is righ t in his opinion' form, where possible, using , ei in p lace of /t at·, .
(2) How man! ~arks have you got for t his exercise; (1) Tom 's clothes are all made by a London tailor .
(3)We ha ven t time t o come to see you this week' (2) I t old the builder to put a bay window in my study .
(4) When. do they have lunch ? (5) Has your fian 'c' (3) Ou r car needs t horough ly overh auling. (,,) ~I y
met my sISter? C e watc h was stolen yeste rday. (,5) Their pia no was t uned
(b) Make these sentences interrogative: the other d ay. (6) Wh y don't you arrange for your
newspa pers t o be delivered regu larly 1 (7) My dinner
(I) Her brother has curly hair. (2) A t riangle has jacket is a little too small for me; I m ust tell the tailor
:::ree .sldes. (3) H e had eggs and baco n for breakfast t his to alter it, (8) His t onsil! were removed when he was a
ormn g, (4) H e had a letter by t he evening post
boy.
1,5) They have a lesson every d ay . (6) He has a. lot of
mon ey. (7) They have a lot of t rouble with t heir Car VI Construct four sent ences illustrating the use of Aa:t·,
(8) Ma rgaret had an en joyable time at the dance' kI to express com pulsion, obligat ion, necessity and a
(9.1 Susan has a bad cold . (fO) She often has colds l ~ l"q,"Ular habit . U5e the aho rtened form and give t he
winter. alternath 'e form of I" kJ in each case.
(e) Ma ke these sen t ences nega th-e: VII Complet e the following eenteeees b y inserting &a"
( ~ ) I have a dark blue su it . (2) A t riangle has fOt:r or _ ,. as you think is correct .
w es_ (3) He had coffee for breakfast tb is morning. (I) Motoring in London - - be a grea t trial of
(,,) I had some let re... by the morn ing pos t (Bf e4Yl/ wl patience. (2) You - choose eith er su bjec t in t he
wftA ' some'.) (,5 ) They have' lunch beiore twelve examinat ion but you - not t ake both. (3) He -
o cloc k. (6) We have a lesson every day. (7) ~[r. Drown know a lot about musical t he-ory b ut he - - not play
~ as a lot of money. (8) We hod a very comfortable the piano well . (,,) - I give you a hand with tha t
lO.urney t o Scotla nd. (9) That coun t ry has a very good heavy t ru nk ? (,5) - you cash t his chequ e for me,
climat e. (10) I have som e cigarettes in my ciga rett e. please ? •
case. VIII Supply could or wa l (w,'e) able 10 to complete the fol-
( ~) After doing these exercises q uote t he ru le bv lowing. When is it possible to use only was (wert) ableJ
which you ca n dec ide when 'have' is being used as a (I) Because he had saved money all his life he - -
Special Finite. ret ire early . (2) Despite th e period of depression Henry
IV Re"'T.ite t hese sentences using some part of Aal·t or - make a profit. (3) - [you} get h im on th e tete-
gt t With a past participle, e.g. phone? fil I - - see very well when I was young but
The tailor made a new su it for me las t week . my l ight has grown weaker. (,5) They - - catch their
I /tad a new sui t m tuk for m e last week . train because J ohn drove them to the station . (6) I
- d r i"e a car when I was sixt een . (7) Th e night was
(I). Someone cleaned my ehces for me. (2) Painters clear and we - - see t he st ars . (8) After a lot of hard
pa.mted my ~ouse I ~t week . (3) One of my teeth was .....ork I - - pass t he examinat ion t....o }'ears ago.
t aken ou t thIS mornmg. (4) Someone m ust chop thi ' (9) The aeroplane was d amaged bu t the pilot - -
wood for us . (,5) We must uk someon e to mend the car. bring it safely t o land . (10) I - - finish the work by

202 A Comprehensive English Gram mar
Verbs: (3) The Special Fin ites 203
ten o'cloc k . (i I) When I was a boy I - - write w'
m y left hand as easily as with my right han d . (12) Ith f or Question Phrases with all the verbs that are not
(you) do things with your left hand as easily as ~ ..l'~l finites. c.g.
your right ha nd? (13) After hard fight ing th
sol d iers - - drive t he enemy ou t of t he t own . (I e
~ou understand me, don't you?
The firemen - put t he tire ou t before it destroy '4) ~'ou didn't come here by bus. did you?
tbe house: (1.5) After I h ad s tudied the lessen I ~
do t he exe~e correc tly. ) To make the emph atic form of verbs, e.g .
I X I n vent senteJees to illus trate th e use of 'can' or 'could' ~3baYen 't much mo ney but I do see life.
In the followmg senses: lie doeS l~k well. .
(a) possibility . (b) capabilit y . (el cond ition al. (d) POlit~ you did gIve me a fright.
request. (e) d ou b t ,
X Say t he followin g in the Futu re tense, add ir.g th~
, ) To avoid repetition of a ve rb , especially in Sh ort
I I words in bracket s.
,I
~nsl\'ers .
e.g.
(I ) I ca n speak E ng lish (after I ha ve had some le~sons) . 'Vo you understand th at?' 'Yes, I do.' ' No, I don't.'
(2) I can p lay football (w hen my foot is betteri I like swImmin g. so does Peggy.
(3) Herbert can p lay foot ball (when his foot is better): Richard doesn't like hard wo rk. neither does Fred .
(4) Pierre can speak English .bet t er (after he has had
more lessons). (,5) We can do this exercise (now that Those .....ishing to go may do so now.
we have had it explained). (6) The students can do '~ay I help myself to a cake?' ' DQ, by all means.'
this exercise (now that they have had it explained). They said Henry wouldn 't pass his examination . but he did.
(7) Jane can cook well (when she has had more
practice). (8.) Robert can't do this work (until he tries (These last tw o exam ples illu strate t he emphatic use of do in
harder). (<;) I can read a lot of boo ks (when my addition to its function of avoiding the repe tition 01 a verb.]
holidays come). (10) You can see the house (when you
get to the top of this hill). ":5) Occasionally with the imperat ive of verbs . e.g.
Do come and see us soon. Do have some more of this
• •
GJ pudding. Do stop that noise.
linen do is used, the impera tive is an urgent request rathe r
The parts are do, does, did, doing. done.
Do can be a full verb or a special finite. It is a full verb in than a command .
such sentences as: Do not (don't) is alw ays used to make the negative irn- •
H e does his work well. He did good work yesterday. What ~il.tiYe, e.g.
were yo u doing this morning ? The holid ay did me good. Do nnl (Don't) do t hat.
What does he do for a living? He doesn't do anything. DIm', go till I tell you.
When d o is a full verb it forms its interrogative and negative
with. the special finite do, as is shown in the last two examples.
As a special finite do is us ed :
! S HOULD , W O l' LD I
-(r) To form the negative and interrogative of all verb! ~nd&:iii}are defec ti ve ve rbs and have neit her infinitives .
except special finites.! ~lClpl es, gerunds nor imperative. Their uses are deal t with
l thesections on the F uture Tenses and th e Condit ional. The
1 But see 'Special Finit~' , formation of Interrogath·e. and ,ectionl
on "',:we, need, d.., _ pagC$ 19.'1 . 2 09, 213 . ~t tense of shall is should and of will is wOllld. The distinctions
~\'tn on the differences in usage between shall and will {P, 161

204 A Comprthtnsive English Grammar Verbs: (3) TIle Sp ed al Finites

' °5
to 166) apply "When these verbs are put into the past tense ( "!AV . MIGHT )
for ind irect speech. e.g.
May is a defective verb, its only part being might, used a~
Past Form its Past tense in ind irect speech. For other parts, some verb
I said that like aUQW, pn",it, etc., has to be used , e.g.
1 shall write 1 should write I shaU be aUowtd to go to the party.
1 will \~..rite 1 would write It is always a special finite.
He will ....-rite He would write M ay (m ight) is used to express:
He shall write He should write (l }{PEJUoItSSIOS/(asked or given or refused), e.g.
They will write they would write You may go now.
They shall ....-rite they should write 'M a.y I take this book?' ' No, you may not.'
But note th at in indirect speech' a pronoun in t~e first pe~n .May I go to the party ? She asked if she might go to the
is generally changed into a pronoun in the th ird pe£S?n, In party; I told her that of course she ·might. (N tgatit'e: I t old
which case sWl in the direct speech becomes u'Ould m t he her she miglsJ not .)
indirect speech, etc. If I may say 50. I think you have treated him very badly.
_ DIRECT. Henry said, 'I sA.dl write to her: There is a feeling that in making a requ est. might is rat her
_ ISDIRECT: Henry said that he U'Oidd write to her. more deferential and courteous t han may , e.g.
But not usually in th e first Person Interr ogative. e.g. MighJ I see you for a few minutes, please?
_ DIRECT: SJwll 1 get you a taxi? .
_ 11' DIRECT: He asked whether he slwuld get her a taxi.
(:li)4PROHIBITlosl<usuall)' in official notices) w ith PUlt, e.g.
Dogs may not be taken into these carriages.
Would may indicate habitual action in the past, e.g.
People may not pick Ilcwers in this park.
E very day he U'OUld get up at six o'clock gnd light the fire
(see also p. 215 ). (J).(POssIBlu r Yl e.g.
Besides bein the Past tense or sMU in re rted speech, sJiouL! Th e news may be true, of course.
, He admit ted that t he news rnighJ be t rue.
•
, Vith a meaning similar to ought WI, e.g. . You may deserve success, but you cannot comm and it .
You sJunJd do what the teacher tells you. 'People who liv e ' You nuty lead a horse to the w ater but you can't make it
in glass houses shMJd not throw stones.' (P rOllerb) drink.' (P r(IWTb)
Why sMuld I pay him? ote that in th is use th e negative of may is caPlnot (can't) ,
What's happened to the money? How sJwuld 1 know? . ot may Plot.)
II J ohn's train is up, to time, he sJumld be here any m inute lt~ig.h! as .....ell as may i~ used to express a present or a fu tu re
n~. •
(§JOn occasions where must might seem too peremptory, e.g.
Members who wan t tickets for the dance slwuld apply before
September ut to.the Secretary, . .'
..
I
-
ibility. Th e use of might in this case suggests rather more
rve or doubt on th e part of the speaker than may w ould ,
'Joe might pass his examinat ion.' ' Yes, and pigs might fiy.'
11 To form a substitu(e for the Present Subjunctive (seJ p . 227 )· I 'm not very hopeful abou t the plan , but it might be wort h
t ryin g.
t;1 ' See pa ge 363. _I t See Iection en oWl ltf-page 111. • 4

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206 A Comp rehensive English Grammar

(J) The Special Finites '°7 ,
H e saved all the money he could so th at his son might have
...(4) May is used with t he Perfect In fin iti ve to express D OUBT at a good education.
the present t ime about a possibility in the past, e,g. She was studying English so t hat she might read English
' Henry is late.' 'Yes, he nlay have been detained at the office books.
or he may have missed his usual train .' In such sentences can (coull) is frequentl y used instead of may
Their house may have been sold , but I h ave not been told (might).
about it. -48) May and might ar e also used in clauses of concession.! e.g.
If might is used with th is construction there is often an He may be poor bu t (= t hough he is poor) he is hon est.
implied negative, e.g. It may be J une bu t it's bitterly cold.
John might have lent you the money if you had asked him Try as he may, he will not pass the examination.
(.. . but you didn 't ask him) . Try as he might, he could not persuade his friends to go.
You shouldn 't have run across the TOad without looki ng -{9) Might (but not may ) is sometimes used to make a sentence
round, you might have been knocked down by a car (. . . but expressing petul an t reproach, e.g.
as it happe ned you were not). You might try to be a little more helpful (= 'Please t ry to
-{s) JIJay (might) is used in exclamatory sentences to indicate .. .' ' I wish you would be .. .')
a WISH, e.g. You might listen when I am talking t o you.
You m ight have helped me with my work (.. but you
M ayall your dreams come true!
didn't).
,1fay you have a very happy holidayl
He hoped th at we might have a very happy holiday. ' He might at least have answered my letter {. . but he
didn't).
'And may th ere be no moaning of the bar
When I put out to sea.' (Tennyson, Crossing the Bar) l M U ST \
'And, when he next doth r ide abroad , Must is a defective verb having only the one form. It is
,\fay I be there to sec!' (Cowper, J ohn Gilpin ) • always a special finite.
In these examples may is a subjunctive equiv alent (see p . 227)· (!) In one of its meanings, must has an imperative quality
-(6) May and might are used in 'that' clauses following verbs
like tru st and hope, e.g.
su estin a conunand or an obli ation. The negative{must 9
mus n t ex presses a pro, inon. an o@igation not to a •
1
I hope t hat he may get the job he wants. . somethmg, e.g. .
I trust (hop e) that you' may find this plan to your satis- You must wipe your feet before coming into th e house.
faction. The pupils were t old th at they musl wri te more neatly .
He trusted (hoped) t hat we might find the plan to our In England traffic must keep to the left.
satisfaction. You mustn 't walk on the grass.
oo{7) Afay and might arc used in adverb clauses" of P URPOSE , e.g. Cars nlllslll't be parked in front of this house. ')
There is a wonderful production of Ha mlet at Her Majesty 's
Lift little Harry up so t hat he may see th e procession,
Theatre. You must go and see it. It is something you mustn't
William is working late tonight so that he may be able t o
miss.
go to the cricket match t omorr ow.
• SM pages 3~ 1-2.
1 Notice that might m ust be used in indirect spee<;h int r oduced by
a ver b in t he Past tense. • For Ad " er b Clauses see pages 331-44·

108 ... Co"., ,,4,,,,,'" E",li.1l G,.... Hkt, Verbs: <.3) T he S pecial F inites 209
Ii) In another m..n~ ~ lmplle. I lork&1 conchliion rrUl !uJve to be told

the tru th .
'lfron. 10iilihooa:aornetfm;J'tliitlitnli1fii only rCl uonlbJ~ j{~ s!aU have to hurry if we are going to ca tch the twelve
\\t .
~x p1rm.tt9Jl, ' .1. - 'dOCk tram.
If Frod I,tt hut at four o'clock h. ,""", be hom. 1,)y nO'N
You haw workOdhud aU day ; you ..." bO tliia. - . 1.- ,0
0 )#1 (gal>" to go to the dentist today about my bad tooth .
to to the dentist yesterday abou t my bad tooth .
I sMJll MVI to go to t he dentist soon about my bad toot h.
Geof&O ....,1 be pleaMd that h, hu p, eced hi, examination
)if, ThomplOn wu . rrown man when I wu . boy; h, ""'~ ~e dentist said that if my tooth got worse I should have to
bo at I...t "ytn~ n~~, ~~~ "a'' C it out .
~ Grt.n~....,t>li"v, rte,ivtd)my I. Htr, olh,rwl.. h, tit ," usl is used to suggest an inference (as in :2 , p. 208) no
woulali"i"v,rijilltdbirort now , BU o1\yrn for must can be used.
I eM heAr th, Drown.' 'phono hln rln, ln; but no ono II !;'~Vith must the feeling of compulsion comes from the speaker ;
Iml wllrln&, It: thly pun',,',
b, at homt , 'lith have to t he compuls ion is generally from external
~rcumst ances, e.g.
131 When ttno ntiltiVOJff,iOOl',hu tho mllnl It ot nICOl_ 'lou musJ do what I tell you.
~ I thm l, ilOO6f!@'trorr;' "' " """ t • \lIe , o,r. I'm afraid you'll have to do this; it's a rule of the College.
M Ull I bo I t the pany by IOvcn o'clock?lio, YOU:fiii1i'llb, passengers must cross t he line by the bridge. (Order by the
~MVtn. '6Ufdon't bi mucl1lifcr. - Rail...... y Au thorities.)
YOU~ ttit worffili tWlnlnc: toinorrow will be lOOn pwengen lulu to C1'OSS the line by the bridge (there is no
enough. other way).
Mw' I IJ\IWtr all the qu..Uonl ' No. you ", HIli', anlw¢!' For further d iscussion of haw to see p. 196.
them all; It will be 1Uft\c lmt It you do four of them, AlIOtller form that can be used instead of must is are'{a m , is,
You fUfJfI'J ICI home yet, b\lt I "'.." , -.s, JllUe), etc., to (see p. 193).
nJ the rn...nln 0 ...If. II 'l~aLconchalon'. e e., the
"'diual nrsat ye_ I",," , ..,. , , (Ia' p, z98): \ SEED \
[ArPIItXATIVIj UFredI,tt hert at four o'clock he ".,,,' bo home Something h as already been said about the verb m ed in the
by now. ection on must .
There are two verbs need. One of them, which we will call •
~ U F red d idn 't ICIIYOhoro un tll ft yc o'clock he CdH" Iltt , s norma an qm e regular. It has all the parts of a
~ct, nonn verb (need , needs. needed, needi ng) and makes its
W F!itiliAtj yV U he laid that , he M id' be mi.taken. aterrcgative and negat ive with do (does, did). It means, 'to
(Nl CATlvl) tl he , aid that, he , . ,,', bo tollina th e tru th, require'. Examples:
I 'Iud a new suit.
INUIT Ilnd N"vl TO) our all' needed cutting; I am glad you had it cut .
tiJputIflitead
Of'
of "",., tht verb .wllf '0 it often UNd, clpoclaUy tor
futu lll or condltional lintc "..u' hal no fOnT'Ll t o oXJ'l re..
You look tired ; you need a rest .
Did you need ail t he food you took for you r camp?
Xo, we did,,'t need it all.
theaa concepti , t.r,
I TIle use o f P if, co mmon ...-itb the rr-"t t ense of .uw: it if, no t
•s. .:.0 '*lM.nd 1~W4 tpp. ' II, to.). .. - . I ...ilh other for ms.
0'T1l... "'Pt1wt u n altcl H pprMHd b)' ~ ••"fI (r. "'I}.}
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2 10 A CompreMnsive English Grammar Verbs: (3) Th e Special Finites 21I
Need is also used as an auxiliary verb. It is then followed There is an idiomatic construction illustrating both the verbs
by ififinitive with to, e.g .
ie tleed that ought to be noted:
He doesn't need to work so bard . He sent me th e money he owed me, so I didn't n eed to
You don ', n eed to answer th at question. write to him for it . (= I didn't write).
The Past T ense of ~eed AJ is needed to; its negative is[didn'/
He sent me the money he owed me, so I needn 't have
need to) :JL
1 written (= I did wr ite).
I needed to get new iVIes for my car , the old ones were badly We had plenty of bread , so I didn't n eed t o buy a loaf
(= I didn't buy one).
worn.
' ( 'didn't need to tell him the news, he already kn ew it . We had plenty of bread, so I n eedn't have bought a loaf
Th e secondt~ee14 Rnud Bt is a s~c ial finit e.. It is defec tive ,
1 (= I did buy one). .
having orily the one form. rf\e thir person Singular Present John went to the st ation with the car to meet Luc ille, so
Tense does not tak e -s. Its meaning is s~mi1ar t o. 'have to'. I t
forms its interrogative by inversion and Its negati ve ~Y adding
not (this form is almost always shortened. to n eedn I). It can
make Questi01?- P~r~ses: :\'h~n , n.ted ~ IS followed by an
infinitive, the infinitive IS plain (i.e. without (0).
I she didn't n eed to walk to the house (= she didn' t walk ).
J ohn went t o the station with the car to meet Lu cille, so
she n eedn'l have u'alked (= she did wal k).
The form needs in such sentences as:
'Needs must when th e devil drives.' (P row:rb = We must
E xamples: follow some certain course when there is no alternative)
Need he wor k so hard? 'We n eeds must love the highest when we see it.' (Tennyson)
Nee d I answer that question? is an adverb (= of necessity), not a verb.
Nee d you go so soon?
He needn 't work so hard.
( OUGHT I
You needn 't go yet , n eed you ? • _ .
llar ity of this verb as a specia llinite is that It IS not Ought is a defective verb having onl y t his one form . It is
:\ peeu 1.... . ti , d . nterroga- always a special finite. It is used to ex press th e idea of mor al
used in affirmative sentences, only III nega tve an I
tive ones. . obligation , duty, desirability. In most cases ollgM to can be
In affirmative sentences it is replaced by m ust or equiVa1cnb replaced by should; of th e two, ought 10 is t he ra t her more •
emphatic. Note that OIjgM is followed by th e infinitive with 10;
lik e have to, ougJU to, should, e.g. shou ld is followed by t he infinitive wit hout to, e.g.
Need you go yet? Yes, I must.
They ought to (shollld) pay the money.
You n eedn't see him, but I mu st. \
He ought to (should) be ashamed of himself.
It can howe ver, be used affirmatively wi th .ad,,:rbs . SUC~l ~ You ouglilio (should) come for lessons at least three times a
'h" d " areel" which h ave negative Implica tions.
ll eva, ar...yan J' week.
g I to ld him that he ollght to (should) see you.
i
e· hardly (scarcely) need say how much I enjoyed the holiday.
f£:) Ought is also used to express likelihood or strong probability,
The P ast Tense of n eed B is need . . . have, e.g .. e.g.
N eed you have scolded him so severely for 1110. bad work ; k If Alice left ho me at nine o'clock she ought 10 (should) be
had done his best? here any minu te now.

Verbs: (3) The S pecial Finites 213
212 If ComprehetUive Etsglish Gramma r
€) Rut dare can be conjugated like a normal verb, e.g .
There's a fine sunset; it ought to (sMuld) be a fine day
She didn't dare t o say a word, did she?
tomorro...... He doeHI" dare to answer my lette r.
Considering all the work you have done you oughtn" to
We didn't dare to ask if we could have a holiday. \\
(shouldn 't) fail in your examin ation.
tJ) Ought does not use shall or UJiU for its fut~re tense. A future fa wh en dare is a special finite it is followed by the infinitive
~i t h ou t to. When dare is used as an ordinary verb, it is followed
Idea is indicated by a word 'or phrase denotmg t he future, e.g. by to + infini tive.
Henry's te am ought to (slwwld) wi n the match tomorro...... (.f) There is another, slightly different , meaning of dare, viz.
Your new suit ought to (shotJd) be ready on Tuesday. '1""0 challenge', e.g.
You ought to (should) write to her as soon as you can . I darrJ him to ask the teacher to give us a holiday tomorrow.
I!~ To express a past obligation that was not fulfilled ~ght He dared me to walk down Piccad illy in my pyjamas.
'"fought not) k! have or should (shouldn 't) nav( + a past partlclple Do y ou dare me to swim to that rock and back again?
is used . e.g. Here, dare has a personal object (Iii"" me, etc.]. It is con-
I ought to (slwsdd) have written that letter yesterday (- but jugated \~..ith do and is followed by an infinitive with to.
I didn't). hjJ ust one other expression should be not iced: I dartS4y ,
You ought to ($lwsdJ) have to ld me about th is earlier (= but 'i1Iich simply means perhaps , it is probable, e.g.
• you d idn't ). He is not here yet, but 1 daresay he will come later.
(j) Oughl not to have (should not have) are used to express dis- They haven' t widened this road yet , but I daresay they will
approval of something done in the past, e.g. some day.
You ougbt not to have (Slwuldll't have) spent all that money 'Do y OIl think Alice will come and see us today?' 'Oh, I
on such a foolish thing. daresay.'
What you heard was confidential. You ought not 10 have The expression is not generally used with any pronoun except I .
(shoWdPl't have) repeated it. •
\ D."'RE )
( USED (TO) I
Only one form, t he preterite, exists. This verb is used to
Dare can be a full, normal verb, or ~t can. be a special fi nite. rontrast past and present , t o express something t hat existed •
When dare is a special fmit e it forms Its t~ lr~ person singular or was done in the past (generally a repeated action), bu t no
without' -s and has all the other characteristics of t he special longer exists or is done now, e.g.
finites except that : That is the house where we used fo live (bu t we don' t live
...{a) The construc tions ' .. . and so - 1', 'neither - I' there any longer).
(see pp. 135-6) are Dot used with dare, and He lIsrd 10 smoke fifty cigarettes a day (but he doesn't do
.(b) The 'adverbs or Irequency' come at tn it , not before it . so now).
(i) E xamt les of dare as s~i&..finite: People u sed 10 think tha t the earth was flat ;:o(but they, or at
Dare you climb th at tree? least most of the m, don't th ink so now).
Dare he go and speak to her? Used is a doubtful member of th e special fini tes. It is a
How dare you say such a thing? ,, ' special fin ir( 'n that it forms its interrogat ive by inversion, has
'You darm't climb that tree, dare you? Yes, 1 d<lre.

214 A Ctmlp fth<"sive English Cram ma , V..,bs: (J) TJ~ SPtc;(Jl Finites 21 5
a contrac ted not (used"'t) ['j u:snt} in the negative, and can W ollld is sOJ.lleti.mes used as a variant of usrd to to express
form Question Ph rases , e.g. a repeated action III the pas t (see p. 204 ), e.g .
You us ed to live in London , used,,·, y ou! The old man trOuld go every day to the park to feed the
He used,,', to smoke as much as he does now. bird s.
'There used to be an old apple tree in th e garden.' 'Oh, used - Hut U'Oflld differs Irorn llstd to in that:
there?'
Used you to climb t he old apple tree in the garden? 6J J1'oul~ i~ generally used .....ith a t ime phrase ('evcry d ay',
You used,,', to make that mistake. etc.). Tins IS not necessary with tlsed 10.
But the tendency is growing in spoken English to treat it as t2] ~~·ould su~ests willingness or volu ntary action; so it would
a normal finite and say: ~ mapprcpnate to substi tu te u'ould for ustd to in such sen-
tences as:
He didn't us e t o smoke as much as he does now,
' Th ere used to be an old apple tree in the garden.' 'Oh, did When he lived by the river, he 'lsed to suffer [rom rheu ma-
Ihne!' t ism .
Did you u se to climb the old apple tree in the garden? EXERCISES
You Jid,,', use to make th at mistake. I In what constructions i~ d o used as a Special F tni te ?
We still feel a little u neasy about using do and did in t his way , :'> Iake three sentences u'I nl:: d o (1I) a~ a ( li lt verb (b) a~
a Special Finite. . ,.
and in negati ve sen te nces we often try t o avoid the difficul t y
by us ing " ever; To the following sente nces add expressions with the
verb 'do' indicating emphasis. agreement . or disagree-
You nev" u sed to mak e that mistake. ment as you t h ink the sentence demands. If two
He MVe1' used t o smoke as much, etc . expressions can be used, give both.
There is no present form of uHd to, A repea ted action in the ( I) DQ yo u like modem music? (2) He a lwav s works
present is expressed by the Simple Present j cnse. very hard..lJl ~fay I borrow your dictionary? '(of ) I was
afral~ they would not catch their tram. (5) Tom dot'S
The verb used to ('ju :stu) should not be confused with the verb not like gettmg up early, .
u se [ju :z], or the past participle of this verb used [ju :zd], e.g.
II Complete the following sentences with one of the
I w e the same shaving brush t hat I h ave u srd for ten years. following words, as you may think is correct : shollld,
I think you have used your time well while you have been may. milM.
in E ngland. (I) There is no point in asking him fOT information;
Xor should it be confused wi th (fO ~) u$ld to [ 'ju :stu~ bow - - h ~ know? (2) Those bringing eggs to the
meaning '(to be) accu stomed to,' e.g. harvest festl\'al - lay th em in the font (CJll . rch
N o/ jet ). (3 ) - I borrow your ruler, .plea-se ? (of) You
A dam the gardener works better than I do in th e garde n ; - go out for a ahort time. but come back soon.
he's used to do ing hard work. I 'm not used to mu d il'01k, but (, ) Colonel. - I speak to you after parade ? (6) His
I'll get ustd to it in t ime, account of what happened - be true but I doubt
Th e cat comes only when I call her ; she's uSid to me, she's it. (7) Persons i n $falu pwp illa,j· ~ not play
marbles on th e Senate House steps (Ca"l bti d6t
not u sed to you. Unl:t·t ,sity Rtgulatio ns). (8) He - get the prize "if
Th is construc tion may be followed by th e gerund (see pp . he IS very lucky. (9) They - have helped you
146--8), e.g. if only you had told them all the facts. (10) You
He is us ed to gett ing up early . • i.e. undergr:a.duatn ,
•

,
,,6 A Comprehm sive Engl ish Grammar Vnbs: (3) The ."ped al Finites " 1
_ at least have t old m e yo u were going to be VII Rew rit e t he following sent ences in such a way t hat
married . (I I) - all your Christmases be white llud can take the place of t he existing verb:
(Pop ular SO", ). (12) I hope they - find t~e sort of ( I) I s it abso lutely necessary for you t o work late every
bouse they a re looking for : (13) I 'm do ing t his t onight night ? (2) Surely we a re not obliged to show our t icket,
10 t hat I - have more tim e t o spa re in t hemoming. again, are we ? (3) I t shouldn't be necessary for us to
(141 Yo u - at least show appreciation of his p&» an other medical examination, shou ld it ? (4) I
kin dne$$ . (151 Wh a t )''011 propose - be useless b ut found I had eno\lgh money after all so it was not
it', worth try ing . necessary for me to cash a cheque, (5) Are )'OU
III (0:1) In t he following sen tences U $C: t he IIIU lt to form compelled t o go to the station to see h im off at
ins tead of .....51: t hree o 'clock in the morning ? (6) It can hardl)' be
necessary for me to say that I am grateful for you r
(I) We mll .t work hard to lea rn English. (2) I ~ust go kindness? (7) Is it impera t ive for me t o appl y in
home now . (3) W ill iam mu s t go to t he (klltls! to- person ? Yes, it is . (8) You are not compelled to
morrow, answer all his q uestions . (9) H e telephoned t o me this
(h) In the following use the am to fonn : morning, 50 it was unnecessary for me to go a nd see
(II I must see the H eadm ast er a t t h ree o'cloc k > h im . (10) You have no reason t o be anxious a bout the
(1) W e m ust meet on Saturday. ()) '-l ust I understand time: it is qu ite early yet.
that you are not coming? (4) I told him he m ust not YI II I n the following sentences explain how the meaning
make that mistake a.gain. (s) I said, ' You must n ' t o f (a) differs from tho meaning of (h):
do that.' ( I) (a) I didn't need t o I'tave the door unloc ked , John
IV Give the opposites of the follo...~ng. (a) U:Ul?lyi ng ' there had a key.
is no necessity' , (b) with negative prohibition; (h) I need n' t have left t he door unlocked; J ohn h~
( I) They mu st come to school t omorro..... (2) I m ust be a key.
home before ten o'clock. h ) Vou m ust pay h im t oday. (2) (<I) 3he(lidn't need t o t ell me the time of the t ra in:
(4) Vou must answer every question on t he paper. I knew it already.
(s) He must go to Brighton next week. ' (b) She needn't have told me the time of the train:
V The verb ",,,,,I can be used to express 'hrious concepts, I knew it alread y .
e .g. command, logical con clusion. compu~on . Con -
struct een teeces to ilIusuate all the possible CortIIS, (3) (a) He d id n't need t o take a taxi: it is only five
including -nega th "a where they can be used, stating minu tes' walk t o the hou se,
potosible alternative terms whe rever you Go.w the.m, (b) He needn 't have taken a taxi: it is only five •
and explaining in eac h case the exact sense In which minutes ' walk t o the house.
the verb is employed . ' I X Rewrit e the following 10 tha t they refer to fJ4s1 time;
VI (<I) Complete th ese sentences vl"lth 'Question Phrases '; ( I ) You o ught to get here by nine o'clock. (2) I sup-
( I) You needn't write to h im, - ? (2) He needs a pose I ough t t o pay the money. (3) How much ti me
new overcoat , - ~ 13) He need ed all the he lp you should I spend on this exercise? (4) The teacher ough t
could give h im, - ? (4) You needn't answer elver y t o tell you a bou t th is be lore y ou (10 the exercise,
question, - ? I,) HI.S ha ll" needs cut t ing, - , (5) You shou ldn 't lea ve my boo k out in th e rain .
(6). He oug h t not t o spe ak like that. (7) Wh y should
(b) Give answers to these qu estions : I do a ll t he wor k ? (8) Ought I to wri te out t his
( I) ~eed you go 10 lOOn? Yes , - . (2) Who n eed n 't exercise? (9) H ow much ought I t o give h im ? (10) The
catch the early tuin ? George - , (3) Need we answer wireless should n ' t ma ke th at noise.
all the question.? Yes, you - . (4) :Nee<.!- George go
to London tomorrow? No, he - . C~) Xeed George X Complete t he following sentences with ough t a nd
go t o London tomorrow? Yes, he - . describe the sense or/ghl expresses ill each case.
.
•
2I8 A CompTdunsive E nglish Gramma r
( I) If he is lucky be - - to pass his examination
easily. (z) You _ to have told me about this before.
(J) My fath er "'65 very annoyed and s.i.id we - not C IIA P T E R nFTE EN
, to have WlUlted our money li.ke that. (-4) If the plane
arrives on time th ey - to be here in time for dinner.
(.5) The . trong - - to help the weak.
( VE RBS'I@ VOICE I
XI Add ' Question Phrases' to each of the following: If the person or thing denoted by t he subj ect of a sentence is
( I) You d aren't do that, - ? (2) He didn' t dare to llie doer of the action, then that form of the verb is the ACTIVE
do th at, - - ? (3) He won't dare to do that, - ? +ole E, e.g.
(-4) He dared you to do that, - - ? (,5) You u sed to live
there, - ? (6) H e useda't to work in London, - ? The boy kicked th e footbanAActive Voice}}
(7) He never used to spend so much money before he If the person or thing denoted by t he subject of a sentenc e is
k n e-...· Lucille, --? (8) You used to like dancing, die rece iver or sufferer of the action, then tha t form of the
- ? (9) He daren't say what he th inks, - -? (10) verb is the PASSIVE VOICE , e.g.
He didn't dare to $8.y what he th ought , - ?
X II Change th e wording of the following sentences so that Th e football was kic ked by the boy[(Pass ive Voiceq
either dan or uu d 10 or iu negative is employed as the The passive voice is formed by using the appropriate tense of
verb: the verb to be + the past participle of the verb , e.g. (See
( I) Have you the courait: to dive from the top of the ble on p. 220. )
springboard ? (2) How can you make such an impudent
remark ? (3) They weren' t b... V'C enough to tackle tha t
Note that the passive may h ave the same Iorm as he past +
iciple (used adjectivally) , e.g.
fi erce dog. were th ey} {-4l We ch allenged them to come
an d fi ght us. (5) Before th ey moved they came every The tree was u pTooted by th e wind . (P assit'e VOice )
day to play bridge. (6) It was his ha bit to ride in the
Park every day. (7) At one time it was though t that.
The t ree was upTf)ohd whe n we saw it . (be +
Past Participle)
the sun went r ound the earth. (8) Did you not \-isit The passive voice is not merely a fonnal variant of the
m y uncle's neuse Irequec tly at one time? (9) They • active voice, able to replace it with out any change of meaning;
were not so rich in Y<:J.r. ren e hy. (to) In their father 's there is a difference of emphasis. Generally speaking, the
llfetime they were !.r r u »ued to dr ink wine with bj ect of the sentence is th e main point of interest; the pa ssive
th eir meals. ice is the grammatical device that gives the object of a
XU'I L plain the difl'f"rence ill meaning between: sitive verb pr ominence by making it the subj ect . So, when
• {~} He dared to $"";m scross the river; and : we want t o place the emphasis on t he perform er of the action, •
(t) He dared me to swim across the river. we generally use the active voice; when we want to place the
(d) She dared to uk the teacher fOf a holiday: a l'ld: phasis on the action, or on the receiver of the action, we use
(b) She dared me to uk the teacher for a holiday. e passive voice. Thus, in the sent ence:
Albert is cleaning the car. (Active Voice)
our point of int erest is primarily 'Albert '. The sente nce is the
answer to some question like: 'What is Albert doing?'
In the sentence:
The car is being cleaned by Albert. (P aSSIve Voice)
the emphasis is now on 'the car' and the fact t hat it is being
..,
cleaned. This sentence is perhaps the an sv..et to t he question:
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A Comprehu lSit·t E ngli sh Gremma r Verbs: (4) Voice 22 1
' wh et is happening to tile car?' We ar e so little concerned with

filM is cleaning it that qui te often we should omit all reference
to the agent {i,e. the person or thi ng that r.;rforms the action)
and simply say : 'Th e car is being cleaned. This is particularly
the case where the agent is vague or unimportant or unknown.
So the passive voice is often used in E nglish where , for example,
on is used in French or ma n in German with t he active voice.
Th us:
' lei on parle francais', or:
' llier sprieht man deutsch', would be in English:
'French } (.IS) spok en h ere. '
'C erman
.-• •• I n sentences like this. t he agent with by is alwavs omitted:
an d in many other cases, where th e active construction is
changed to the passive, it is better t o omit t he agent . F or
example, in turning the following sentence from active voice
to passive voice;
People in Brazil speak Portuguese.
~ the answer should be:
"•• Port uguese is spoken in Brazil. NOr.
.--
~ --~
~
~
Portuguese is spoken in Brazil by people.
The following examples will illus tra te this point further:
,
- I
Active 7
No one has used that door
I PQssit'e7
That door hasn 't been used
for twenty years. for twenty years.
Readers must not t ake Books in the Reference
away books in the Refer- L ibrary must not be
ence Library. taken away.
Someone stole my watch My watch \\" ~ s stolen t his
this morn ing. morm ng.
We use pure butter in these Pure butter is used in these
cakes. ca kes.
They make cotton goods in Cotton goods are made In
Lancashire. Lancashire.
H ave you fed the ch ickens Have the cllickens been Ied
yet? yet?
L.
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r u bs: (4) Voice
222 A Comprehensive E nglish Grammar
Since, in th e change from active to passive voice, the subj ect
t Actit!el {passive]
offered a post 10 the
The Prime ~I inister (I ) He was
of the passive construction is fanned by t he object, of t he Cabinet .
acti ve one, only tran sitive verbs can be used in the passive offe red h im a post
in the Cabinet . (2) A post in the Cabinet was
VOice. So verbs of Incomplet e Pred ication, e.g. su m, be, u come,
etc., can never be used in t he passive; e.g. H e beca1ml K i llC •• offered hi m.
could never have a passive form such as A ki llC was beco1ml by T hey awarded him (I) He was awarded th e Nobel
him. But certain intransitive verbs can be made into transitive t he Nobel Peace Peat e Prize in 1951.
ones by th e ad dition of a preposition. These verbs can be used Prize in 19SI . (2) The Nobel Peace Prize was
in the passive voice, e.g, awarded him in 1951.
His plan tNt laughed aJ by everyone who heard it . Note in t he above ex amples t he omission of the agen t wit h
That is a famow bed ; it tNt supt in by Queen Elizabe th I. by. T he const ruction by + agent would be unnatu;31 , and
The children will be C4red lor while she is away. unnecessary in sentences like these, where ~e 'doer' I~ either
I believe the house was deliberately sd fi re to. dear from the meaning of the sentence, or I S not of interest
Such success was never dreamed of when we first started. to us,
Th ough all transitive verbs can, theoretically, be made
passive, there are cases where, in practice, the passive would EXERC ISES
not be used ; for exam ple: I Tum the following sentences into th e passive voice:
He had a good breakfast before M UlC7I t to work (oj
would not be used passively as: ( I) The waitreM brings th e coffee. (2) The waitress is
A good brtdfasl uw W by him , .• bringing the coffee. ()) The waitr. brought ·the c?ffee.
(<II The waitreM has brought the coffee. (5) The wartress
Som~ verbs, such as git'e, tell, show, lend, t«. uTite, pay , sell, was bringing the coffee. (6) The waitress had brought
h y, brlllg, _ ,t" f adl, p,omiu, UadI , tak e two objec ts , one the coffee. (7) The ...·aitreM will bring the coffee. (8) I
usually standing for a person, the other for a thing.I The word aball bring th e coffee. (9) The waitress will have
for the person is the Il"OI RECT OBJ ECT and is the first of the two brought the coffee. (10) I shall have brought the coffee.
objects; the w ord for the thing is the OIRECT OBJ ECT, e.g. He sold (.)
us (indirect) /lis house [direct], Here, us mean s 'to us'. H is (I) I finished my work at ahout five o'clock. (:) We use
mother made Tom {indirect] a cake. Here T om = 'for Tom'. your books in our class. (3) They gave him a very..
Further examples: handsome present when he retired. (..1 We opened the
bcxea and took out the cigarettes. (5) Do people speak
He told me a sto ry . I shov...ed him my new CaT, He gave me English all over the world~ (6) Somebody built .t his
some good advice. You o w e him fifty pence. She taught house in 1585. (7) You must answer all the questions
him French. They promised Henry a bicycle for his birthday. on the paper. (8) They blamed me for something that
I had n't done. (9) They are sending Mr. Brown abroad
If a sentence containing two objec ts is expressed in the on business. (10) People will forget th e whole incident
passive ~o!ce , either of t hose objects may become the subject, after a few weeks. ( II) He took them for a drive in the
though It I S perh aps more usual to make the personal obj ect new car. (n) People are talking about him everywhere.
th e subjec t of the passive voice. Examples: (t)) I told him to write to that address. (141 You m u ~t
plan your work carefully. (151 Someone gave me a pair
• The verb ~w m.ay have an indirect object standing fnr a thing, e.g. of gloves for Chr istmas. ( 16) They told me you had gone
As the ball came to him he gave if a kick.
Give IAiI ",,,,J,. )·our lull attention.

224 A Comprehensive English Gram mar
to Paris. (17) I t 's t ime someone to ld him what is wrong;
(18) Tbe)' gave me a tick.et for Xewtown inst ead of for
Newton. (19) They did n 't tell me all t he details of the
C H A P T E R S IXTE E:.:
case . (20) They took him t o hospital in an am bulance.
II Tum the following sent ences into the passive voice:
(1) The English people greatl y love t he Queen. (2) Did IVERBSI@>loOVI
the Customs Officers search y our l uggage very carefully?
(3) "'b en the parade wu over. th e comm anding officer Mood is a grammatica l term used to denote the forms tha t a
dWniNed the troo~. (. ) The police denied him entry t o verb takes to show what wor k it is doing (e.g. expressing a
the countf)'. (5) Somebod y has taken all my books. statement , a command , a wish, etc.], and the manner in which
(6) Scotl and Yard officers are investigating t he crime. th e action or state is thought of by the speake r.
(7) They cannot trace the criminal. (8) They shall Thereare th ree moods, I S DleATI\'E:,lllPERATlVE, SI: BJ ll NCTI\·E .
not treat me u if I were a baby. (9) The cou nd l have The one that IS by far t he most commonly used is the Indica;
approved the plans for the bu ilding bu t we h aven 't
raised the money. (10 ) The garage mechanic h as washed lirt , This is the mood used to make statements and ask
and greased ycur car. questions. All the tenses discussed in pages 157 to 180 are in
the Ind icative ~I ood .
III I nd icate which word in each of the tone...-ing sent ences
is the direc t objec t and then ...- rite the sen tences in the
passive voice. In each sentence t.... o forms are possible. [ T il E I MP E RATIVE Slooo]
( I) The managl"f offered him the choice of t ....o posts in
the fum . (:) The school governors gave her a scholarship TI le I mperati ve mood has the same form , in the second
10 the University. (J) We e&noot a....ard him good marks Person singul ar and plural, as the infinitive without to. In the
on the work be has done. (4) Their uncle left them all his t and third persons it is preceded by la and an accusative ,
property when he died . (5) They gave you the present e.g. ' Lefs l go the the cinema.' ' I can't see him just now ; In him
th at was intended for your father. wait .' It is used to give orders or commands or to make requests,
I V In the following senteeees put all the finite verbs in the e.g. 'Opnt your books.' ' D01l't 1'I4ke so much noise.' 'PIUS the
passive voce: t . please.' The 'request' may be:
( I) He promised )"0\1 that they would meet ycu at the {I~ UnREATi1 e.g.
station. (:) Certainly we shall count on you to devote
yourself to the work ...·e are giving you to do. (J) It 'Spar' a penn y, sir, for a s tarving man.'
aston.Qhed us to hear that you had not received our 'HdP! Hdp! I'm drov..ning.'
le tter. (4) They had only lived in that house fOI three
weeks w hen fire destroyed it. 1.51 His failure bitterly (2~I!''' STR IJCTION :t
disappointed his parents, especially as they had been 'To get to the Sh akespeare Theatre, tu r1l to the right at the
l;OuuWlg on his success. river and kup strai gh t on .'
b~r&lI I NVITATI ON: )
'Come inside and meet my wife .'
'Batl' a cigarette.'
(4@ S UGGEST IOS :'
'Where ( an I fi nd ~Ir . Smith?' 'I'm not sure. Try his office
or ring up h is house.'
I _ I~t us.
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226 A Comprehensive English Grammar Verbs: (5) ,\food
.(sr{A CON DITIO:") e.g. '"
G 'S ES OF TIl~: PRESE~T Sl'RJL' NCTI Vd
Do that again and I'll call a policemanlt
S uppose you had a million pounds, how wou ld you s peno: l1Je Present Subjunctive is used:
the money? ":I ~ to express a wish or a prayer, e.g.
The subj ect (which is always in the second person) is no: God savc the Quecn .
usually expressed with the imperative. If it is expresseg lIeaven f orbid that . . .
(usually in negative sentences), it may be in order t o add
emphasis. lieaven htlp us,
Be that as it may , . .
Don't yO" dare to say I am Dot telling tbe truth, 'ThY Kingdom comc, Thy will be done , . "
rye been answ ering questions all day. Don't you start now
,~ wish can also be expressed by may (Past Tense might)
If the subject is put in an affirmative sen tence it is usuajt-
t o express contrast, e.g. . +infinitivc, e.g.
Y lnl take that piece and I'll take this. May you be happy all your life.
Y ou ask the first qu estio? and I'll ask the next one. They prayed that he might soon be well again.
In conversation the imperative is often used to express a ..(2"'after verb s expressing a will or wish for the futu re, an d
...vish, e.g. dter verbs like p ropose, slfggest, etc. This is chiefly in very
Hat'e a good holiday! E njoy yo urself and ,01'1l e back q uite lonna! English and especially in legal English. EXQmpks:
well again . It is our wish that he do what he pleases .
J r rc- i"N~ · :e~~,~t" ". She urged that he w itt and 4CUpt the post .
~ t. ( T HE S l' BJU:"CT IVE MOOD 1 I propose that the Secretary's resignation be accepted.
There are three Subjunc tive forms of the ver b: the Presem The King ordered that th e man be released.
Subj unctive, the Past Subjunct ive and the Past Perfect Sub. 43r occasionally in adverbial clauses of concession or
j nctive. condition, e.g.
TN T1VE of all verbs other t ha n the verb
to be is identical with t e imple Present Tense I ndicative, Though the whole world cOlldtmll him, I will still believe
except that th e third pe rson singular term is the same as in in him. •
all the other perso ns (i.e. without the -s ending) , The Present This, if the new's be tru e, is a very serious matter.
S~b ! Unc ti\'e Icrrn of to be is be for all per.;ons. 'Murder , though it Mt't' no tongue, will speak
I If, PAST $ I' BIJ ' :s q JVE) is identical with the Simplf With most miraculous organ. ' I
Past Te nse l ndicatrve, except that the verb to be has uere for
a ne rsorrs. • In uses (2) and (3) the subjunct ive, is ofte n replaced by
C i iEYnI PER FECT Sl' IU p CI IVE\ is identical in form with the SUBJ v r; CTI \,E E QUI VAlE:iT shou ld + the infinitive, e.g.
the Past Perfect Indicat ive. It is our wish that he shollld do wha t he pleases.
The subjunctive forms are used in a small number of con' Though the whole worl d should condemn him, I will still
structi ons; the construct ions with the Present Subjunctive believe in him.
tend to be ra ther lite rary. If we should {ail in this, we are ruined .
• 5«.also Cond itional C4u_. pa~s 3i7-S"
I Shakespeare, /l iu ..ld.

118 A Comprehensive English Gram.,laY
Vn bs: (5) M ODd 229
{USES OF T HE P....ST SUB1U:-ICTl\-e} time we left for t he airpor t. (6) Don 't you touch that or
you'll break it . (7) Did you enjoy his sing in~ this
The Past Subjunctive is used: eveninj;? (8) Have a good time a t t he party. (9) II I WeTe
-(I r In conditional clauses implying a negative, or in clauses in his place. I should accept their offer. (10) I ,uggC$t
in which t he condit ion is combined with improbabili ty or t hat he be nominated u Chairman.
unreality. e.s. II Writ e five eemences in whic b the ver bs are in the
If I wtTe you, 1 should accept the offer. subjunc tive mood.
If he were really interested in buyin g the propert y. he would HI xame t he mood s of t he verbs in the follo....ing sen tences:
have made an offer before now. (I ) Let us go to the th eat re t his evening. shall we!
What would ),ou say if 1 asked you to join us for a holiday ? (2) What shall we do, su pposi ng t here are no seats lelll
(3) It was ordered tha t no smoking be allowed in the
~1)o After such expre ssions as: 'I wi sh (that) . . .' , 'Suppose libra ry . (4) If you did t ha t , you would be very sorry
(that) . . .'. 'I had rather (t hat) . . .', 'as if .. .', 'It's (high) time a fterward s. (s) Will yo u have a little more meat, Mr. X I
(that)' .. .'. Examples :
1 wish I were as handsome as he is.
I wish he visited us more often.
Suppose (that) the teacher caught us wasting time.
I had rather (that) you told him than (that) I did .
He ran as if his life depended on it ,
It is (high) time I went home.
It will be noted that except in the case of to be. verbs in these
expressions could be considered as being in the Simple Past
Tense.
III _ Notice that the PAST SUBJ U~CTI VE is U5uallS' concerned wit h
PRESENT time, e.g. It's a lovely day ; I wish I ll'tTe at t he seaside
(NOW) .
To speak of PAST time the PAST PER FECT SUBJU NCT IVE is used' •
e.g. It was a lovely day yesterday; I wish I had bun at t he
seaside then . (See also Conditi onal sent ences, pp . 347- 51.)
EX ERCISES
I Xame th e moods of the verbs in th e following sentences:
( I) Keep straight on until you come to t he theatre and
then turn left. (2) we saoutd have gone for a walk today
if the weather had been fine. {J) Come and have a drink.
(4) H ea ven help the sailot5 on a n ight like t his . b l It is
• Bllt aJter ' It', time that '• .as no t .... in Ihe first a nd th ird pe rKI n
singular would be usual. e.e. It·, lime that I - ' going.

Ver bs: (6) The N on -Finites 2] 1
tlitUi to 1$ l)S EI): )
I S FI S IT IVE W!Ttl
~after the special finites ought and u sed, e.g.
C H A P T E R S EV ES TEEt' J\rau ought to go. 1 used to lit'e there. _
, -J.\;!\ ;..=1) "-.A>3IJ. J\;'\\ 'r with do, nud and dare when they are used not .as special
t tes but as fuU verbs, e.g.
( VER BS:] 6 THE :-;'O:K-FIXITES
' 1 did it to please you. You don't need to go yet .
The non -finites are the n mve, the Participles and the l'Ie won't dare to di sobey his teacher.
Gerund.
~"..with. be and have ..... hen they ~e used to express commands,
()lTIpulslOn, etc.. e.g. .
( T HE I NF ISITIVE(
c you a re to go to the Headmaster's room at once.
Th is is the 'dictionary fonn' of th e verb, i.e. the fonn under I have to be in my office by 9 o'c lock .
which a verb appears in the dictionary. It expresses the notion (Jafter th e Verbs of Perception: g e, hear, f!!l, etc, (see also
of the verb in its general sense, not as it applies to any ~ 169), and after ~e and W, e s.
particular subject . It is called 'infinit ive' because its (ann is
not limited (Latin finis = limit ), as a finite verb is, by the She saw him take t he money .:
nwnber and person of its subject. There are four fonns of J heard her play the piano.
the Infin itiv e: He felt his blood run cold and h is flesh crup.
The t eacher made him tnite out the exercise again.
Don't mak e me laugh .
S imple Perf ect I "till let you use my bicycle.
Let's a ll go to the cinema.
Adit'e (to) write (to) have written
Passive (to) be ....-rit ten (to) have been writ ten -But if these verbs are used in the passive voice, the infi nitive
We5 to, e.g.
• • • He was heard to cry.
The infinitive is usually, but not alw eys . preceded by to, c.g. They had been made to trork.
He wants to learn English. He was seen 10 take t he money,
' To err is human, to f orgive divine.' (A lexa nder P op e) The verb help sometimes, and generally in American English, •
Let me tell you a story. is followed by th e infinitive without to, e.g.
I saw him take th e money. He helped me (to) compose th e letter.
The infinitive wit hout /0 is somet imes called the 'plain' or Will you help me (to) clean the car?
'b are' infin it ive.
(jhJter b4d be/{ff , !uEL (U'O lIld) rallt.a, had (WOll/1i) SOO'l(r ,
{THE P LAI S INF INIT IVE r(WITIl O UT .t~Us USE D: "'fJ hardly , cannot fmt, e.g.
You had better leU him t he truth . 1 had (would) rather not
<U aft er the special finites can (e(m Id) , do (did), may (Hlight),
see h im. I' d sooner take a taxi t han walk. I need hardly tat
shall (sM uld) , !&iU (trollld) , Must , nttd , Jare, e.g,
you how serious the matter is. 1 cannot but (- cannot do
He can sped French. Did you hear a noise? I might go.
anything except) agrte to h is terms .
We shall mut him. I will h<lp you You must come with us.
You needn't go yet. I daren't leat'e him. ~HE t NFI NITI \ ' F. WITH tdls USE D in all other eases.
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232 A Comprehensit'e E nglish Grammur V erh.s: (6) Th e N cm-F inites 233

that forms the object of a ver b. This is called the ACC\.:SATt \"l:'
TilE PARTICLE !lWWlTHOllT TItE INFINIT VE nl FIS lT l VE const ruction . E X{lwPl f s:
There are occasions when the particle to is used wit hout the
infiniti ve verb. This const ruction (omission of the infinitive A " usative I nfi ni/h 'e
verb) occurs when the so refers to a ver b that has previously
been used and that , if expressed, would be an infinitive Wi th He helped m, to d ig my garden
to, e.g. I made him do ;,
I shall go if I want to (go). They let u, go
He won 't work harder th an he needs to (work). J ohn asked him to write to rou
He would like to come but he 's afraid he won't be "ble to I watched h" come into the room
(come). I have never
If you don't know the answer, you ough t to (know it), known him to beha ve so b...dly before
'Will you come to din ner with me?' 'I should love to (come): He couldn 't bear h" '0be unhappy
I
~ FU~CTIOSS OF THE Is F IS lT IVF. \ (2,) The infinitive may have an ad verbia l function , generally
@ The infinitive can act as a noun. Thus, it may be :
oJ'Purpose or result , e.g.
I went there to see him .
..(ar T he SUBJ ECT of a sent ence, e,g. Mary has gone to gel some fru it .
T o act like t hat is childish . He is working late to trUlke liP lor h is absence yest erda y.
To knt:M all about English is one thing; to k1!1)tlI E nglish is r have come to learn English.
quite anoth er. He was lucky enough to wit, t he prize.
-{b>- The COMPLE MES T of a verb, e.g, • You should cat 10 live, not live [ 0 tal.
• Help yourself to th e cake; it is t here 10 w eaten.
Th ey are to be married soon. 'And fools, who came to scoff, remained 10 p ray.'
To live like t his is to enj oy life. (Goll; bmit h , D furted Village)
This house is w let. •
How do you t hink I am to answer the letter? Ij) It may have an adjecti val function an d qualify a noun
o~n indefin ite pron oun , e.g .
What I like is to swim in the sea and then 10 lie on t he warm
sand. That is not t he way to speak t o y our uncle. (qu alifying way )
Look at the number of shops to let. (qu alifying .slwp s)
..(cj. The OBJ ECT of a verb, e.g, Alexander the Great wept because he had no more worlds
I want to knt:M the answer. to cOtlqufr. (qual ifying I£I()rld s)
He must learn to wor k hard and to sat'e money. That was a silly thing [0 do,
'Men fear death as children fear to go in th e dark : (Frallds He wore a pa le blue shin and a ti e to match.
Bacon) He gave me something to eat.
I should like to hat'e bun told the result earlier. They have not hing to do.
There is a construct ion in which the infinitive t ogether «ith 15 there anyone to take care of these child ren?
a noun or pronoun (in the objecti ve case) makes a close group The quest ions 10 bc IlIlSWfTcd are on page 40,

:Z j..$ A Compf(hnlsil:l En glish G,.,Wlm ar Verbs: (6) Th e .voll-F illites 235
GJ It is used wit h adjec ti'ves ex pressing emotion or desire , e.g /7) Jt is sometimes used in exclamatory sen tences, or in sen-
I was very glaLi to $«( you. . tarces expressing a wish unlikely t o be realized , e.g.
He is happy /del ighted /content {to be with us. To thi" k he knew abou t it all the time!
George was anxious feager /to get home. Oh ! to bt yo ung again .
I am ycry ple ased /0 havr bten of help. 'Ohl to Le in England
It is used also with some other adjec tives, c.g. fit. able etc: r-;C1W that April's there.' (Browning, Home Thoughts I rolll
T hese shoes arc not III to '/I:ea , . Abrtxld )
• Tom isn't able to go to the party. (TI ll': 'SPLIT IS F IS ITIYE ' \
Richard is sure to comt:; he 'll be the 6rst Ie come and last
Some grammarians conde mn the usc of t he 'split infinitive '
to go awa y . t.e. th e placing of a word or words between th e to and the lJerb,
O ther a dj ectives t ll;,lt ca n ta ke th is co nstruc tion arc: . e.g. 'to qu ickl y agree', 't o really un derstand', But th e spli t
af raid. ready, worthy. easy. hard, certain, lIStless , possible, infinitive dates ba ck t o the thirteent h century and can be found
right, (" nlaWe, # " Ol1g . etc. in the work of many famous auth ors.
Fowler says: 'A split infi nit ive, t hough not desirable in itself,
Some adve rbs also take this construction , e.g. f ar, best: is preferable to eit her of tw o things , to real ambiguity or to
lie knows how far to go. patent art ificiality.'! He quo tes with approval:
She explained how best w,cook the meat , 'Our object is to fu rther cement t rade relat ions .'
~ The infinitive can be used in 'absolute' constructions 'This will tend 10 fi rlllly rslab/ish good relations be t.....een
S~l as : . Capital and Labour.'
To tell you the truth , I don't kn ow what the a~s~\'er .IS . Jespersen,l following F owler , add s furt her examples of
T o hear him talk, you would t hink he was a millionair e. ,,·hich he approves:
To cut w long story sheri . . . He likes to half ckse his eyes.
To cOllti nue :rith ",hal I was say illg. . .• • • He was t oo ill to rrally ra" )' ou t IIi" IIUl)"_
(f) It is used after kfU}:S> and certain other verbs with In - The best guidance, perhaps, is: 'Don 't use a spli t infi nit ive
telrogati\·e words (see pa ttern s on pages 3r!J-7, 3g8) . e.g. anjess you have a good reason [or do ing so .'
•
I don't kn ow how to tell you.
EX ERCISES
She knows where to find the key. .
You will soon learn when to use that cons truction. I Pic k o ut the in fi nit ives and describe t he func t io n 01each
in t he followi ng !Sen tences:
Show him ho w to do the exercise.
(Jl T o com plete that book in three m on t hs was a grea t
_ SOTE : The ....erb klWW mus t h ave one of the ~'ords 1uM, achievement. ( ~) That seems bard to do but is less
If tl' hm alt er it when a simple infinitive follows It . Such a d iffic ult th an it loob. (J) Strain every nerve to succeed.
sen tence as: t"l Wh y d id you try t o persuade hi m to come with us)
(5) It is easy t o c nuc iee . (ll} T o climb E veres t lICCmc.J an
' He knows t o speak English' is wrong. imposs ible task, ~7l Will you teach me t o pJay tC ll nis ~
Bu t knoll' without one of these words is possible with not, e.g. (Ill I saw him ru n the mile in (our minutes. (9) The dOl>
H e knows «ot to speak (= that he must not spe ak ) whe n wants something to cat . (10) We are to have a holiday
the Headmaster is spe aking. • 10104" .. E ..glid. VI"; ' . • E U,N liAll t;>f ENgli" C, IiI,,,,,.,....

•
Verbs: (6) TIle Nun -Fi'ule! 237
236 A Comp,thtPlsit:e Englis h Graln/nar
participle in -td in the case of regular verbs. For irregular verbs
tomorrow. (11) '\'bat do you think is the r ight ~ing t o ~ pages 145- 153.
do ? In) I tremble t o think wh at your father will say. The verbs ""'y. $M1I, call, wilJ, must, oug/Ii, ustd (to) have
(I) The men have come to take down the tree. (14) She 110 part iciples.
must do as she is told . (r s) He made me te ll him the The difference between the present participle construct ion
, wh~e sb»y. . . and the pas t participle one is that the present participle
- 11 ' 61j Construct sentences each containing an in~n1tlve construction generally has an acti ve meaning, the pas t
and using one of the following as the finite "orb In each participle a passive one. Compare:
sentence:
It",m, ~ee. ". ..st, 1". hop., owgllt. IIta" in/tMd, 4tH', lill" He found the fire brm ling He rou nd the house bll1nrd
had null" , do, At/p, nud, nud hardly. brightly (= the lire ....'as down (= the house was
(b) Give ave sent ences each con t aining a Perfect In - burning. AClive) burned . P,usive)
finitive.
HI Complete the follow ing so as to make complete sen t ences: I heard him playing t he I heard the 'Moonlight
(1) _ if he wishes to. 'Moonlight Sonata' (= he Sonat a' pklyed by Myra
(1) _ wheth er I $hall be able t o. was playing. Ad ive) Hess (... it was played by.
I]) - faster th an he n eeds t o. Pass;vt )
(4) - I 5ha.1I be glad t o.
tS) - you certainly ough t t o. But this is not invariabl y the case, The past participle is
Wh at characterist ic of t he infinittve do these sentences ICtive in such examples as: a rrlired teacher (= a teacher .....ho
illus trate? retired); the laIl~n angel s (:3 the angels who feU); a
IV Construct live sentences. each one, uling one ~f the ""herd (faded) rose (= a rose that has w ith ered (faded»; an
follo...ing adjectives plus the Infimtlve of a verb. tS:llptd prisone r (= a prisoner who has escaped).
dijJiewlt, iM/'l'Sribu , urn"t, w"fit, af,aid , SlI,e. We have already seen one of the very import ant functions
\' Definethe function of the in fin it rve in each of the foliO"' - 01 the present participle; to form, with various parts 01 t he
ing sentences after you "ave completed the sentences: YUb to bl , th e Continuous Tenses (p. J68), e.g.
(1) To speak plainly - . He is workin g in the gar den: I shall be writing to you. T hey
(2) To be brief - . have been visiUng their uncle.
(3) - just how fast to go. ,
(..l - how to climb the ~ta,r5 . We have noted also two functions of the past participle:
(,5) Oh to be young - , (I ) To form , with various parts 01 the verb to have, the
VI Make a sentence, containing what you consider to be a Perfect Ten ses (p. 174), e,g,
permissible split infinitive.
He has spent all his money , She had studied English before
( T HE P ART IC IPLE S I she came to England. You should have Jjsl(ll(J to me,
(2) To form the passive voice {po 2191, e.g.
There are rwo par t iciples, the .~sen t Pa.rt ici.ple and the
P ast Participle.' The present participle ends m -l'Ig, the past The window was broun. T he cakes had been t ate,..
• The teruu 'praent ' a nd 'past ' here may be lIlisiea.ding. The ' put'
puticipres i.a such phrues as 'a disJioapiJAH Kientist·, 'a ~"".. \ THE A DJ ECTI VAL USES OF P.U.TICIPl.ES J
train ', 't'f>O/ur& EDgiish' do not refer n~t;MU~Y !o a n action or IU.t~
in the put: nor doe. ~e presen.t pamciple In a , .... ":""~"t WO~D, But the participles have another fU!1cti.on. Though they ~re
'a n i~uli"l book" lignIfy a ny lime at a ll. I t .llI, howe-.e" con.Vt m cllt partly verbs, they are also part ly ad)e<:tl\'e5 and can function
- now t hat the reader haa b«'n <wa m ...J- to reta, n th e .. sua! ter mlloology .
I
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I 238 .-t Comprehm sit·, Engli sh Grammar

Verbs: (6) Th e N on-Finites 239
as noun qualifiers. As such they can be used att ribut ively, or The knight still gras ped The knight stood at hay; h is
pred icatively, e.g. . his broken sword. sword brokNl in the tight was
useless.
\ PRESEST PARTlCIPLES\(used attributively ):
I ha.ve his U'fitten pre- Here is a letter U'ritlen by
An exciting story , tliSiJppointing news , a good-looking man , mise. Charles L
an Impromising1 start . 'Scrooge! a squeezing, turt1Khing, Listen to the singing The birds singing in the trees
grasping, scraping, clutching old sinner: (Dickens). birds. filled the air wi t h music.
GRE S E ~ T PAltTlCIPLESHused pred icat ive'y): Here are furth er examples:
The story was exciHng . He is very good-looking. The news Here is a leaflet t ivillg full part iculars of the plnn.
is disaptwinting, etc. D? you know the number of girls coming to the party?
\\ III you let me know the amount of the debts still out-
' PAST PAItTI CIP U s H used
-attri butively):
The broken bottles; tired workers; t he unkn01Ml I hero; a sJ02nding?
Do ) ' OU know t he number of books ordelt'd'
c.:ean-SM lItn man.
\ P.. . ST P_"' RTJC IPu:s\(~redic ati vel y) : I PARTtC1PLE S W IT H THE I SFIS!TI \:'E I
The bottles were broken; he is CUlJn-shaven; she is tired. There is a construction with the participle that is simila r
The participles here are in fact exactly like ad jectives: th ey to t he 'accusative infinitive' const ruct ion used with t he
admit of comparison (most channing, more tired) and can be infinit ive (see p. 233), T he construct ion is u sed aft er verbs
modified by adv erbs (very good-looking, rather disappoi nting, like Set, hear. j ul,1 find, make, uiant, get, li ke, Here are
completely clean-shaven). examples: .
But many. in fact most, participles are not purely adj ectiva l, I saw him (accusative) runni ng (partic iple) for the tr ain.
as the Icllowi ng examples show : I could hear the boys playing in the field .
He stood there llIalcJ.i ng the men at "'·ork . I hope Henry He was glad to find the fire burning brightly .
d idn 't keep you llIoitiftg. George is busy cleaning the car. When they came home they found the house burnt down.
H is objec tions, if lisJenea to. would wreck the plan . He wi ll He soon made his presence j elt and his wishes knourn .
come if asked. I should like this matter $tUled immediately. •
He ....anted his eggsjritd.
( T HE P OSIT10:- OF PART1CIPLEs i
( P ARTICI P LE S AS AD JECTI VE CLAl: SE EQ l:l VA Lf.:- TS )
Lik e ordinary adject ives, participles, if they are adju ncts of
a noun, usu ally precede it ; bu t . when the participle forms part The participle phrase is frequent ly the equivalent of an
of a phrase or has more of a verbal than an adjectival quality, adjective clause or of an adverb clause, e.g.
it follows th e noun. Compare, for example: Th ere were a lot of boys in the field playillg j ootball ( = who
T he spokNl language Th e language spoken in Englan d . were playing football),
T he torn sails of the The ship came into port. its sails The woman driving tne car (= who was d riving t he car)
sh ip. torn by the gale. indicat ed that she was going left and then turned right .
1 ~ote the nega.ti,-e form 0 1 th e p=tic iple thollgh ther e is no equ i- I See also p.get 169. 1<)8.
,-:alen t v erb.

V erbs: (6) The Non -Finites
2~O A Comprehensive English Gramma r Tm vd -stained alld tired, the sight of the inw was very welcome
The ship battered (= wh ich had been battered) by the storm to the pilgr ims.
crept into th e harbour. Hated (wd pasecutcd by all, the reader feels sympathy for
The escap ed convict (= wh o had escaped) has been ca ptured. Shylock
The concert given (= which was given) Iry the Philharm onic Securely pierced by a to ast ing-fork, Elizabeth held a piece of
Orchestra was a grea t success. bread to the firo.
lIowever, there are cases where a participle may be found
I PA RTICIPLES AS ADVE RB CLA VSE EQl'lV''' U ;qs' ! unattached and not logicall y related t o the subject of the verb.
This occurs:
Being ( = as /because he was) naturally cautious, he read the
letter twice before saying anything. ..( I~ i n a number of expressions so frequently used that th ey
Going (= as he went) cautiously into t he dark room, he felt are accepted as corr ect, e.g.
for th e ligh t switch. Gmcrally speak ing . a footballer of 20 is better than one of 4 0 .
Suing (= because he saw) that it was raining. George pu t T alking of football, h ave you seen the Italian team play?
on his mackintosh. Considering the p osition as a whole, he is better off now than
Bo rn and bred a countryman (= because he was born and he was a year ago.
bred a countrym an), he was bewildered bv London. It has cost, roughly speaking, about £500.
A llowing fo r extras, t he tour will cost £150, I
I MIS-R E LATE D PAR TICI PLES ! Strictly speaking , you have no righ t to be here.
Care should be t aken in us ing this construc tion to make sure .( 2~i n the N OMI~ ATlYE ABSOLU TE construction, where the
that t he participles are correctly related. The word to which part iciple with a noun or p ronoun preceding it and acting as
th e partic iple relates should be the same as t he subject of the its subject forms a phrase inde pendent in construction of the
verb . Thus in the following sentences the participles are rest of the sentence. T he absolute phrase may be active. in
corr ectly related: which case the presen t participle is used, e.g.
Walk ing through the park we saw a lovely show of daffodils. Christmas Day being a holiday , the shops were all closed .
(Since it was 'we' who wer e 'walking' th e participle is T he last train having gone, we had to walk home.
corr ectl y related.) W e explored the caves. Peter acting as guide.
Sta nding on the church t ower we could see the whole vill age W eather permitting, the cricket match will be played on
below us. (It was 'we' who were 'standing' ) Wednesday.
Travel-stained and ti red, the pilgr ims rejoiced to see the inn. Or it may be passive, in which case the past particip le is
(It was the 'pilgrims' who were 'travel-stained and tired') used, e.g.
Compare those examples with the following , in which all A ll things considered, I thin k we ought to award the job to
the participles ar e wrongly related : Sm ith .
' W alking through the Park , the daffodils made a lovely Grallled Ihat Ite is not brilliant, he is at least com pete nt and
sight.' (It was not th e daffodils who were walking.) works hard.
Standing on the church tower. the whole viUagc could be seen . This done, they packed up their tools and went home.
Elltering the house, tM door closed with a bang. Tile absolu te construction is literary rather th an colloquial.
1 This construct ion i. lit erary rat her t ha n colloquial.
24 2 A Compt ehensivt. English Grall/mar V erbs: (6) The N Oll-Finiits

, 243
In conversation the participle phrase is usually made into an III iRewrite therelated
following sent en ces
. so that t he participle
~ correc tly .
Adverb Clause, e .g.
A s Chris/ mas Day ",as ,z holiday , the shops were ejosed. (I ) Selecting
route Hyde
goes a lan K Pa
. r k Co~n er as a starting place. ou r
When this ",,z s done, they packed up their tools an d went ntl t:le Pa\'cm:n t n~~ ts~ndge . (2) Stepping ca relessly
home. t
Climbing to t he to' of e us knocked .hlm down . (3)
,.iew to be seen ( Gel t he tower. ~h eTe IS a magnificent
him. (5) Mock~ 4 b lIl~vdownstaL rs. t he ~arpe t t ri pped
I CONPO IJND PARTICIPLES ' at
torry for ~ralvolio (l) n:~~y, I can t help feeling
In add ition t o the 'Simple' participles already noted , there qu iet da t h· LnS • unday, I shall have a
are three 'Compound' ones. They are:..( l }-The Present Passive bad ne\\~ Iki11~:~i~) ~I)e;;y w~rn ~ut by Illness, the
Participle (formed by beillg + a past participle) e.g. The essays nu nciation alwa . sed arnmg· nghsh. t he pro-
bti llg ", rittt fl will be sent to th e Headmaster. his d inner, the tere~~~~e be~:u~~':~I;r;a ~~(I~l ~~~~nR
..(2). The Perfect Participle Active (formed by ha1.1ng + a past a car on frozen roads th e brakes should be n\,~~
gently. app I .....
participle) e.g. H ,zmllg ", ritten the essay , the bey was allowed
J\' ......mplete
r_ the following sentences ....-ith , 011 . I
to go home. accepted expressi . . unattached. oqll ia
..(3\.J11e Perfect Participle p assive (formed by having betfl + a , ,,_IOI'IS cc ntanung participles:
past participle) e.g. All th e essays havi"g bun IttiUen and f:!s
\~:enl a:;~horter than men. (2) The holiday cos~
collected, the teach er sent th e class home. members are a.dmi~:~I"" ) ;)3) I t cost £35· (·41 Only
ib.e for the ·d . e canno t hold h Im respons-
Note th at the perfect participle refers t o an action that took . acc. ent .
place btfore the time expressed by th e main •..erb.
EXERCISE S ( T HE GERl;~O)]
I U~ appropr iate participles u adjectives to complet e T~ e. gerund is indis t inguishable in form from t
the following ~n tences:
(1) 1 have just fin ished .. very - book . t z) F ilm staB
pu.
_~'n'dIP!e.
'0. ' "
but w
1$ a ver
ba/
hereas the participle is a verbal
noun.
adJ.'~t~~~~:
'
an usu ally \.ery - men. (l) She is a most -
woman. (4) The weather during our holiday made a
most _ . tart bu t grew better by degrees . (:;) The
9c~e~~n d has most of the characteristics of a noun . Thus,
play last n ight wu very _ . (6) You mu st be very
_ a.f ter such a 1000g journey. (7) The writer of th at 1,z )' The subjec t of 3. sentence. e.g,
book wu hitherto quite _ . (8) He has no beard or
maustaehe but is _ . (9) The first performance of h is ~~f;; int in, th ~ conditions is a pleasure. The reading of the
symphon y was rath er ---=.. ( IO) A - bot tle in t he 00 p ace In the lawyer's offic e.
road punctured two of my tyres.
~bt T1Je complement of a sentence. e.g.
11 Rewrite the follo....i ng sentences so that the words in
r~ ~ ~nl y thing tha t int erests her is da"cing Seein
ita lics functi on llII adject ives:
(I) There i.s a little difference between E nglish as it is Ut1ng. To keep money th at you have found i~ stealin~. 15
wr illt,. and as it is spolle... (2) T he child was cryi ng
beca use it had lost five pe nce. I]) I like meat t o be u'ell- ~<~ The obj ect of a sentence, e.g.
,ooked. ('II The am ount of his fort une is not )·et known. I remember suing him. She likes dancin You .
(5) He gav e me a contrac t he had signed . CIIfti'lg. Have you finished Il1riti,lg your ~k? r hair needs

244 A Compn:}u"sive English Gra'"rnar ...1 Verbs: (6) The .Yon-Finites 245
..
-{ir The object of a preposition, e.g. It 's no use (good) yo" r telling me not to worry.
l
H e began by explaining the meaning- of certain word s. She lie was chosen because of his /Ki"g a fully qualified engineer.
is '"ery fond of da 'King. I don't like the idea of spending so She was altnoycd a t YOII' saying that.
please excuse my inte17upting you .
much money. Thank you for r elurnil1g th e book that I lent
you . He left without saying anything. We are qu ite used to lVilliam 's grumbling.
They are looking forwa rd to .l!(lry' s coming.
. Th.e only part of a verb th at can be the object of a preposi.
non isageru nd. (The to of theinfinitive, though originally J. 'Otis is, perhaps, particularly the case when the geru nd is the
preposi tion, no longer functions as one.) subject of the sentence, e.g .
Your liting right doesn't necessarily mean my b.-ing wrong.
Q} Bu t the gerund bas some characteris tics of a verb: I am sure lVillia m's sit/iug up so late is had for his health .
..(a).. It can take a direct object , e,g. }rfary's grumbling annoyed her husband, but her molMr's
His hobby is collectitlg stamps. -Iftding you haS been a great coming to stay with th em was the last straw.
pleasure. He left without saying anything. ..\ nd it is almost always the case after the verbs, delay . drny ,
~bf It can be modified by an adverb. e.g. tMtpone. e.g .
She likes driving fast. Redi,.g poetry well needs a lot 0: The firm have drf l 17ed my ' going on holiday until next
practice. month ,
Don't delay y ou, sending in of the app lica tion form.
Q} The gerund can be a noun modifier, e.g. He doesn 't deny Itis breaking of the agreement.
A walking-stick, a su'imming-pool, a knilti ng.n<>edl e, n I had to postpone my listening to his plans to a later date,
readi"C-room, UU'i"C-cotton, a dancing-t eacher. This const ruction. however . is a lite rary one rat her than a
N ot~ the difference in meaning between the participle as a conversa tional one. I n colloq uial speech it is fairly common to
modifier and the gerund as a modifier. · , • hear a personal' pronoun instead of the possessive adjective.
e,g. ' because of him being' ; ' .. . an noyed at you sayi ng';
[ PAI<TICI PLE] ( GElI U~m) ' excuse me inte rrupti ng you'; ' .. , used to William
a dancing bear (= a a dancing-teacher ("" a teacher grumbling'; ' , .. t o ,1[ary coming'.
bear which dances) of dancing)
a IravtlJing circus a t,at'elling-rug I The po»essi"e for m of t he p ronoun {e.g. )'O"~l ill u..,.j after i f. NO •
lit' (NO food). b ut with a noun th e possessive form " 'ou l() he ve ry unusual,
atluping child a sluping-carriage ec. IC. no good t he m"" I)lr. S",illlirny lJ.ro/.v./t elhng me not to worry
,unning water a ,"n"ing-track teer . th e ""....... Mr. S", illl'" my b,o/l11, ', ).
" e . c . I' ries. Profe5$OT o f E ngli!Jt at t he University of ;o.!ich igilln,
Points of distinc tion between the gerund and the pcrtlctp'e made a n i n v~l igat ion into t he use of the genitive form of nou ns . lId
are: (r) The participle, which is partly an ad jective can be pronouns with gerunds in curren t Sta ndani English (American), using
as ma teri. l cerla in nl", of informal correspondence in t he possession
ex~~ed into an adjective clause, (2) Both th e ' present of the U.S. Govern ment. H e writes: ' I t is clear fro m the e\--idence , ..
participle and the noun it qualifies take a stro ng stress, In the Ihat t he lI<C o f th e i nA~t ed gl'llil i\'e furm nf nouns i~ nOI th e nor ma l
gerund construct ion only t he gerund takes st ress. Note, too, pract ice before ger\lllds in Standard Englilah. Only oue exa m]'le vcc:un",1
the hyphen with the gerund. III al l ou r ma.lerial... . I n the cale of pronouns, ho wever, Ihe situAtion
appeoaTS 10 be different. Fift y-t...-o per cent o f the cues in Standa rd
I 4, The .seru nd is modified by a possessive adjective or by tl:e English have the genitive form o f the pronoun before the n~r b,~ 1'
(i.e. th e gerund ), A ,..,.,;c.... ENf/itll G',UNII'..' , page 8...
possessive form of noun s that can take th is fonn.

246 A Comprehensive E nglish Grammar Va bs: (6) Th e S Oll·Filll/(S 247
There ar e cases not only in colloquial bu t in literary English () ~'h e gerund is also used al ter nearly all 'phrasal verbs', e.g.
where the genitive form would neve r be used, e.g. \ ou must g~ on w.0rkillg, He wants to give liP sO/ioki llg. She
bltrst out crying, IOU must hup 0'1 trying.
I don't like sJrangers inkrf ering in my
aff airs.
I am surprised at $01PW'01Ie so ,;(h luzving difficulty in paying OJ It is used too, after the phrases: it's '10 good, it's ' 10 nse, is
what he owes you. . orth , to bt fond Of, capable of, sick of, look fo ru'ar" to, c.g.
He said he was in favour of peopu working shorter hOUTS. I t's " 0 lise cry ing e ver spilt m ilk.
He laughed at my broiMr and "" liking rice pudding. It a thing is u'Orth doing, it 's worth doil/fwel!.
Th e law was passed to prevent people btinC inj ured. I'm tirtd of muting the same people day after day.
There is no need for tJuu being done .
A shortage of steel would involve men bting dismissed.
[ VE RBS FO LLO WE D BY TilE 1~F1~IT1\'d
But it could be used in such a sentence as:
I cannot understand their being forbidden to go to the The following verbs take the infini tive after them :
meeting, ~oI}o aU the special finites,.(brthe following verbs:
da r~, decide, dt sire, urdtav014r, expect, guar,m tu, hope, IIl ran
(VE RBS f OLLOWED BY Til E GERlT ~m ( , (= m!e~d), offer, prttend, promise, ref use, S::tar, Ij'uicrtake,
ll'ant, WIsh, e.g .
It is not always easy to decide when the gerund should be
used after a verb and when t he infinit ive, bu t this is the You orlght to go there. He has to Sfl the den tist tomorrow
~neral usage: • You must e"deavOW' to do better. .
QJ The 10110wing verbs t ake a gerund afte r them: I hope you mt'an to do better.
<ld'llise. avoid. consider, delay, deny , detest , dislike, endure, He u'ants to pay a visit to E ngland,
enj oy, escape, excuse, fancy, finish , f orbid.,! imagine, mind,
miss , postpone, practise, ri sk, stop, suggest , understand. VER BS "OL LOWED DY TH E G FR l ' N D OR T HF ISF IS lTrVF.
For example:
The. following verbs may ta ke the gerund or t he infinit ive,
I couldn't avoid mUling him. sometimes depending on the meaning to be expressed:
He enj oys listening to music.
bigin , Cllll't bear, cease, contimle, dread, forget, hate, intend,
I couldn't ri sk ",iui"g that train.
Do you mind passing the salt? learn , like, lcve, omit, prefer. regret. remember, need, " tgleei,
start, try, e.g.
.'-fin d, with the mean ing 'object to' is generally used in
interroga tive and negative sente nces, e.g. TI~e teacher said, 'You can btgin u'riti,Ig now' , and the
chil dren btgan to Jrrite,
Do you mind answering my question? I don't mind working
overtime. ' I hale lying and chtatillg. I haft to see cruelty and injustice.
It can occasionally be used in affirmative sente nces when it is The buses have ceased rmming (or: T he buses ct,H,'d 10 rim ).
in answer to a question, 'Do you mind . , .?' e.g. ! he fi rst sentence in the .l:J.st example would probably menu
Do you m ind my smoking? Yes, I m i"d very much. They have ceased running for todav
" - , but tbev- will "tart
I Th ill verb un be used also ,,'ith the atcllsative infinite coutruc lio n
&gam tomorrov.: ; the second. sentence would mean: 'T hey
e ,g. He forbade ..., 10 driv, his car. '1\'1 1 not ru n again for a long time, perhaps never again'

248 A CompT(hensit'( English Grammar ~ . (6) itte j von-Finites

Verb," . "
"h -49
\ VI th e -illg form our in ter " , . .
With remember, the infinitive is u sed for a f uture action , an d the pe rform ing of tbe r ti c~~ was mo~e In t he con t inuity or
means: 'not forget' . e.g. what a lot of noi se he made!' hea rd him coming in . .. and
Please remember to bring your book tomorrow. ' I ,saw him working in the d .
The gerund is used for a past event and means: 'c all to mind', interested he was in " ' gar en . . . and no ticed how
rr.
e.g.
I rtmembu hearing Schnabel play the 'E mperor' Concerto
With fo rget , the infinitive is used with the meaning 'fai l to E XEI{CISE5
remember' , e.g . T rm
fo I n tIShe u fo llOWi n g scntcnrec j .
~nd _ ( en cuccs indicate whe ther the '-m l:!'
I 'm afraid he will f orgel to write to me. ~~ " s a) part of a C t ' "
pa rt ici ple usert adJecth a ll y (c) a g~I:1111~(1 ~u S Tense, (b) a
W it h t he gerund it means 'lose the memory 01', e.g.
(r) ~hc was lying dow n because she was tired
I shall never f orget suing the Swiss Alps for the first ti me. age wa s a lYing villa in .
With stop and try also the meaning varies accord ing to whether LYlIlg is a cow ardly habit,
the in fi nit ive or the gerund follows: (2) :f~e ~noo~light was da ncing on the water
He stopped to eat means that he ceased doing something elst S c a ncmg waves glittered in t he slln .
mn e peop le's g:reates t pleasu re is danc;ng
in order to eat.
He stopped eating means that he discontinued eating. (3) \V~~~~l,l have no money left ; we are spendi~g far too
Try with the infinitive has the meaning 'm ake an attempt'
TI le. spend in g h abit is very easy t o form
<s , : fe IS quite penniless after all his :reck l es~ spending,
You mus t try to be more careful. H e will try to meet us a: II Conan net two sentences ach . ,
seven o' clock. t a king a d ir ec t ohJect a~ le~~ co nrairung a gerund
tuimng a gerun d mod ifi~,1 'b' lre~ Isentences each con,
T ry wit h the geru nd means 'make an experiment' , e.g. ~ y a n <I( vcr b
Have you ever tried cooking meat itt wine instead 'of w ater) III I n t h e following phrases i I .
I gi vi ng a reas on in ea~~ ~~~:rt ryphens where necessary,
H e t, ied gardenitlg, keeping pigs, rearing poultry, but didn t
( I ) a motori ng coat (2) .
succeed in any of them.
After the Verbs of Perception, e.g. hear seeJeel (see pp. 169,
(~;m:i~:~g~;Siei1~/1;a(7") J~~gl ~~~Il;.~(~)n~ t:~.r~~~~~. cllJ)
h t' <> ' . . c rm )ll1g ('X pe( htlDn , {8)
•
19B, and 231), watch, notice, etc., either the infinitive or the I V .u n rng horn . (9 ) a w aIt m g room. ( i o) p la ying card s. a
-ing form can be used, e.g. Construct sentences con hi , h
t he ve rbs in t ho I II ~ n mg t e gerund aft er an" of
1 he ard him come in last night . .
constr uction : ~ 0 owmg list . wh Ie'h ,I(' Im'it a f "this
1 heard him coming in last night .
I saw him work in tile garden yesterday. ~~lt:;',(~j~fl:'g~~::~,v ~:~p~~:~/and, advise,cfitidse.pos/ponc,
1 saw him working in the garden yesterday. v Complete t h e follo wing usi
\Vith the infinitive we are more interested in the fact of tr./ in the part t hat you ad'd: ng a gerrmd or an in firn ti \" e
com pletion of the action, 'I heard him come in . . . so 1 know (1) It s hardtv wort h while I )
that he did come in.' u l Th " . . . 2 I mus t rem em ber
. e} are qu ite lllcapabic o f I') I ' ld ut
'I saw h im wor k. so I know that he did work here yCi' (are
I; '
... \ .5) Let m I 'I
e m ow I you dec id ' .e . .. If \\flU
) W .n
s. ck a nd ti re d of 17) I . ") earl'
terd ay.' expect . (1<) They keep

A Comprehensive E Ilf;li sh Grammar

bi f l o) He cUll<1ratulatcd
on .. . (9) She has a ha It 0 •• . I " (IZ ) lie
me on (II ) The company undertakes 1 don' t CIIAPTER EIGHTEEN
p romised (13) Y ou wi~l [je~er reg re t (I.t-)I 6) T h e
feel ecual t o . . . (I:;) This tlung IS worth " .. I d
-, I ) I hope you don t m ill . . .
firm guarantees . . . Ii I cuse (20 ) 1
(18) I m ust try to st op. .. . (19) P ease ex (22) R'eading Adverbs, like adjectives, are mod ifiers: generally they
w ish .. . (21) T h e y t ried t o kec) ~~~\~ ~y work isn't modify or add t o the meaning of verbs, ad jectives or other
E nglish is eaSier t ha n . . . (23) . f 1" 5) It's no ad verbs, e.g.
'" ) I apolog ise or . .. •
goo d b u t I mean . . . I , H has started .. . (Modifying II verb) He ran quickly. Come here. I went to the
U•~ •... . . 1, 6) My friend
. want s ..I .) (27) edt
I am not use 0 .• ·
den tist yesterdoy
1, 8) H e always avoids .\\'c . . 29
always look orwa,
f -ard ' 0
.
(3°) I used, t o .. " I3' ) (33) She doe s nothing bu t . (Modif y ing an adjective) It is I'ery hot today. Arc yot! quite
(32) I prc er .. . 0 . .. . ( Ct) He kept comfortable? His work isn't good m ough Icr a scholarship.
(34) Y o u had bettc,"" (3 5) He8eln~~~ ~~t~ .. (39) H e (ModIfying an adt'erb) He plays extremely well. She drives
on . .. (37) He c a n t help . . . (3 ) I t ] H e is very
can't bear .. . (40) Th~y began . . . 4 10 0 fas t.
fond of . .. (4z) H e won t risk . . . They may, occasionally, modify a noun or noun equivalen t , e.g.
. b c trw'c en "'
VI Explain the difference III mean ing the very! t hing I w anted; the above sentences; t he off-side
'He stopped talking' , and ' ~e sto r;ped ~o':::~l~mber t o of the road; in after years; t he liP train; the linder-secre tary
'I remember payi"g t h e milkman, an
pay t he milkman '. of the then Prime Minister: Is that car rClIlly yours?
Or a phrase, e.g.
I am almost th rough my work; they live neilrly on top of the
hill; h is remarks were not qlli/e to th e point.
• , . Or a whole sentence , e.g.

Fo rtunately , I remembered in ti me who he was.
I ndeed, I won't do it .
Some adverbs are single, indivisible wor ds (e.g. yet, down, •
tllm , too). Others arc ob viousl y formed from adjectives by the
addit ion of a su ffix (e.g. qm'ckly , clearly, spl end idly ); others are
formed from tw o words (e.g. il11)'7.t'JIUe, sometimes, !tou'n 'n) bu t
have become so fused to gether t hat the t\\"o parts haw made
a word whose mean ing is d iffere nt from the mea nings of the
individu al parts. In some cases t his fusion h as not been co m-
plete and the two or three individua l words, generally con-
taining a preposition and a noun, arc written separately, e.g.
' It might he bette r t o consider th a t the se words, t hough ge ne ra lly
..d vol b . , arc in th<-se examples functionin g as adj ect ives, just as in
phra ses lik e; The ups a nd dQwtls a/life; the ins and Ol, ls of busine!ls. t h e
'a d v e rbs ' are functioniT,g as no uns .
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A Comprrhe'15iv( £,tglish Gra mm ar A dverbs
' 5' ' 53
next uuk, thi s morning, i n [ront, a/ Ihe side, -eith pleasure, <I~ Other adverbs of frequency are : elmti.mally, jrtqllrntly ,
fi rst, till" day al ia tomorrow. 01 1 the outskirts oj tht city, 11 0t in the generaJJy , ol;(,nionally, m rcly , rrgld,lTly, scarcrly, !l(fTll{y rucr
least, lIS a matter oj [ net, These arc adverb phrases.' . Note t hat cvrr is generally accom pa nied by a "negatlve
modifier Iikc hardly , scaTuly or not, e.g.
THE CLASSIFICATION OF ADYERBS ACCORDI:s"G TO )'I L \ :s" I:>: c \Ve llaTJJy ever see you now; you are SC<lTCely crcr a t home.
Adverbs can be classified according to thei r meaning, io Don 't tv" say that ag a in.
accord ing to the way in which they answer questions asking It is mre ly used a lone except in qu estions and cond it ional
when, u-here, hQ7l1 an ac t ion was done. c1auses,1 e.g.
Cf) Ad ver bs that exprt'SS HOW an action was done, e.g . Do you .1'0 see George now that he has left London ?
The little boy behaved badly. (Qu cstioll)
Th e bird s sang swertly. II you ever see George, give him my kind regards (Con-
Every soldier fought bravely and irell, l ill.oll.11 Clause)
ar e l·"n ....I: RRs O ~ ~! .." .... .... FR _l 1 Adverbs that express """""!;" an action is or was d one are
Adverbs of :Manner commonly used arc : acti rety , (/'ly1;o:; ~ , q· k i ., ~" ''''-.r-. Examp les:
boldly, calmly, cartfully , distim:tly , (llsi/y, eqllilUy, fa st. glad!..·
ho-.... intentionally . la fe , p romptly, quickly , qll i~t/y, simp (',
1 shall stand Mrt .
si7luuly, still, sl4JJndy , togethn, WIllingly, u-isely, wrongly, etc T ile child opened the door or the cage and t he bird flew Ol/t.
I've looked lVlryw here for my new pen.
_ Adverbs that express WII J::~ an action is or was done are
:\U\loRB O~ }IF J:;xampI~s : T he term 'adverb or Ill~ ce' COV('fi the wider field of 'motion to'
The boy said, ' I will do the work tomorrotr, 'motion [rom', 'separation', etc.. e.g.
The teacher said, ' You will d o it 71(/"".& ' . Come nrercr Tht'r walked slowly P'Ht fby. T he sailors went
Call me ta rly: I want to see the sunnse. e shore. He paced to and Iro all night. She dr ew the cu rtains
wh at's going to happen next apa rt.
Adverbs of time commonly u sed are: ajtrr (rm rd s) , a/reaJ_~ A dver bs of place common ly used are: a lxr.e , abrcoaJ . across ,
~fort, j,nm eJiately , lau(ly), once, pT(sl'l fly , shortly, soon, st ili .long. arOlmd , au'ay , back , bdo-~ . J Olnl , dou-nstairs, in , n ou.-here,
today (tcnnO"'llU', unllKh/ ), wh e" , yestaday . yet . 0" , sonltU'htTl , tht re, througll .10gether , 1I1: JfT, up , "pstairs , if hae.
• -t lncluded among arlvof'rhs. of ti m ... are the ':\dYCTbs of t1;.
cceocv'. e.g. always , ())I~", p equently . etc . These are word"
E! There Me et her adverbs tha t ex press
v..hat degree', e g.
. 1)
'1'0 WH ."'T F~:TF . ·r ' or
th at answer the: question ' He..... often ', They often differ from
adverbs of time in the position they occu py in the sentence." Th is coffee is t'ny bad
H ere are examples: It has bee n a lo ng journey hut we arc nearly there 1l 0W .
He alw:ty s does hi s work .....ell. Are rou 'Jlll!e su re we are on the rig ht road ?
Sh e has nr.'lJ' d one that befo re. T hat 's all right .
I have not been to Paris very often, l-tc spoke French too quickly for me to follow him .
You will seldom, in fact hardly ever , hear that said . llu.s. e is atsc t he vl"ry colloquial: I'm iJwfully /terr iblYI
H e is so~times right. j ri.r;lrtj ,d'y ~(lrry I'm late,
1 For Adver b Cla uses S~ pagM 337-31 . • Sec pa ge 18 3. I F or wndiliQnal <;hnses see pa ge H 3, H7-S f.

254 A Comprehlllsive English Gramma r Adverbs ' 55
These words llrt'hpy fR BS Of p EGREE I Adverbs of degree a re Oth er adverbs of affirmat ion that are used as abbreviated
not generally used wit h verbs; they are used wit h adjectives sentences, are:
or oth er adverbs! e.g .
absoilltdy, u rlai1lly, decidedly , roidortly,. il,ldced, tlllirrly,
very good; quile sure; too quic kly; f1 rar/y there; all right naturaUy , obviollsly, precisely , surdy , u:lllmgly , an d the
There are many degree adverbs. Some of the most commonl y adve rb hrases very full, of course.
used are: absolutely, , omplelely, duply ('I'm duply sorry '). DVERBS O F Q U AS T ITY Oitl OVE RBS OF .UIOUST AS O S UM BERl
tlistindly ('Th is work is distinctly be tter '), enormously , entirely , orm anot er gro up . ere are ex amples:
grtatly , et;u4lly, exactly ('exactly r ight'), e:rtrt rMly . j ust ('j US!
right'), mudl , partly , perf eu ly (,perf edly correct'), practicaUy , Hcnry works very little; not nearly as much as Geor~e .
rathe,. scarcely . slightly, thOTOlIghly • utterly. William has won the prize Iwice: no one else has won It more
t han tmtt.
~1 The classes given are the most common types of adverbs, ® The adve rbs when and rrhert , which we have al ready noted ,
"frut there are also word s which, in addition t o expressing th e are some times used to introduce a clause :1 . They then take
idea of time or place. are also used in questions, e.g.
the place of a relative pronoun + a preposrtioa , e.g.
W hen are you going away? W here are you sending him? I remember the day I&he1l (= on which) you told me y OIl
T h ese are ' I ~TE R ROC ." TlVE" ADVERBij The others are hew? were going to America. . .
an d I&!ty? e.g, That is the room V'here (= in which) the Rembrandt picture
HOUI d id you come here? is hung.
Why did you say that? _ If I&hm and rrnere are used like this, they are I RElATI VE
6 The words Y es, certainly , surely , etc. . are known astA D VF. R B ~ A'bVUtBSJ !j
ir H E FO Rl lA TIO S OF , A D\' J::: ~ BS-l
AF· H)IATIOS the words perhaps, may be, etc., as (AbVERE5
OF f' ROtlA BlllTY and the words 1101 and not, nn,'er as l!hVER B5 (!)Ad v-erbs of manner are frequently formed by adding _ly t to
. . . IO~ or ob vious reasons. But t hese words arc, espe- an adjective. e.g .
cia y In con versation, reall y abbreviated sentences, e.g. I Adi cctl1oe} IAd~l1b7
'Do you know ~Ir. S mith ? ' ' Yes.' ( = Yes, I know Inm .] She is a quiek worker. She w~rks qUickly .
' Is George ther e?' 'No.' (= Nc, he isn't here.] He is a C41tful dri ver. He d rives car~j~Uy~
'Will you help me?' 'Certainly .' ( = Yes, I will help you.] T hey are 1IQisy children. They play 1IOIslly .. I
'Do yo u agree?' 'Oh, quite.' (= Oh yes, I agree.) She gave a fJU"ylaugh . She laughed memly ,
'Will yo u do what he wants?' 'Sever/' (= I shall never do H e gav e af ull explanat ion. He e xplained t he whole
wh at he wants.) thing j uUy .'
Xcte that both Y es and S o mar be used eith er to agree or Adverbs are not usually formed from adj~tives tha t end in
to disagree with the previous speaker ; but Y es can only -ly that is from such adjectives as mallly, sI Uy.fa.therly ,llt,tl~',
accompany an affirmative statement and S o a negative one. br~therly , etc, I nst ead of an adverb. an adve~blal phrase IS
used , e.g. 'in a silly way', 'in a fatherly manner , etc.
I Some of t hem ca n be usN .... ith verbs , e go
TJ.e shoc k nta.ly kill<:d h im. I See page 318. , .
I T he .Iv developed h om Old E nglish -l. t (- h ke).. 1 I h
I 9"ilt like hb p;cturt$, • t\ ole t he usual c1ll nge of -J t o -i, 'l nd t he Om l$SlOn 0 one - w ell
• S I1 01 course call alia be a dc ter miU;ltivc (!oCt pages 89-96) t h e a d jective ends in -/I .

256 A COlllpuhinsil'e English Gramm.1f
C£l But there arc other ways of formi ng the adverb; for exam ple A dvt rbs '57
by using the same form as the adjective. ! A dj ed ive! [A dverb I
The goods were vcry I bought them dllap
elseap . (or duaply ).
! Adiu tlVe/ [ A Jvr:1bj I went by a direct route. T he goods will be scm dirt,t t o
T hat is a very f ast train . It goes very fast, you and not to our agent.
He is a /wrd worker. H e wor ks hard, l'o'OTF.: In ' I will return directly' , the adverb dir lCtly = 'at once'.
[The adverb hardly , e.g., ' He hardly ever works' gives a ver. T hat is a vel)' !lign T he birds are flying higll. He was
different m eaning.) build ing. highly pra ised for his work.
H e has gone to t he Fa r East . We d idn't walk vcry f ar. J ames was lute for h is He came kite. I have not heard
It is a straight road . I t ru ns straight for miles. lesson , from h im lafdy. (= for some
He spokc in a 10'/& voice. H e spoke knr l bu t dearly. t ime.)
'The early b ird catches the Very Mrly in his career He is not a very P1ear T he time is drawing 'lear for my
worm, ' Shakespeare wrote Loec rel ation . visit to France. I "early missed
Labour's Lost. my train.
Take a cle..n sheet of paper. T he prisoner got clean aw ay She is a very prttty girl. T hat is a prell)' (= fairly) good
(= com pletely). picture. The little girl danced
T he man was cItan-sha\'en prntil)',
(= without beard or moui. There is a' short way T he car stopped short only a few
tach e). home through t he inches from where I stood . He
I saw a dead bird in the 'Dead Slow' (traffic notice woods. will come shortly. (.... in a short
garden. The wind is dlad against u, time.]
The ntan was dMd drunk I didn't wan t to waken He was sleeping s(nmJ (or
Have you enough time to do He didn' t try hard nrollgh him; he was in a sOlm d sC1mdly ), In the football match
the work ? slee p. Ox ford were soundly (= de-
He wen t on a umg journey. I shan't be long. cisively) beaten by Cambridge.
It was a fair fight . You mus t play fair (or fairly),
{AD VE RBS W !II! T WO t O R~ s l He was treated qui te fairly , He
F requentl y, both the adj ect ive form and the ' adjective _. d id f airly (= moderately) well in
•ly' form are used as Adverbs , sometimes, but not always, will. h is examination.
different meanings, e.g. It was a clear sunny Stand clear of the doors of t he
t.4J)"Ullt't} day. train . You must clearly under-
stand th at t his is your last chance .
There is a bright moon The moon shines bright 'I said it w'ry loud and elmr:
tonight. brightly), I went and shouted in his ear.' I
• The "'Old kndy ~ an adjecti\'e, Dot a D ad\'er b , e.g. ' He lll"}' Vl i l '
great Ch anc;eIlO'l" , Cardinal \ \ clsey, wu of '.,.~.v u.e. hu mble) par~l1t ~ , • Lewis carrou, .4Iie. TlIrowgll ...., Loo~ '''1-G14 u .
h is fa lh~r was a butcher.'

A Comprr1~ 'l s it'e English Gr.wHlla" '~9

AdVeTbs ,
IA djectiveJ IA dver9 ..(b)-with suffix -way s, -mards, -wise: 1
It was a close (- air- Keep close to me. 1 he stat e~er. t The path w as so narrow w e had to walk sideurdyS.
less) afternoon . ran to twe nt y closely -wn tte n He went bdckuJdrdsljorwards /hommards.
pages . . He sat w ith his legs crosswise.
H e is a firm friend of If w e stand fi rm, 1 firmly believe
-{c)- w it h t h e prefix a-, e.g.:
th e family. we shall succeed.
Turn sharp right at t he cross- ashore, 1l/01l , abroad ,
I wan t a sharp pe ncil .
roads. T he teacher spoke s;,.,p:. E XE RCISES
to t he boy. I Pick out and classify the adverbs or adver b phrases in
He is a slew driver. 'Go slow' (traffic notice). Tilt, t he follow ing passage:
hours pass !lowly when you ca n't \ Ve somet imes go t o a foot ball match (my wife,
b c wever, r ather reluctan tly). Last Saturd ay we saw a
sleep. . . m atch that we greatly enjoyed. The p lay was fast and
He was wearing very H old tight: the plane :s g0u.'g t.- skilfUl, t he forward s manoeuvred' rapid ly an d shot
tight s'ices. dive. T he p assengers were hghU: h ard a nd straight , the d efe nce tackled resolutely and
packed in the train. . the referee con t rolled the game firmly while, a t tile
The sleepwalker's eye'> were WI de sa me time. using his whistle with discretion . F rankly,
T his is a good, widt I m ud. prefer r uguy , hu t I could h ard ly ta ke J anet to
open but he didn' t seem to be a r ugb y ma tch ; sh e would never unders tand t he
road
seeing anything. T he two people ga me. There, in th at stad ium on Saturday, she at least
differed tddely in th eir outlook. knew when a goal had been sco red , without havin g to
on the It was a t t he crossroads th at W ~ be t old. She even knows some of the rul es. A t one
I t h ink we ar c poi nt I was about to t ell her wh y a throw- in had to be
went u '1Otrg. He was WTO'lg;.
,"ong r oad . taken aga in wh en she told me she a lread y knew : the
accused of the crime. firs t th row h ad not been p roperly done.
Turn , igllt at the n~x t. era;,-
Are we on t h e right II :\[ention six adver bs in each of the following classes:
road . He was rightly blamed fer Manner, Time, Frequency, P lace, Degree .
r oad ?
th e accident. Then choose on e from each cla ss a nd write a sent ence
~ _ _ r~oTEh\"ith verbs like las:' , s1ntll.Ju: , etc. (in such s;:nJ enc ~ , using it. •
as~milk tastes sour, The r~ smtUS mtd: ! he .l llf
diect ive (SOllr , sweet, sof ll , not an adverb, 1$ II
J::a.
s
: ~
T; I II Comp lete the followi ng with a n adverb or adverbial
_ . ph ra se of t he kind indicated in brack ets at t he end
~'~f:S }aste , smell, ful, a s u sed h ere , are m ore or less equ tv a lent of each sen t ence:
t o is, e.g : (I) H e was _ a nxious about t he danger of fir e.
T h e m ilk is sour. The fur is soft t o t he t ouch . (d egree) {2} - I d on't agree with your op inions.
(time) (3) These two rou tes arc - h illy. (d egree)
There are a lev.' a d,..erbs th at h ave been form ed from nou r (4) \\'1' - go to London t o bear a concert . [tre-
by t he addition o f a su ffix or a p refix , c.g. qucncy) (5) She has left h er glasses - - . (place) (6)
- i s t he shop I was told t o visit( (place) (7) -
-(a)- with su ffi x -ly : we sha ll go if t h e weather is fi ne . (p rob abilit y) (8) We
H e comes here daily jwu kly /montlily I ho,,~ly ,1 etc. . ed
"''" - - submit t o the enemy. (negat ion) (9) I'm
The shed was lifted bodily [i.e. in one p iece) and ca r r r !-
, 'Historically, th ese are gemuve, dative or accusative Q ses of nouns;
anot her part 01 the garden . III Old Englbh t hese forms were oft en used adve rbially.
' But th ~e m1ybe adjectives u><e<1 a.s ,,,Iverbs,

A Comp reh~ nsive English Grammar A dverbs ,6,
- determ ined to finish this exercise t onight. - -- (jreqru licy ) go to the p ict ures ? , (r,ccalior,)
(d egree) (10) He has - - attempted to pass t ha t b nt I - (f rt q1lell' .V ) go to the theat re. (6) ])0 yOIl
ex amination. (number) drink ._ - ( q " a n l i ty) ? ~, (Jle:;" t;o,,) o llly vcry r-r-'-
I V Constr uct pairs of sentences in which t he first of ca ch (freq uellcy ). (7) W ill yOIl be - - (plaH) - - (lime )!
No. _ (degree) a Ic w days. (8) I _ ("' ",, " a ) heard
p arr uses one of t he following words as an adjective
you t ell h im he need n ot do it . (9) 'Will you hel p me? '
an d t he seco nd uses one as all adverb:
- (IIffi rmalioll) - - (affi rm llliou) . (IO) T he orator
lat e. IIMr, still, stiff, ellOUrh, wide, high, strair;!ll, fr; r, spoke so - - (>Il llfHler ) t ha t he won his au di ence
direct. com plet ely over. ( Il ) I arrived at th e moment - -
V What arc th e ad ver bial forms of: (rela tive) the telephon e bell rang. ( 12) Send him t o a.
good, bad, lillie, side, back . nursing home - - (re1alive) , he will be ta ken care of.
( : 3) J oh n cam", home - - (degru) t ired a fter his long
V I (a) F orm a dverbs or a dverb equivalents from the day 's work ,
followi n g adj ec tives:
s!<ilful, e« 5.1' , f ast, gay , ] 1itmlly. T H E CLASS IFICATlO~ OF AUVERBS ACCORDI~G TO P OS IT ION
(b) Use a ll t he following words in sentences as ad -
verbs: T her e arc three positions for adverbs in a sentence:
hard, har dly , dead, dml/II)', round. clean, stone , stollily, ~ Fron t - Pos i t i o n , i.e. as th e fi rst word in a sentence.
ice, icily , direct, directly . easy , f out, dup, low. {{JJ Mid -P osit ion , com in g b ef ore the verb.
VII How ma ny adver bs can you form with other w<Jf<ls .(£) E nd -Position , i.e. as the last word in a sentence.
"sing .way s, -wist or -u ra rds as a su ffix? Use each in a
sentence.
( F RONT- P OSITI ON AD VERBS )
VIII Constru ct t en sen tenc es" each con tai nin g one of the
following adver b phr ases and n ame th e class to which 6) T he following can be used only in th is posit ion:
each be lon gs:
on t op of, at th e fa r end, n ot in th e sligh test , h ardly -(a).{ INTEIWOGAtl v E ADVEllBS) How? Whe n? W here? W hy? e.g .
at a ll. a ll ove r the place, du ring th e week" ve ry la te, W here are you going? Why did you say t h a t ? W hen sh all
rou nd t he corne r, wit h pleasure, on t he whole. I see y ou again?
IX In wh ich of the following sentences a re H,e italicised
words ad ver bs ? ~bH A j)VE IW S OF A Fl'lH~[Ano~)and rAD vERBS OF l\F.GATlOs l e.g.
( t ) One lies sof t on a feather he'd . (z) I ncense smells Y es, I know him qui te w ell. •
aroma tic . (3) Explore rs often have to trav el rough. N o, t ha t is not correct .
(.. J T he climber fell headlong down the precipice .
(s) ' Untasy lies th e head t h at wears a cruwn,' (6) They €) Ad ver b s wh ichare 'sentence modifiers'! a rc generally, but
struggled hard and long to ...,.in the matd,. (7) Hj~ not quite always, ~ front-position a dverbs, c ,g.
unscr upulous ri vals did him a grave wrong. (8) 'Fair
st ood th e wind for F ra nce.' (9) T he door stood half Still, in spite o f w ha t yOll say, I don't think it is true.
open, ( ID) T hough the current ran f"st the (lridge A ltogether,r d on' t t h in k we h a ve done too badly to get £400
stood fas t against it . for our old c ar.
X Add adverbs t o t hese sentences as indicated : Compar e t he following sentences. I n t hose marked A t h e
( I) I th in k it - - (dtg rn) dlsgrac eful. (2) You are adver b s modi fy v er b s or ad jectives in t he usual way. I n those
an - (degree) luck y boy. (3) That's ~ (drgrn) mark ed B, th ey modi fy a sen tence. Note how t he meaning of
useless, (..l Th is work is - - (rlegrn) good, but nat so
good a s what you - - (frequt'lIfY) do. (s) Do )' QU • See l'"ge l SI , I Sec examp le, D 4. 5. 6 on ne xt page.

262 A Comp"nmsit,t E nglish Grammar
Adt'Ubs
the adverbs in th e A sente nces d iffers from that of th e::
coun terparts in the B sentences, ~There are a conf>i de rable number of adverbs t hat rna" have
"'tront posit ion. Some of t hem are: .
A B aft erwards, tllm, thae, (lure/ore, anylunu, 'IQUI', so, sOOn, once,
(I l I can't give you the S OtI7, this is what happened only , (fm)forlunattly , luckily, evidently , perso,Ja/ly, possibly,
answer notl7. suddenly , CQns~J«:ntly, uSI~tlly, naJuraJJy , urt~jnIy. really ,
(2) I didn' t t hink he would SQ, you dor.tt believe wha t prrh4ps, sfudy, in ded , "~J.t, occasionally , i/cwrdingly, 110"01-
be so silly . I to ld you? evtr, jirsJ (stcondly, tn irdly, etc.), originally , yd , n .enlualIy;
(3) He asked tor th e money There, de you believe me ",.and a large number of adverbial phrases, e.g.
so I pa id him there and now ?
theu, Tlwn let us get on with the by and by, up to now, lx/ ore then. tm tlJ thtlr, j lls! tMn, just
1IOU', by now, et'ery day , oj C(mrse. Jwu. f ar/long /1I11IdJ/oj u n ,
work.
(4) T he cat walked quite You surtly (5 u,..ly, you) won't aJ jirst /last /prese'lt/least: in jU(lfr~; larer 0 11: 1111 at once; so"u
Jay ; S OOlilT 0 1 later, etc.
su rdy along t he narrow pay that price.
wall.
(5) She spoke sim ply and I X V E RSIQN OF S UR [ CT AND VE RI! W H "\nvERBS
I couldn' t, nallJ rally (N atur-
,ultu rally . ally, I couldn' t) , agree 10 a -(I}-An ad verb or adverbphrase which d oes not normally
proposal lik e that have fron t position may have it , u~ually lor emp~a~~is. In th is
(6) H e is f ortunately mar- He is, [ortun ately (F or/1m - case, in':'er~l~n_of subj ect anq .'YE.!b m ay ~_cui.-J'llis usage is in
ried. auiy, he is), married. many cases litera ry and emotlOn,a l rather than colloquial, e,g.
Oftc have I heard it sa id that he is no t to be trusted.
(j) ~n. exclamatory sentences' the adv erb used always has front Twice wit hin my lifet ime "five world wars takm Pl f/Ct .
pcsttton, e.g. . , . ,
AU'llv they wen t ! Hue he comes! There goes Helen! lioUl well a r th e c u r ch was -
an a t im e , IS a boY.'''ave I climbed t hat h ill.
. an old ruined cottage.
B his side sat ~ '! f ait/If Ill dog.
he sPeaks English! HOtI7 quickly t imc h as go~e!, ,
Note that in these exclam atory sente nces ."':I th how, t he er- is t e book t hat y ou wanted.
othe r ad verb (U'eU , quickly) also has front position. uc was the W e he told me. •
(i) Some adverbs can be used ~t the beginning of a sen tence hu t -(2~\\-'ith a negative ad verb or adn'rb equivalent in fron t
are not confined to that pcsmon, e.g. POSition , inve rsion 01 f>u bject and verb must occur, 1.' g.
~
Sf",~l inus he sits and thinks, and s"mdim~'s he just sits'. n 0 ircums ta nccs U'Cl jfd I agru to such a proposal .
Yes terday I went t o a footba.1I match; tod~y I am playing otot mtil all attempts a t negotiation had failed did the men
tennis; . tom .#:'" I ......
, - going to the theatre and tomcrnno I am Ide to go on strike.
goi ng swimming. CS'owtiF"e) else lJ'l"lI you jind so many happy , contented
I,
This could equally well be wri tten: " _
tor cntv has lu a fi rst-class brain but he is a lso a tremcn-
I .....en t to a foot ball march yesterday: I a m playing tennis ous v lard worker.
today , etc.
~ soon el)" ad Ihey bun granted one increase of paythan they
lSked for a nother.
A COlllprd:olsil·t Engiish Csemmar Advtr1:'s , 65
SeJdOlY\ IS it !"ist to disregard tt.e advice til at he gives. But when a special finite is used with the verb, the adverb
, "eve, ' II the field of human conflict has so mllCh been OWl'c'. comes between the special (mite and t he main verb, e.g.
by so lIlany to so feW.'l ,---
-13;'- I nv ersion must also occur when only is in fr ont position lienry 's work IS a/:Z'II)'S carefully don e.
and not qualifying the subject, e,g. Richard \1'0.5 never a very good foot baller.
You should make tha t mistake
( 0 1l0 .\,II('n all attempts at negotiation had tailed , did the lfle i l
agai n.
decide to go on strike.
They arc just leaving t he h ouse.
(o n 19 wit h the full agreement c,f cYClyonc CIlII we ho pe t c lle,/rly wal k.
The baby can
~ ii'~eeJ.
On1) .n north-west Scotland ha !!e I seen such scenery as tha t
If, ho wever , the special (mite is used emphatically the frequency
"':4}-When unstresse d there is in front position: adverbs precede it, e,g.
There is 110 dlJlfht th at th e man i'l gui lty. 'Henry 's work seems caref ully done. ' 'It "lwlly s is carefully
There's !l letter for y ou on your desk. do ne.'
( T her c} l<-'Ils afroo /last night, wasn't there? 'Richard isn't a very good Iootbullcr Il OW .' 'He 11<!!(1 w as a
There is still a lot of work to be d one before the bouse w ill good Iootbatlc r.'
be ready for occupation. Th is t ype of sentence usuall y becomes a 'Sh ort Answer' III
There arc mllllY pe<>fJle still with too Iowa standard of living, conversation , e.g .
-( j).. I n some exclamatory sentences introduced by there or 'H enry' s wor k seems carefully done to-day.' ' It alway s is.'
here (see pp. 262, 316): 'Richard isn 't a good tootba ller.' ' He lIeV(1 eas.'
I heard a knock at the door and there u-as George. 'Can you get a good lu nch on the t rai n ?' 'YOI' sometimes cau.'
Other exam ples of mi d- position use of a d verbs:
( ~.!ID-POS !TIO; :\PV"RBS\ ' • I accidm tally upse t the wa ter jug. H e atiually told me it
wasn 't my business. They anxiously awaited t he result T he.
An import ant group of mid-posit ion adverbs arc the adverbs soldiers b.~atdy attacked the s trong positi on . He definitely
of fre quency. \\'i tft t h em can be grouped such adverbs 0.0 refused / to do the job, I deeply regret having spoken. I
almost, 'learly, ouitc, Iul rdly, jllst. Their usual positi on j" di s/inca }' heard him say that .! When the ord er was given t hey
immedlutei y ill frO:lt of t he principal v oo:rb, e,g.
immed t':nc4t 5prang to their feet. I almost made that same
-
jI--~ways
mistake again, H e just opened the door and walked in, He
sleep with my w indow open. 111m t old me what he wanted. That iI/deed surprised me ve ry
He nccer forget s his wife's birthday. much , He lasl wro te to me a year ago. I 110W come to a very
I We
1
ojtm
almost
wish
forgot I
that YO\l lived r.ear us.
to tell you t his.
import ant matter. Having bought this land , he r.u/ pro-
ceeded to plan t it with apple trees. T hey pe rhaps d islik ed
I hardly I know how to thank you . wh at you said . I rather ho ped that you would come to live
I
c
He J'lIst , p icke d
~
I up his hat and walked aw ay.
••_ near us. I reaUy th ink that you arc expecting too much. You
' Coml'a r ~ : ' I heard dislmdly "hat he said' , wh ich i,,,s ,, di fferent
1 \\'insron Churchill ~l)e"kjni; a~nut lil~ l{ A F , in !<J-jo . meaning.

A Jt'obs 26 7
A Comprehmsive E nglish Grammar
Almost th e only adve rbs th~ t cannot be used in the end
once said that you had played foot hall for England . H e (j)
pos;it ion are negunve adverbs h ke not, ~dl~ , sUl. rcdy, never ,
already knows what I t hink about hi m, I "nearly mi ssed mv ;Iud degree adverbs like very , f~ " qlllt~, JUu, alo~JO~', etc.
train this morning, H e quite realizes tha t you can' t help ;.Im ost the onl y occasion when this IS no t the case IS m such
everyone. sentences as:
Ail these adverbs can be used between the auxiliary and th e Turn Qjf the gas. H eJp me to lift lIP the table.
main verb, e.g. which can be u sed as well as:
I ha ve accidentally u pset the water jug, They are anxiollsly 'Turn th e gas off.' ' Help me t o lift the t able tip .'
awaiting t he result, He will defin itely refuse the job, I had x ct e th at if the object is a pron oun, the adverb must come
almost made t he same mistake ag ain , I shall nOTt' come to an ;t th e end.
im portant matter, H e has already heard wh at I think abo ut Turn it off, NOT; Turn off it.
him. He will fl14 ite realize that you can' t help everyone. Li ft it lIP. SOT: Lift u p it .
1:1 II a sentence has n o d irect ob jec t , the adverb generall y
(E~D-POSITIO~ ADVE RBS \
~me s immediat ely after the verb, e.g.
(1) The end position is the mos t nat ural one for adverbs, an d }Ir. Owen died yesterday at th e age of 85·
t'he great majority are placed there. If th ere are several The boys have gone there to play t ennis.
adverbs, the orde r is generally: manne r, place, time, e.g.
H arry worked well here yesterday,
171 If the ob jec t :~ a clause, .the ad verb may be placed before
"tr in order to avoid ambig UIt y. ('.g,
The fundament al stru cture of a sentence (statement) is ' H e t old me y esterday what George said ,'
S UBJECT + VER B +
OBJ ECT +
ADV E RB IAL , and the genera l
principle is that the object (or complement) sho uld no t be wh ich is not the same as :
separated from its verb by having an adverb or adverb ' H e t old me what George sa id )'~s/t1 d(lY :
ph rase in terposed , So, if to t he sentence: 'Mary sang that C1 We h ave no ted that ad ver bs of defin ite time, e .g, yesterday ,
song: we want to add ' beautifully ', \\OC m ust say: 'M1ry ~ay , tomorrw 311d ~dve rbi als like (I n U'edrresJay, next
sang th at song btaulifvlly: :-;QT: ' ~rary sang bealltifully that Chris/mas, in a f (W 'JIl IlIl/(S, ett .,. come a.t the end of t h.e
song.• sentence. n u t if we wish t o emphasize the time, the adverb IS •
The adverb sh ould be put after the obj ect or complement , e.g. frequently put at the ix'ginni ng , eg.
H enry does his work welJ; Richard generally does his wor k T oddY I tiave worked indoo rs, but tOrllorrO'lf' I sh all have a
badly, George works hard, R obert drives fa st; Will iam drives day in tIl e ga rde n , . .
slou'Zy . Peggy played the accompa.n iment t o Mary 's song Va y S()t'llJwe shall set t he result of yo~r e;o;amlOatlOn .
p erf ectly ,1 They flew to P aris }'esJerday ; they ho pe t o visit E very nolL' al~ then a little boat came mto the harbou r,
Lucille tomorrflll'. I like leaming English very lIlm h. 1 Have @If there nrc two or more atl verhg (or advcrbials] of t ime, the
you been learning E nglish long? more de tailed cxpression tomes before th e more general, e.g.
• But in a passive COll5truetioD th e adverb may co me a lte r th e The next mee tins will be on Thtfrsd.1)', -'larch 26th , I¢o.
a uxiliary b ut belore the main put of the verb, e. g.
Peggy 's 1.C(:0mpaoiment was p,r/,dly p hayed . wine.' (In til e ln st U"lltcn,c V~-).. •" .. , 10, .Is ad veJI, ! an, I mea~
,Ia. . I ' par-
o H . D . Strutfeil4 (E til iosil LG"P"I ' T' lU hi"I , Vol . II I , K o . 2) tk ula tl y ', '~rcatl)"'. I n th e 'coomJ Qne II J' .. J Je<;u\"a l ,,,,,1 Hlc"m a lar ge
makes the point, vel'}- appositely , that there is a lot of d iflerell<:e qualll ll y {I Ll
bet ...'" n: ' 1 d on 't like wi ne very m uch' a.c.d ' I don't like very muo::h

•
J
..----
268 A Comprd~,.sive E"l:lish Grammar

6J. An adve rb of degree or manner is generally put before (I) Charles is working: he bas not recire<1. {yet; lIhll}
aJjectives, participles a nd o ther ad verbs, e.g. (~) Joe works hard: he IS t oo stu pid t o p J.S:; h i." e:'1 a llli na.
li e was extremely clever. Y O\l can' t be 100 careful. He played t1011 . (however) (3) what Ch ris to pher said w as w ro ng
t·ery well. T he glass was badly broken. T he dange rously {nlro get her , yeste rday ] (4) The whole fntnily a goin.'l"
out. [to m or ro w] ~s) \ \'e !Jll,v(: ou r din ne r at seven o'clock,
wounded soldier was imnudilltdy hurried to hospi tal. She is (S<'ller.1lJy) (6) \\ e ha ve !lad cu r dinner at seven o'cloc k.
a WIlly well-educated girl. You spoke too soon . (alw'!)'s) (i) Janwll has lo ts of porrnl cc for breakfast .
@ But the adve rb t1IQughcomes alter the adjec tive or participle. (SU11lCtlIDt<ll) ( ~J Ja m~ is hu ngr y. (svme ll llle"j (fl) 1I~
went ~bout III old clot bes: Ioc= was very rich . Inc tu alJ )'1
Th at is good ftlo ugh Icr me. {wi lOU don't need as much all that. (surely) (JI ) He
He ought t o kn ow the way t o Ox ford ; he has gone t here gees a bout III ckl clo th es as a rule, bu t I saw him wi th
oft..n mough. a brand-nov, coat on. (actuallY;)'l'Sterday) (I I) She's a
pre tty prl. (ratl wr) (I.}) It 's a ni ce Ja y. (q u itt'l j q ) We
f<'j ) Some ad verbs, e.g. only, somdimfS. th.en, (t'm , perhaps, can tl!! went t," town. [last .... eck] i t s) I ""i11 mee t vo u. (li t
~c ur in various posi tions in the sentence, sometimes ex - \ ictc rra Station, under .the cloc k, r.u;t TuClida.y. at 3
pressing a difference of mean ing , e.g. p.m .) ( 16 ) He IS becom m g a chai n-s mok er. jla.;;t) (171
SOlJldjm~s I a m quite ho peful abou t t he situation. Wh e n they left the fiel d , th e team looked beaten. (wel ll
118) Has be done the W( ,rJ,.? (weill ( 19) liM the wurl<
I am so"",timl$ quite h opeful about t he si tua tion. heel; rluc:el (well) ( 20) He leads mu sic. (easily ) (21) I
I am qu ite hopeful a bout t he sit uat ion sometimes, don t th ink we have spent t oo long on the jou rney.
Thm I went home. I thm went h ome. I wen t home then, (altogether] (n) The t rain went! (a wa y) ("23) H ow t1:e
Perhaps I was m istaken. I was, perhaps, mistaken. I was I,ollda ys have passed I (q uickly) (a..l I walk ji\-e miles
mistaken, pcr1wps. . ev-ery mcrnmg. (a lw 8)'s) (2S) \ \ -e told them t1ut t he
matte r d id no t con cer n them. (at t uall y)
O1tly goes immed ia tely nex t to (usu a lly before) t he word it II ec.n stmc ~ sentences nsinG" t he fo llo wi ng words as
qualities: '!ro nl-popit iou' adverbs:
Only J ohn admires his brother. J ohn ollly admires his do·...-n, however, along, yet, how.
brothe r. J ohn admires only his Lrothe"r. J ohn admires ' his III Hea d al o ud and explain the differe nc e in meaning
fI,ll)' brother. (Here, of c ourse, only is an adjec t ive .] j ohn be t ween :
admires hi s brother only. ( I) I never did wel l; W eJl I never d id l
This is particularly important in ....-ritten E nglish . I n spoken ( ~ I :,>Iy lri e nd . speaks En!!'lish ....e ll: my friett<l spea ks •
English t here is a tendency to put only before t he verb ~uod English. .
and to make distinc tion of meaning by a vary ing s t ress 01 A ltClI;eto,:r, I consider it wrong: I n >n ~i <l er it
and intonation. O t her ad verbs and ndve rbiuls th at can he used ai tu,c;Hhe r WIOIl l;.
in fr ont , mi dd le or end positions a re: (un)fortIl11.atdy, (speeltllly , (4)\ Alic e does nt m uch lik e milk in her tc<\: ~ li e d o es nt
possibly. really , certainly, exactly , merely , mostly , sim ply , like much m ilk in !le r t ea.
any/unt', about , /w lI't i:er, i'ldud, altogether, 'l ot, no d Olfbl, of (5) Still. I belie ve hUll to be innocent: I s t..i1I be:ieve
coe-se, al least , at 011('(. him to be innocen t. .
(6) She is alwar~ ::..te; she alwavs, i~ la te.
E XERCISES IV Compose sentences witl. e a ch (Jf ( I.e foCowinl:" a dve rbs
I P u t t he adverbs in th e best poSItion in the se nte nc e. In more than one posit ion :
making uuy nec essary c hanges in punctuation IIr word m uch; ollly; aIIO.f:"'h u; II!tJl; 1i0 li."Cj"" ; 'le ver; distinctly ;
order: af t"rli',lh f;: alii; aU'" y ; "[Oliff.

270 A ComprehemilJe English Grammar Adt'u bs 27 1

V Correct the followin g sentences: ~2r ,,: d v,c rbs of more ,th an one syllable fonn their compara-
(I ) J oseph .peab well Spanish. (2) Always I have
nve b ) uSing more, their su perlative by most, e.g.
trouble in December. (3) My pa rents o fte n have told me brightly - more brightly _ rlWst brightly.
this. (4) Let us t om orrow meet at two o'clock outs ide ..(3~ A few arc irregular, c.g.
Madame T ussaud 's. Is) You have enoug h said for the
m oment. (6) T hey perhaps will not a fte r a ll go . (7) The u dl -- better - best; little -s- less - f( l sf; "llI~h- "IOre_
meeting is indefinitely postponed . (8) I ca ugh t t he mr>st; badly - !hOrse _ WOI'st.
sound of his voice distinctly. (9) H e knows what already
t he p un ishment 'will be. (10) They will accept your ~ran )' ad verbs do not have degrees of comparison, e.g.
. offer tomorrow defi n itely, (n ) When we lifted up it, we here, thn e, 'IO'It' , then , once, t't,)', et c.
found underneat h the money hidden. (12) H e is hard ly
never Jate. ( I l) He generally always arrives on t ime. The c.om~a rati,·es of in, Ollt, up (illtltr, ouur, Upp" ) are used
( I .d They rather somet imes t ake too much t o drink, as adjectives e.g.
l iS) I a lways nearly go t o London on Saturdays. T~ e outer door was wide open but th e in ner one was locked.
(16) She quite never ca n act well. (17l Alm ost I had
made the Iallt1e m istake &«ain. (18) They h ave t o q uite
HIS room was on an flpper fl oor of the house. The House of
realise t hat they ca n 't d o as they like exactly. (19) The Lords is kr,cw n as t he Upp v Chamber, the House of
soloist played bea ut ifully that co ncerto, (20) He need s Commons as t he Louer Cham ber.
badly a holiday. (21) A new con t ingen t of ,isitors from
t ime t o time arri ved. (n ) We w it! t odav heg in to st udy The superlative forms--also used as adjectives-are inl1lOst
t he use of Prepositions in English . (l J ) 'They every now (innermost). outmost (outermosl), IIpperm()st,
and then come to stay with us . (231 We on Friday shall
go away for the week-end. (205) The next concer t in
( :SOTES 0 :" C ERTAT S A DVER BS)
t his series will take p lace in t he Town Hall on 26th "lay,
Frida y. (26) I a m quite really certain he has mad e a [qvlTE]
mistake. (l 7) Only o nce I h ave done th at.
VI Construct a reply to each of the following remarks, using Qj, i fe has two pra ctically opposite meanings:
an a uxiliary verb emphatically and an adverb tlf ~ r:" The foo t ball ground was quife (= completely) full: you
freq uency, could n't get another person in it.
( I) You 're looking very cheerful this morning. (2) He
shou ld never go ou t till he has finished his homework . ..(2;- As a pi,an i,st Peter is qtlife ( = fairly) good. He is qu ite a
(ll YOll should drive carefully, (4) They will need good pianist but, of course, he is not in th e same class •
war m cloth ing for winter days. b ) He shou ld not spend as the great concert pianis ts .
his money so extravagantly .
In (I). the ~c is a stron.g st ress on quite and on t he follow ing
t C 9~'PA R I S9 ~ Or A DVERBS ) ad }~'(' t l vc ; In (2') there IS a weaker stress on t he adject ive.
Comparison of adverbs is similar t o comparison o f
adjectives. ( .-\LP.EAD Y YET J
-( l r Adverbs of one syllable fonn their comparat ive in -tr
and their supe rlative in ·est, e.g.
ntar - M ar" - M arest; hard - harder - hardest; soon -
. A lrt ad,' means 'be fore now ' , 'up t o now' , 'by this t ime',
.'
so Iar , e.g.
slXJfUr - soonest. I have llirt ady explained this,
Early and ofte n l also follow th is pa ttern. Richa rd has aIrtad)' eaten six cakes an d is st arting 0 11 the
se vent h.
.. I O/tna abo U~ "' '''"' and ...ent.
v ." ,,' '

Adverbs
27 2 A Comprehw5iv~ English Gramma r I n some cases still and)itt may have the same meaning, e.g .
I have slitl ,I. few more pages to read .
Y et has more or less the same meanings. 'up to now', 'at this
I've a few more pages to read vet.
m omen t ' . e.g. ,
' Isn 't Wil1iam here yeO' .
H e hasn't fi nished h is work yet. ' Is William slifl not here ?'
Has the post man come yet?
Have r Oll heard from your brothe r yel? (William is expected , a nd the speaker is rather surprise d and
perha ps a nnoyed that h e hasn 't a rri ved . T he surprise and
T he difference between them is th at already is use d in annoya nce are rat her stronger in the second sentence tha n in
affirmative statements, yet is used in negative a nd interro- the first.]
gative sentences. But not e t he d ifference in mean ing between:
But a.lready ca n be used in interrogative sen tences if y ou 'Is W illiam still here?' and : 'Is Willia m here yr/?'
expect an answer, 'Yes', c.g. (In the first sentence Will iam h as been here, but t he speaker
I didn' t ex pect you till four o' clock. I s it lour o'clock already ~ doe~n ' t know whether he has gone aw ay or not. I n the second
'Wh at! have you f inish ed your work alreadyl sentence W illiam is ex pected hut the speaker doesn 't know
whether he has arrived or not. )
(Do not confuse already with aU ready , e.g .
Note that yet al mos t always h as an en d- position ; still
We a re all ready now for the lesson .) generally , but not alwa ys, has a mi d- position. Note the two
B oth already and wi indicate periods of time that began in posit ions , too, in the following constructions with com-
the past and extend to the present. T hey arc therefore most parati ves:
frequently used with a Perfect Tense. You must work harrier yd.
T hey can also be used with the Simple Present T ense of the You must work siill harder .
verb to be, and with the Continuous Tenses. \ Ve have ex ported a lot of goods but we must export more
I s H enry h ere yel? (meaning ' Has he " orne yell) , . y et.
Y ou certainly haven' t ti me to change your dress; we arc We have ex ported a lot of goods but we must export still
late for t he party (Ilready. more.
When I got there he W (lS alrwdy speaking. When still is use d in questi ons it frequently suggests feelin g of
some sort , e.g. surprise or annoyance : •
Th e y can be u sed also with t he Past T ense of those verb s that
a re not generally used in the Continuous forms, kn ou. \\1 l a t ~ are you still wo rk ing? I thought you had gone home.
unden talld, believe, tMIlk, feel , etc. (See p. 170), e.g. Is t hat fellow sliU here ? I wish he'd go away.
I already knet/.' that .
(AGol
l STlLq Th e Adverb ago (originally agone, a past participle of an
Slill has the meaning 'up to the present moment'. e,g. obsolete verb (lgo = go) is used for measuring a period of ti me
from t he present to some poin t in th e past, e.g.
T he money is still here if you want it.
.\re you still living in Hampstead) He was here a few minu tes O/go.
it
is eleven o'clock hut Henry is still hard at work. T hey carne to London abou t three years ago.
~ ()t e t ha t with fl;:;n a :-;iml'!(> Past Tense is always used.
With still, a Presen t Tense, or Continuous !en~e
generally he used, not a Past r cnse or Perfect 1 en se.
•

Adverbs .:li5
.A Comprelunsivl Engl i sh Grammar
happily, well, . t herefore. fina lly , first. of cou rse
nat urally, admitted ly, cert a inl y. se rious:y still 0 0·
\ TOO ) prlllnpi c. ' ,
Too has tw o meanings (I) "" also, in addition, e.g. 1\' Com plete each of th e Iolfcwi ng sen tences lry.. addin
",Ilc of t he Iollowing adverbs in its correc t poaitiou iO'
Fred is coming to the party ; won't you come, too? t I C sentenc e:
If you arc taking your suit to be clea ned, will you take minr quite, already, all ready , still, yet ,
,""? (I) ,I am not su re if t hey ar e co m ing this evenin
{ z} ~hey are ha lf,a n hour late. (J ) But there is time f~
With th is use, too is always in end-position.
ca tc t he tral~ If we hurry. (of) Perha ps the have
(:) (as a degree adverb) -= 'excessive', 'more than necessary or bough t thei r tickets. (5) But I don 't expect th~ ·'11
desirable' . In th is usage it has something of a negative ira, ~t:e done so , (6) ' H urry uP, and put tile kettl~ :~:
plication . e.g. . \ ~ ---: done so; tho u g~ It s not - - time for tea.'
~ ?) A~e you fellows co m mg ?' ' Yes. we are - - ' (8)
The coffee is too hot (. . . so I (1I.O ' t drink it ). This exercise 1 here s p lenty of time - - , (9) There', - pient y
is too har d (. . . so I can't do it). He ran away too fast (.. . S'J of lime. (10) I was - t o come when t he telephone
I couldn 't catch hi m). r~n g .,(II ) You a re not - ,here. are you ? I t hought
This negative implication is frequently expressed as an you went ho urs ago. (12) \\ hen sh e arrived I hadn' t
- had breakfast. '
infinitive:
The coffee is too hot to drink. Th is exercise is too h ar d to de
V !n .ea,ch of the followi ng sent en ces, say whet her
';lune h as t he me aning of 'com plet ely' or of ·fa rl)· ·
He ran away too fast to be ca ugltJ. ( ra t her') . I
Too is not , t herefore. a substitute for very. (1)I 11is ~roblem is q uite. diff, cult. (z) Thl' problem is
q Uite . be yo nd me" (3). '.:01.1 have had quit e enou gh
~ BUT l pud dlll~ . (of) I can t q uite make ou t t his word. (5) T he
de<:orat l?ns a re q uite attractive, aren 't t hey ? (6) He ',
But is an adverb (with the mea'1ing of 'only') in constru: not a ~Jihonalre, but h e', qu ite rich . (7) The wo rk is
tions such as: He is but a child. There is bid one 'chance Ie:' not qu tte as good as I ex pec t ed , t hough he 's on ly ten .
We can but try. The adverb phrase all but has the meamr VI Complete the following p airs of sen tences with word s
'nearly' , e.g. He was all but killed. that. t hough similar, are in one case an adjective and
III t he oth er an adverb.
•
EXERCi SE S (I) (4) He bec ame very deaf in - - life.
(h) Coed-bye for the present. I ' ll see you - .
I Gh'e the com parative and superlative forms of:
(z) (a) The _- line was com ple t ely bloc ked by t he
qu ietly, badly, hard, little. "''ell. lo w, backward ,
d erail me nt.
beau tifully, in a friendly ma nner.
(b) The path went - a nd - to the bottom o f
II Give advcrbs equivalent t o the following phrases:
t he cliff.
on bo ard; in the d i:rec tion of home; t owards th e sh ore:
to t he side ; on the shore; on t he water . (3) (a) At - we saw daylight ag ain.
(h) The _ occupan t of t he house was a riuh
[....'. ll. The adverbs ar e not alway s iutercbangcablv
an d ecce nt ric old lady.
with these phrases .]
I II Con~truc t sentences , using one of the followi n!: a ~ ' ( ~) (a) T here is no wi nd : t he air is ve ry - ,
ve r bs or adve rb ph r35Cli t o mod ify t he wh o!e of ea, II (h) I um - - hopi ng lor be tter luck ne xt year.
sentence:
A Comprehl flSi lle Elfgli ~ !l Gramlllar
(5) (/I) lle 'Was d riving on th e - + - side of th e road
whe n the accident happened . C H A P T E R :-<I:->ETI-:E:-'
.. ." "',
tiJ The . rereree b lew h is wh istle beo:ause one of
the players was - side. P R EP O ~ITI O~ S :\~D ',\D\' E R B L\ L
vrr (a) Correct the follo....ing sent~Du:s~ P ARTI CLE S
I (x ) I am here alIee.d)' half an h o ur. (2) J oh n ha.s not
$till~ri ,to LOndon . (7":0 correc tions pcsstbte. What As E ~SI.lsh is an analytic langu age. preposi tions pl aya large
l!! the'ttlfference In meantngrJ (3) He yet d oesn't k now part In I~S struc tu re an~ are the cause of ma n)' difficulties t o
what t o d o . (. ) This wort is not still righ t. (5) Already the fore ign stude nt . L~tt le guidance can be give n in arw
I d id that w ork.
(b) What is t he di fference between:
granunar. book ~ to which preposit ion is the right on e t o use,
for there IS no logt~al reason why one is right in certain conte xts
(J l ' I see bim a](eady'. and ' I have seen him a lread y', a nd another cue IS wrong. Idioms-in which prepositions are
(~l' H e still ham't d one the .....crk', an d 'He hun' t yet
~ r~l~en tl); c o~cerned-3f«: peculia rities of language whose
d one t he "..b rk', (]) ' Is Henry here ,tim' (or 'snll rightne ss or wrongne.ss. IS based. on usage. not on logic or
VI II
...
here"}, a nd ' Is H enry' here yet] "
. '
What f~lin8 6 are 8J[pl~ed by the following sent-
e~.y mol ogy . l A good d~c~ lOna:ry WIll help , but wide reading
with a s~\a rp eye for IdIOm IS t he su rest teacher. we have
I i ell~es1 r .. th ought It be st , therefore, to give here some general remarks
(l\ ftas h'c still not t eleph oned ? (2) DOn't you yet kn ow on, p~epositi on~ a nd then to add nu merous ex amples of the
",:h# tense ,to u~l (3) You can't have fin ished that principal ones In sentenc es. with notes on the usage of t hose
~X'efHse alr elldy . . (~, 'They" h av<:! I'l 't done milch work
up !o·the'Pre~ ent ~ '{ ~ She mus t ha,:e got horne by ~ ls t hat may cause d ifficulty.
Httle~ ' C6 ) At ' tfl'i$ mctnerrt It's quite useless to ask him PREPOSI TIO NS ~re\\:ord s ~sed with nou ns (or noun equivalent s)
for 'mOll e y~ I't1 ) bO\lld n' ~ you have got here earlie r/ to show the re luticn lfl winch these nou ns stand t o som e other
18'1 'The tcatl1et blS a fT eady explained this tour tun es . word in t he sen tenc e. Thus in the sen te nce:
(9 ) ri thit oltfbOrestilt monopolizing the conversation T he horse is in the stable,
at ~e,flutb ~.' ~I..~l H e d~n't kn ow any bef!er. th e preposi tion ill expresses t he relation be tween none and
IX Conlrtnll:;t nv-e lleQte n(.u in each of which a n -dverb SI,!Ll~, The preposition and noun together make a 'case ph rase'
whic~ haS DO deerees of compa.roon is employed .
I ', . 'J ' I" o- withi n t he rest of t he sentence. If case can be shown (as wit h
X Rewii te the following .entew:eY. not u$ing the word some pronouns) t he case is always objecti ve , e.g. ..
v: 100 b u]; k~ing their present meaning:
( J) This mea.t is t.oo tough to eat. (:!l The q uest ion is He spoke to m e . This came from him. He wrote about them .
teo difficult for me to answer . (l) The little boy was t oo .Prepositions m ay be single words, e.g. Ill . afte,. d01l'JI . since,
~xcited t o UJeak. (4) l am too tired to ....-ork any tongee. 'l'l l ~ etc) or t hey may be rwo or m ore words IT gwu p pre-
(5) Th\l ha.'Ye given me too mue h Christmas pudding, posmons , e g.
(IS) Tha t :tru nk is t'QO hea vy for you t o hft . tt ) TillS
piece of chal k 'is t oo- sma!! for m e to wrue with. 1 Beware o~ ' he writer w~o u.ys: 'in t he cirC\lmlu ,nces' i, righ' a nd
(8) He is~ reo ~n;ib'e to believe a story 11ke that.
,
."''''n t he cU"c\lm,tances' IS "TOng bec;au.e ,i.c>o'" in Latin mea nt
(9) '!t's nev-er tOO late to mend .' ' Pt'M'ub) (10) 'Too arou nd ' and ) ' 0 11 are i .. t h ing'll tha' are aro\lnd vcu and not Wfldt. t hem '
manr , '=.~~ <:l p9il ,th e br.oth.' W'Ut'n b.) ? r "'h<:> ""'y' •....erse !.{)fOl' i, more correct d Ian 'a verse 10' bee:ause ~~nJ;
~. d e.rlVed fr~m , ~e ~t in .,?"In, _(_ '0 ' urn ), and ..~nU ,ug~IU
~ ~uvk It I. ~ "'rnln g from not ,u~nmg to . T he appeal to et)"lnology is fallac lt>\I"
T \lrk ey w at no t the Ofl l:lna l home of t" ' IrI)'J; and a modern " ,'ltdid4tr i.
nut iI man who \\, e.. r. ll. ..·h ite robe!

•
Prep ositions ,wd 'Adverbial P,lTticles' 279
27 A Comprehe nsive E ngl ish GrillIl mar f ..The preposi tions.to, i ll ordc ~ to , so as (0, hel p t o ex press l' U ItI'OS :
8
th.cy arc u sed With an In finit ive. P urpose is cxpressc by or
He will come i1l5tMJ of me .
With a gerund, e.g.
The teacher stood in f rO"7lI of the class.
H e said that fo r the s,Jke of peace and quiet. :\ hammer is used fo r k nocki,lg in nails.
H enry sat OIl ,he back of th e room . One of the chief funct ions of the preposition is to make, with
What d id he say U'ilh r~arJ to my proposals? rhe noun or pronoun that follows it , a phrase. This phrase is
usually an adverb equivalen t , e.g.
It is almost impossible t~ j;ive all the meanings t hat preposi-
tions help to convev. Origmally th ey denoted place or direc- I looked through the u'illdoU', (PllIu)
I sh all go t here 011 Friday . (Time)
tion, ego
H e worked on a farm dllTing tIle holidolYs. (Tim..)
He works aJ th e cotton factory .
H e spoke i n a lfllli t;oiu, (,l1a"'lcr)
The boys ran to sch ool.
or an adjectivc equivalent, qualifying the preceding noun, e.g.
.. _ The pri ncipal prepositions used to express IPL .-\c1J are:
The house ...· illl the big garden is :o.1r. Brown's.
aboul, oabol.'t, oacYOSS, against , along, amO"7lg , at, by, befo~e. That is t he Tower of London.
bthifld, belene, belU'alh, beside, between, be)'O"7lJ, doti"11 .jro1ll, H I . I received a tet ter fro m her.
i n side, i nto, near , off, on, over , pa st , round , throu?~, t~ , I do n 't like t he sound of a jtt engine,
toward s, u nder, underneath , up, and the 'grou p pre~sl~lons :
at the back (front , side, top , bottom) of, at tile begl nnlllg oj, T h e ~e . are als? a number of words, h avi ng t he form of
at the (lid of, away f rom , f ar f rom, i n [ront of, ill the middl~ of , part iciples, wh ich act a s preposit ions. c.g.
She said noth ing concerning him .
out of. What did he say Tega ,'dillg my proposals?
Man y of these are al so use d to express time relations, e.g.
( P RE POS ITlO:-;S AS"D A DVE RBs{
I shall see him a/ four o'clock. • • •
T he principal preposi tions u sed to help to expres:;(n~IElare:
As h as been emph asized before in t his book, it is a mist ake
-1f;. _
~ o aU.empt t~ s~at e what is the part of speech of any word in
abof.t, after. at, by, before, betweell, during , fO.T , from, in, 01:. Isolation -. ThIS IS a matter t hat can be decided only by an
si nce, till. through, throughout , /0, at tlu beglnlllllg (tIId) o. ex arnm a tron of the work a word is rioing .Consider , for example , •
a/ the time of, i n the m iddle (midst) of, dow n to, liP to. t he following:
General! )" speaking, at"by, on indicate a pO!H of tim~, e c; (a) T he boy came dou'" the tree.
at six. o'clock , by two 0 cloc k, on Tuesd ay , 011 the r yth 0, (b) The tree blew dOUln in the wind.
~1 arc h . (a) H e put the book on the table,
The prepositions 4/a, before, b)' , In , sillee, till ~I' lltil) in~iicat ~ (b) Put your coat on.
a PE RIOD of t ime, e.g. 11ft" Easter; before Chnstmas.. 1'1 t he (a) H enry came ~f()Te four o'clock.
m orn ing faft emoon !e\,ening, since five o'clock , u ,:[11 seven (b) I have explained th at point befoTe.
o'clock, . .. , . f' ,.
The prepositions fo r, .luTi ng indicate ova...TlO:-; 0 time, e ~ (a) :o.lary is in the garden.
He has been working f or t hree hours. He became ill Jllr i , J (b) I opened the door, ami the cat walked in .
the night . (See also p. :,! QIJ.) \
280 A Compreh uisive Enghsh Grammar
P repositions 1I11 d ' Adl.'erl!i{/l P articles: ,8,
Obviously t he words italicized in the sentences marked (ai
are di fferent in function from the corresponding words in th aw pili togrthcr. "lake after, millie at, make alt'I1Y witll. make
marked (b) . In the first case they are prepositions; in the secon.j for, make fr om , make lip, make off, lIlake off u'ilh, make out ,
t hey are adverbs and form AD \'ERB CO:'>IPLEME NTS. 1II11k" out of. maliC over, make touards , suakc up fo r, 1//ake ut>
( P H RASA L VERBS)
to, etc ,
Note, t oo, h ow often word s like t hese are at tached t o, and Some of the meanings are literal and th e meaning of the
affec t t he meaning of, verbs. Consider, for example, the phrase may be ga thered from t he individual words tha t
following: compose it, e.g.
I will put out the ligh t. Put t he book up the re.
This has taken liP a lot of my time. The icc was broke n liP by the ice-plough,
The boy accide ntall y knocked 01'(( the ornament. But vcry frequen tly the meaning is figurative and can only be
T um on the gas. learn ed by treating the combination as one uni t, e.g.
Take off your hat. Can you Plfl me liP for the night? ( = accommodate)
All the se words (out, up, over. off. 011) are used In front of \ \'e have broken liP for two weeks ( = classes have finished
noun s or noun equivalents, but the y could go equally well for a two weeks' holiday) .
elsewhere, c.g.
In some cases the adverbial particle has become completely
I will put the light out. fused with the verb t o become an inseparable particle. In tha t
This h as taken a lot of my t ime up. ease it precedes it , e.g. ouinmnber, ot'erlook, upset. withsland.
The boy accidentally knocked the ornament over.
Turn the gas 0 11. { TilE P OSTTIO S OF T HE PnEPOSITIO:<1J
T ake your h at off.
As we have noted , the preposition usually goes be fore t he
They are not showing the relationshi p between the nou n nou n or noun equ ivalent which it governs , e.g.
that follows them and any oth er word ip the sentence, the y
belong much more closely to the verb. In fact most of these He spo ke [0 me. The football team is playing al Wembley.
expressions cou ld be replaced by a single verb of. practically He prevented me fr om speaking.'
similar meaning, e.g. ,/ "', (The adverbial particle, as we have seen, can be before the
p ut out - extinguish; take liP - occupy, kn ock over - upset ; object or at the end of the sen tence} •
take off - doff.l . But when the word governed by the preposition is an
There are a great many of these ' Phrasal Verbs' (i.e. verb + Int errogat ive, which goes at the beginning of a sentence, the
prepositio n or adverb) and a nwnber of verbs (usually the preposit ion is usually (in conversationa l English always) at the
common est in t he language) may ha ve a do zen or more end of t he sentence, e.g.
d iffere nt meanings accord ing to the adverb ial particle wh ich Who(m) did you write to?
acc omp an ies the m, e.g . Wh a t are you laughing aU
put down, pUI back, put f orward, pul in , Pllt into, Pllt up, put Wllich class arc you i ll ?
off. put on, put upon, put tiP wilh, put about, p ili across, Pllt There is still a superstition among some English people that
away , put by , pul [ orth, put out , Pllt rOUlld, put through: a sentence must not end with a preposition. They think it i~
1 doff is rather a rc haic . It is f" rmed fro m do off; the oppos it e is do"
more 'correct' t o say:
(= do {i.e . P" I) on ).
1 :\ot e that if any part of th e verb i" used a ft er a p reposit ion i t must
1"" lh ~ I;l'lll ll<! ,
(See also p , 2H, )
282 A Comprehwsive English Grammar P rep ositions and 'Adverbial l'OIrlides'

''(If-'I n the pa ssive construction, e.g.
' At what are you looking?' than:
E veryt hi ng lie said was Jaugll cd at.
'What arc you lookin g at?' or:.
'I h ave a book , n which to write ~y
'I have a book to write my notes m.
r- , h .
tan.
.. . ,
H e is a man whose word is relied OJI.
That is a subject that mustn't be spoken abo ut,
John Dryden' went through hi\ ~~~~:T~~l~~~ :a;~~n~

the position of every pre~s~tlOn t 1reviewer condemn ed our I LI. U S T R ATI O ~ S OF TH E CSAG E OF I'HEl' OSI TI O~S,
sent ence. And Fowler says. . . d that. the first paragraph of AnV EHBS. ,\XD ADVEHHL\L 1',\I\. TI CI.ES
book" out of han d on t he gro~m , I
Th e fol lowing sentences illustra te 0111 tIll' pl'inr ipa l lllf':lllings
its preface ended in a prepohSlhO~ . at writing it is probably of tho m ost commonly used prql(Js:t iollS and advcrbi.u
The truth is that, t houg III orm part icles,
pre ferable t o write: , OR'
He didn't say to whom he gave the m~n.e} . ' .
That is the book fro m which h e got h is In,formatlOn . d I . .
( ."'. HO U T I
li h aking person an ias r want you to tell me about your work. Can you nx-oru m cnr ]
this 'rule' is broken by every E~ IS .~pe 'titer within the last
been ignored by alm ost ev ery ngr 15 Yo a good book II boll/ li fe in t he sixteenth cen tu ry? r am thi nking
seven centuries." about you all the time you are away. YOII onght to be certain
abou t a mat ter before you speak of it. I'I l see YO\l at about six
The preposition must h ave end p.osition: o' clock . T ha t is al! righ t for you but what IIbout me ? What
-{I}- I n adjective clauses beginning WI tl1 that, or in clauses about that mOlley you promised me' I've not had it yet. No
begi nning with u,'hat, e.g. , matter what we discuss , he knows a ll about it . r wish I were
T his is the kind of life that' he IS used ~ . k d fo r as sure about nny one thi ng as he i>; abOllt every single th ing.
It is a t hing th at I have dreamed of al~ wcnce . •• I go about the country a good rlcal and have seen many
There is the book that I asked abou t. t hings. You will be warm enough if you move about. Don't
This is what I was looki ng fo r. _ rush about_ Go sl owly and quietly. This is not screwed down
That is no t what he is u sed to. f . -, flrm ly ; it moves about when you touch it. I don't kn ow much
•
But there are one or t .....o ph r ases from which the preposit ion Spanish ; just enough t o find my way about in Spain. There
are a lot of men without work; they just stand about at
cannot be m oved , e.g . h.t sav that (KaT: whose street corn ers. You arc very untidy; you leave all yo ur books
I don 't know on whose aut on y you . .
lying abollt instead of putting t hem away , Is :!\fiss Sm ith
authority you say th at on . ) . .. I at that COl> anyv..-here abOttt? H e tried to order rue about , but I soon t old
He doesn't say by utuu reaSOlllng he ann Ct
elusion . (KOT: what reusonmg ... by.) h im he was not my maste r, There is about fz o difference
between this car and that one . Richarrl plnv-, about in school
' 163 1-1700 " . . <l F G l'" ,,·]e r. ' . . .. instead of working. Th e ship is abort! to leave .
'T he King's E nCllsh by ~~;. \\, ~,nCh~rd;ill, lI,ri,Ju5 "t !"l.v,n ~ "),' :'~
' T he re is a story that lllS' d w 'tten 'corrected by a nO " .
end_prepositions in a pay e r t~at ,J:t;.ht~e ~~:.rect ions marked in red , n,'; ~ ( AHOVE 1
zea l()uS ~c r~~I)" sent tt bt~ n"l~sh up ,,'itll wllich I wi ll not put . l "
a no te: Th,s ss the. sort 0 g ",' ' ) .. .j \ Ve flew above the clouds. YOII can just sec our house a bove
English : 'which I wlU not p ut up . It h ' Iso i n ".II a dject ive c!au,e, '
• xcie tha t t he that Cil n be omltteu i
t h is-t y pe . (See p. 327, Ad jecuve Clauses.
the trees, H enry's
work is well abOl'e t he average. He was
284 A CompreJlellsive English Grammar

above George in the examination list. Brown 's business is no-
doing well; he is finding it difficult to keep his he ad aoc:,;
water (= to remain solvent). \Yilliam is above meannc..
(= h e wouldn't ever be mean). There were above 100 peo ple at
t no meeting. I n t he above examples (in the examples a &oi f
you can see the usage of 'above' . That car cost above £2 ,Ofo",
Think about what I have told you; but, abcn'e all, dO:;'t
breathe a word of it to Henry,
[ ACROSS I
The t ree had fa llen down Ilcross the railway line. Browr.',
house is just across the road from us. You cross a cheque bv
drawing t wo lines ecrcss it and writing /& Co'; lik~ tLl;,
Unless there is a boat at the river edge you won' t he aLi,
to get across. I rail across ( = met unexpectedly) our fri l;l, ~
Smith yesterday.
Gi)
( AFT E R] I sha ll be at home t . ht '
lives at Torquny in r~:~~n lat ,~ny ~lme you like to call. H e
I'll see you after dinner. I ran after the boy but c ou ld n't at nine o'clock 2 B ' . r f ~rc ?,Oll at school tomo rrow
catch him, T hey came t o England alter us (= later t h an '.':e be (I t t he mee tin :gl~ ~t ~ ~ e bcgmnmg of tile story. Will he
did ). Li fe is just one trouble after another. He goes on day ",I ma 3 '[I g oDig t. Fhe boys threw a snowball at the
afte r day, week af ter week wit hou t any change, You see I va, rema r!..n. re ang'Y ": m all s 1lOU1(:{ , III tho Iovs.s Hc nrv's
right af ter aU (= despite wha t you said) . I came here a t six "s were so WItt)' t h • ~ .
Look at "0 I " , at everyone la ugh ed at t hem
o'clock and George came shortly after that. I'll try to pay y01: uv - _ ur ) 0 0 ,, 5 '
I/t t he door 1 -f ' ,{ on
't J k
00' {II me . You should knock
' •
the money the week af ter ne xt. That's rio lise, I want it the the prog rc: s h'~ ~:~ l'llt~rm·t t l~c roo m, I was surprised at
day lif ter tom orr ow at the latest. If my wife goes away I« count ry w~s at pe:c t~~ c: Ie l~ \~rr~' good ,'f foot ba ll. T he
a week, who's going to look af ter me and the child ren? L l,'<J.Y' rep a pound b t t l c en , now It 15 at war. T his was sold lit
the work now; we can do it aft er, I came here at six o'cl ocl. my hair cut '(ltUthe ~:r;vas,~~al1y at a loss not~t.a profit. I had
and George came shortly afte r. stationer's 1/ th . cer - and bought a wrtting-pad at the
years of aee '/ H.'. e vcry ,most . hec ~ an 't be more than eighteen
against dim(:t'lt~t· ~s ~:iI\a.n. ",I !lIS bes tjworvr when lighting
S. 1011 rrugnt at lcasr ! '
tha t 'all we -r . '. '" ra ve sen t me word
He who is not for us is (j{;ain st us. I a m tempted to leave nr like t )o tr: ,', coming.. rhe car went at full speed , I don t
work but I'm fighting agllimt t he tempta t ion. It is ilg<1 ; !: ~ now 1 ,, ave '11 " ,Jy car (If nJ") ., I t ' .1t any ra te we know the worst
the law to leave your car there, He rested hi s b icycle agal':; OUght . Ig It VOli one t
to\ Ih .-"J .
" a tune. not two lit a time. You
the wall. I'll do what you order me, hut it is agaillst my \ 1: -- ('"rill t rc la tes t by Frida y, At fi rst sigl.t 1 t houg ht
286 A ComprehOlsive El lglish Gran:mar P reposition s and ' Adt'erbial P rlrticles' 28 7
yo u were your broth er. This t rain stops at all stations.
WI FE (to husband trying, clu msily, to fasten her dress- the
Shakespeare died at the age of fifty-two. At first it seemed sort that fasten s at the bac k). ' Hu rry up: have you never
very easy but it soon got mo re difficult. He is at work on a
hooked up a dre ss behind before?:
new book. I shall see you again at Christmas /at E aster. D o
nUSJ.\AS ll: 'No: you never had a dress b,jorr that hooked
wh at I tell you, at once! We arrived at his house t he nex t
behind.'
day.
\ BELOW \
t NOTES ) The temperature today is below f5eezing point. Sign your
<O At is generally used for small t owns; ill is used for large
cities, regions and countries, e.g. He lives ill Londonf..fiddle- name below mine on this documen t. In bo xing it is a foul t o
sex IEngland. hit below the belt . The cost of the whole work was belmo £20.
€I I shall see you on ~ ovember 5th /on Sunday /011 Christmas Write your name in the space belou'. From the Em pire State
Building ..... c looked at New York be/ow. The sea is very rough
D ay /at 3 o' clock , in the aft ernoon.
Q) Compare: Throw the ball to J ohn (but not to hit him). and bre aking over the deck; I thin k I' ll go below.
Shout to him (because he is far away),
e l3ES EATH '
( B e FORE ] .The daffodils were growing beneath the trees, He had two
pillows beneath his head. We climbed the hill; the valley
Come and sec me tomorrow any time before five o' clock.
I met Smith yest erday, but I knew hi m long bef ore th at. lay beneath .
Before 10nRyou will find this work quite simple. ) lyappoint-
mont is not unt il 10.15; you go in befo re me. That happened
Clliiil
Ben eath is oft en used figurati vely, e.g.
in 400 B.C, (bef ore Christ ). I have been here bef ore. My family Wh at he said is beneath contempt. Richard is far beneath
arc com ing here for a holiday, so I C;l.lpC two days belorf to H enry in intelligence. She married rather beneath her, (= she
make all arrangements. The Headmaster con gratulated til e married someone of inferior social posttion .]
hoy before the wh ole S(b{Jol·.\VilJiam went and stood bef ore
t he lire . (\ { IlESIDE f
Gii"' DI Go and sit beside Richard , The man who spoke was st anding
•
The garage is behind the ho use. He put his hand behi nd his ju st beside me. The church at Stratford is beside the river.
bac k so that I couldn't sec what was in it. 'Xe\'er say any - He was beside himself with rage (= almost mad). Wh at y OIl
thing behind .a person' s back that yoU wouldn't say to h is have said is quite beside the mark /point /qllestion (= irre-
face . He stood just behind me. This t ra in is behilld t ime (= is levant.] .
late), Hi s ideas are all bdlind the times (= out of date) . TW~ \ BESJP ES }
of the wound ed soldiers coul dn' t keep up with the rest 0: There are man y othe rs besides me who disagree wit h wha t
the me n an d feU hehind, R ichard is a long way bf hin d with you say. He thinks thereas no one besides himse lf to be
his work, They are tw o months behind with the rent . He considered .
looked round the railway carriage before he got out to make
sure he h ad not left anything behi nd , cra TE l
Bat e = nca r by, at the side of. besides = in add ition t o.

A Comprdlen sive English Grammar P repositions ,1Ild 'A dr'erbi,!l P articles' 289
{ BI::YO:W) Dickens. These cigare t tes are sold by weight , 221p an ounce .
Sugar is sold by th e, po\l~d, petrol by the gallon. He is pa id
The woods go for about two miles bryond ( = further 01\ b)' the hou r, so If rt rams and he can 't work he gets no
than) the fiver. He lives in a small house, about Iour money. H e won the race by about two yards. The pupils
miles beyol1d Oxford , The explanation you give is qUit~ ca ~e into the c_lass room one by one. I want a piece of pa per
beyond me ( = I can' t understand it). He is living beYOlli 3 inches by 5 inches. TIle house wa s struck by lightning.
his means (= spend ing more t ha n he earns). 'Give me thecup; let go: by heaven I'll have it .' (Shakespeare ,
Ham/d )
em \l' on sj
Let us have a walk by the seashore. Come and sit by m e:
t here's plenty of room. You go and sit by t he side of George:
lD By is generally used for the agent; with for the instrument ,
II you put those two books side by side you ....; 11 see which is e.g.
The lock was opened by the thieves with a skeleton key, The
t he bigger. I did t his wor k all by myself. He often goes for drawing was done by t he artist with a yery fine pen .
long walks by himself. Alt hough he kn ows me qui te well l:c
passed me by as if. 1 were a complete stranger. These things o By expresses the limit of time within which something
is to be (done).
are made by machinery .! no t by hand , I go by his office evcrv
day. I know him by sigh t but not to speak to . By this t ime
next ) 'car yo u ou ght to ha ve a very good knowledge of \ DUT (= exceptl]
Englis h, This train is late; it oug ht to have been in by 11 0 11' Wh o but R ichard would have said such a thing. I could
(by t his t ime), By nex t Frid ay! I ough t to h ave finished the answer all the quest ion s bllt one. There was not hing in th e
job. ~I ult iply the amount by ten and then divide by three. cupboard bllt a few b iscuits, Isn 't there anyth ing br4t rolls
He ~ arns h is liv ing by !>Cll ing matches. This little' g;rl i, and coffee for breakfast? I haven 't told this secre t to anyo ne
afraid-t o cross t he road : take he r by th e h and and see her but you. Mr. Brown lives in the next house bllt one to us.
across. D id you come by tra in or by car (by land, by sea or
by air)? I like motoring by day but not particularly by niSl:t
( DQWS ~ •
\\11at he said took me completely by surprise. By t he way.
do n' t forget our meeting nex t Wednesday. He is going to Let us walk dUUl1 th e hill t ogether. The boy fell dou'n the
Brussels by wa y of Dover and Oste nd. Don 't ju dge a man stairs and broke his ann. I like t o walk doU',; Regent Street
by his clothes. You won 't do this all at once; do it lit tle and loo k at the shops there. The sun goes doum in the west.
by lit tle. You must t ry to learn some of t hese th ings by he art The little girl has falien dO'l..-n . Richard wasn't dO'l..""1I for
H e landed t he aeroplane all righ t , bu t It was more b;'\-' goo.! breakfast this morning until ten o'clock. Get dOU11l off that
tuck t han good management . What do you mean b)' takiuc wall; you can jump dOll'n. The plane dropped J Olrrl 5,000 feet
my hat? I'm sorry , I took it by mistake. He is by far the k -t into t he sea. We all knel t dotl'fl in churc h. I d idn' t Ieel very
teacher I have ever had . You mus t begin by learning a ft: \\' well so I went to lie d WIJ . r don 't like to look dO'..Cl1 from a
simple ru les-though yo u'Il pro ba bly end by taking no great height . Sit d OW'I , t here is plenty of room for every one.
notice of any of them . That music was composed by R Ct t· I pushed the cork under the water but it wouldn't stay dOWfl.
hoven. Th e book I read was 'David Copperfield' , by Charlv- The arrangement for sending letters abroad seems t o have
290 A C(.mtp,t~"sj\·t English G" lmmar

P,epositifm s and ' A dre,biITl Particles' 291
b k aoll'n. His house was bu rnt dou n last night. T~('
~~tue:e was printed upside dou"" . Write these notes do-.£'" .:" G
Th at Compan y has IO ,OUQ men working jc- it. I t is time f or
your noteb 00k . A good man,' trees were cut d OU'11
P ' It o buildf
hi H insulted me so I knocked him JoU'n . 1 h ~ s eeve 0 our lesson t o sta rt . This fresh ai r is ve ry good for you. This
my coatIs too short; I will ask th e t ailor to let It d(mm an medicine is good f or a cough . Don 't wear that suit to work
inch. Your coat collar is turned up at the back ; sh aH I turn in the garden ; it is too good f or such d irty work, It 's a good
it dou'fli The wind/firel has died dQ".t7I. thing f or you that you live in England: in some cou ntries you
wou ld have been shot [or saying that . I 've no respect at all
\ DnI.I-':G]
/0' him; he is a real good -lor-nothi ng, He doesn't care /0'
working a t all. lie repeated the conve rsation that he had
H e was Prime Minister during the yea ~ s 1910-%5 and during heard word lo r word. The train fo r Liverpool lean s from
that time he had t o de al with many dlfikult problems . No. 6 platform. I bough t a car f or f lO; it was a real bargain,
You were lucky; I h ad to pay £I5o j l)r mine, I don't like th is
{NOTES} . book th at I Lo rrowed ; will y 0 11 please change it /0' another
e:u [)uri means~i).·throughout the duration orco ntmu a~ce one. He is always looking fo r some th ing /0' noth ing. I
01'. e.g. Th~ sun gives light du ring the day, the moon dUri ng wouldn 't give away t hat ring fo r anyth ing in the world, so
the n ight. once an d / or all don' t ask me again. I think he is ill; send / or
.l." ).." th course of'; ' at some point wit hin' . e.g. . the doct or, If you don't see what }'OU want in OIlT window,
11 I ~near~ thunder several times dur ing the night . He wa~ In
ask fo r it . He who is not f vr 115 is against us, I'm all j or
help ing people who really nccn it . I h av e two cars, one j l)f
the army du,inK the war, You will h av e to do a lot of work business and a ile j or pleasu re. He was sent to prison [or
Ju,i" g the h olid ays. stealing. J ohn got a prize at SC"hoolj,.., E nglish . The accident
t:>.. ~ ' . t used when the idea (If durat ion is expressed h appened because I couldn't see jor t he fog. I'm d oing thi s
b*he n::~t(o~Oequivalent) that it governs. In that case f a' l or your sake, not lor my own, He didn 't do that /0' fear of
mus t be used, e.g. . punishmen t or /0' hope o f reward but because he thought
H e went t o America f or (no t du,ing ) t.hree yea~s During that it was right . W illiam is big fo r his age. It is w ry warmfo'
time he studied American commerw tl p ractice. thenme of the year (for Octo ber). I sha ll stay in London
[or about three weeks.' You can go l or miles an d mites in
Or more simply, during answers the qu estion , 'Wh en? For
Scotland and see n othing but heather-covered h ills. He has
an~wers the question , ' How 10n ~ ? ' , e.g. ,
worked / or hou rs at t hat essa y . I t hink th at is enough abo ut
'When were you there?' ' 1>1.101& the war , this reposit ion fo r the present (for the t ime bt'ing),
' How long were you there ?' ' I was there f o, three ) ears
~OT£ S
[ EXCEPT ) o F or is used when the dura t ion of t ime is measured ; si'lfe

when the starting po int is given. {See si nce, p. 2 l)<).)
We have lessons every day exerpl Saturday a,nd. S\l~ d~ ~'~ Q) In negative sente nces looking to wards t he fut ure lor is
E very one was presen t e:fcept Henry and ~ne! 1 1 11 ~ CUt} - used for a period of t ime, bef ore for a point o f t ime, e.g.
good u cept for the careless mist akes, He IS a good stu d ent
He will not be he re f or an hou r yet.
except that he is occasionall y careless. He will not be he re before seven o'clock.
P repositions and 'A dt,tTbial PaT/ jelt s' 293

A COfllpft htJlSit,( English Grammar
' 9' of your vi ew, I can never talk easily with him; we seem to
have nothing in common. why are you in such a hurry? If
I were ill your place I should wait for a time; it is in you r
own interest t o do so. Our preparations had to be made in
secret but they were in time, and we are in readiness now
for whatever happens . We shall do it in some way or other;
I'm not qui te sure how. To be in debt is t o be in danger. I'll
never see you in want of money while I have any. In time
of war we have to ag ree to t hings we shou ld refuse ill time
of peace. 'A stitch in t ime saves nine' and 'A bird in t he
hand is worth two in the hush : (p,Ottu bs .) I will give you a
new ha t in place of the one th at I damaged . I am pu tting
t he matter in the hands of my lawyer. Ifl case of fire ring
u p Watford 999. He is always in good health and is never in
need of a doct or. You have neve r been i'l love or you
wouldn 't speak like t hat. We arc in sigh t of lan d now and
will soon be i 'l port . You arc in a bad temper this morning,
ar en 't you ? Tell me in one word (in sh ort ) what you want .
T he matter , in itself , is not important; in fact I was going
to t ake no notic e of it . hI reply to your letter I beg to in form
you th at in add iti on to what he owes you he is also in debt
( I~, t STO )
to me, and in all he owes about £3,000. H e walked jnt03 t he
I have twenty students in my class i_ this roo,ro , ~ H a"' il is room ill which we wer e sitting. He wouldn 't take advice,
i n Canada H e carried a bag in his hand. I don t thin k there and now he has got into difficulties. The tree tru nk was sawn
is anythin~ ill that idea. Wh at news is th ere I:" the ~a~u into sma ll los s for burning. Turn this from E nglish into
•
this moming ? He came on ) (ooday at ten 0 c1~ k In the Spanish. H e is always gl,tting into t rouble owin g to his care,
m oming.v I read that in a book. You will not easily find ~s lcssncss. he is i ll trouble with his t eacher now. H e felt i ll his
good a workman as Brown; he is one ill 3. thousa nd , I am I7l pocket to see if he had any mOlley in it . Has the nine o'clock
trouble with my te ach er over some ca reless work. The re we:c
not many people at the meeting- about ten or t~'elve In
.
train come i ll .yet ? Go ill don 't wait outs ide. I want to, bu t
I can 't get in. I don't th ink I'll go to the cinema : I want to
number I should t hink. I wan t you to arrange these HI order, stay in and read . Yeau must call ill and see us sometime. Is
putting the largest first. then the oex:_ and so on. He :poke Mr. Smi th in? I 've given you the lesson , but it will tak e some
in a whisper. He is the best student H I my class. She.1S the time for it t o sink ill . A part )' of us are I:oing t o t he the atre;
happiest woman in England. He lives in Lcndon.t I !I\'C at would you like t o join j".) The maid will take these plates
Watford. I began work here in January in the ,year .1940. away 1I0 W an d bring the pudd ing i,1 (bring ;1/ t he pudding).
T he bird carried the worm i 'l its beak. I was n ght JlI the \\ 110 t ook the letters i ll this morning (to ok in the letters)?
m iddl e of the crowd an d could see nothing. St~nd ~'1l front of Here's a ham mer; will you knock t his nail i/l (knoc k in th is
me, )'O U will see better then : there will be nothing 1'1 the way nail)? I' ve put tea in t he teapot ; will you pour ill th e water
294 A CQnrptt!Jensit'e E'lglish Gramm ar

I'rt pos/iiolls alld ' A dt'erbial Particles' 295
(pou r the water in )? I 'm packing my bag , but 1 ca n' t gel all
mv clothes i n . The conductor Oil the bus helped tilt: old l a~\ y
- H opened the door and let t he dog I'" and then locked hun
GJ
UI. e . I' h - e Th is box is made of wood. ~Iy sh oes are made of It' at her. His
in . I've opened t he bag: put YoU:f stuff "'. , t ere 15 on h ouse was built of brick. lie said he was go ing t o ma ke a
tiling I hate, it is fill ing 11'1 (or fil~m g ~P) income-tax forms. singer of me , but I thought he was t ry mg to make a (001 of
The examination is over now ; give HI your papers to Ih.e
me as I knew I could never make n success of music. We
exatnmer. The train arrives ill London at 6 o'clock . \\ e can 't get every thi ng we wa nt from life; we mus t just make
shall ne-..er gi n~ i n (gi \'c ill ... surrender). I shall be ready the best of it . Go a nd get me a packet of cigarettes. That is
11'1 nvc minutes ~
a very good field of potatoes. Get me a piece of wood , a
pound of nails and a pot of paint . I'll give you hal f of what
{ ~oTEs f . I earn , but I don 't get a lot of mOl1 ~r. I wish I could give
(fj On for the day; at for a poin t 01 t ime; ill for a pern on of you the whole of it. Elizabeth is fond of going to d ances .
the day. T hree of them attacked me. The children of the poo r were
~) AI for a place though . of as a point on the map; in. l.or a cared for. The writing of tha t book took him ten years The
pI'aCe thought of as an area. Taus. 111 always for large Cities. doctor cured me of my illness. T he ship was w reeked within
Q) 111 denotes ~itio n ~r res,t; in denotes m~tion. " . a m ile of the coast. That is a real w ork of a rt. He gave me a.
f4) Where referring to umc. denotes the c1o~e . 01 a pc n~d,
III
piece of good advice. Parliam en t con sist s of the H ouse of
w'itflin denotes a time less than t he close 01 a period (sec arso Commons and t ile Hou se of Lords. It was a s tory of
advent ure and romance. \\'hat is th e advan tage of doing
p. 3°3)· t his? Whnt is the cause of r OUT bad tcrn perj He has travelled
oyer tile wh ole (1 E ng land. The ci t}' oj Ed inoll f/;h has seen
( m:r,) some strange sce nes in its hi st ory and so has the Tower of
It was just like h im to say that . I {i oll' t fcel l~ke dancmg (= ,I London. What did 'fro Brown d ie op Have you hea rd any-
don' t want to dance]. Don't look at me like that. I can t t hing of Smith lately ? We often speak of him and th in k of
h im . Wh at do you thi nk of this sonata of Beethoven's? Y OIl
speak Spanish like yo~ (=. as /ou ~o). YOUf ;~: ar~ just
iike mine. There's not hin g like ex ercise for making }ou ,\ ar m are sure of a good welcome at my house; we a re fend oj
visitors. I sa t at the back of the room, the important people
111is stuff looks like gold ; perhaps it is gold!
sat at the fron t (If the room . H is name was at the top of t he
h onours list; mine was at the bottom of it . That was because
\" '.) I played instead of working. I n spite of hi s ill-health johnson
:'>lr. Thompson lives n ellT me; his house. is "ttl T ti le.st.ation: did \ ' (,1)' well. It is very good ofr ou to take so much trou ble.
We are "?.2T thc end of t he story. Don t go ~3.r away. !>ta~ H e is a friend of rru ne (ours, yours. J olm's). .
somewh ere n ea r , Henry is sitti ng n(~ T the windo'...·. lUX! t o
J ohn. <OFF ]
( ~OTE ) W ater was s trea ming off the roof. Kl'CP off the grass. I can't
N ear expresses pr oximity. nn f means 'i mmediatel y be lcr e get this ring of! my finger. Turn off the ma in road here an d
or alter'. YOU will come to the lake. H e took his ha t a nd h i!' coat (ljf.
Prtposition.'i «nd '.1,h-erbial Particles'

' 97
Is the gas OIl or ofP I picked up the bo x and t he top fell r~:, 01 / fire Oil purpose, There arc goods Oil sale in a ll t he shop
There is a little smell m the new d oth but it will soon We « ~ windows. I thought I would sell my car but OJI second
off· I h ad a headache this morning but it soon passed off, J:r, t hought s I changed my m ind. and 011 the whol e I think I was
has a very good income, :i: wish I were as well off-thotH'- wise. 0 " the contrary I t hink you were unwise; pnces may
I must say I am no t so badl y off as some people. Lorenzo r- go up, but, on the other hand, they arc muc h more likely
off' with Shylcck's daughter and his money. S11<:d l we set t o go down. On gottine his telegram I set off immediatel y
for our wal k now? I've studied music on and of! [i.e ,. for London . What I do will depend on the hel p yo u can give
int er-vals] for about tw enr;:':;'(vol-rS, That ship is two or thr me. He shot t he bird on the wing (i.e. while it was tIying) ,
miles off; it won't sec us. It's time t he ch ildrcn were off t o lx 0 1/ m~' h onour, I did not do it. Have you go t your co at 0"
I 'll rome t o t he st at ion to.sec you [:0'. H is wealt hy aun t ,I, and your hat 01/ ,) Did yon leave the electric light 011 when
liked him so she cut him :Jffwith a sh illing (i c. left him onl, you went out of the room? Is there an y thing good 0 11 at the
shilling in her will). We finished off a yery good dinner wi! cinema tonight? If I've nothing much on (= am not busy).
coffee and cigarettes , The judge let the prisoner off with ~ I 'll guo Time is getting 011; it's getting on for eleven o'clock;
warning, The gun went off unexpec ted ly, That fellow .s we had better go home 110W. ?lty father is getting 0 11 in years
alwa ys s.~oll ing uff (= he's always t hinking of the effec t ;." ( =-" growing old); he's nearly seven ty. H ow are y ou getting
is l~l ak i l\ g ) . I wish you would pay ~Uthis big debt. He hd l''-< all (= progressing) with you r E nglish ? I don 't like Smith;
IIis wife off wi th her coa t. If you don 't pay th is clcct ricit v I can 't get 011 (= have friendly social relations) with him
account the company will cut your xnppl y off. Turn that cap at all. N o. he and I have never got on together. Come on;
off an d swit ch the light oJ!. I thGught I ( auld get the agree let's get 011 (= continue) with these prepositions: if you keep
mon t signed, but the whole bus in e.~s is definitel y 'l.U no w OI l trying, you'll master them. Lookers-on see most of t he
ga me. The rain came 0 1' at about five o'clock ill the after.
noon . He lp me all with my coat. Swi tch the light on, please,
• • • and then turn the hot wa ter all for my bath. I'll see you
He put the ho ok C1: tb« table and he sat 0" it chair. Tb-r c
la ter VII: I'm too busy now, You are fur ther on with the
were water colours OJI the walls of the room. Put the stam p
work thrill I had expected. You caITy on (= continue) with
011 your letterin th e rig!:t-hand corner. He carne on Sntutdav. 1
t lu- work wh lll' I ha ve a res t. I had lund} on t he train, •
I c a me 011 the r yth of ~lay. He had a new ha t 011 his he ad it
new coat oJ; h is back, new gloves 0" his hands and a ring ;1 \ ,",o, i]
his finger . Vegetarians live ell vcgerablns, fru it and n ur
T he war w as tougbt on land, 011 sea and in the air. Did .'" 01/ is used for datc~ and for particular days or specified
. parts 01 days, e.g.
come here (,J; loot? No, I came Gil horseback. T he t own l:
on the River ~ fer~ey, or; tho lelt hank , There arc shops O J) May 1 st : 011 Wednesd ay ; on Christmas 1);1;-; OJI Sa turdav
hath side s of th e street. \';e live OJ; the north side of the cit, uncmoon (Compare ill and rd.) .
they Jive on the south side I am pla nti ng t!IC a pple trcos
the le ft and t':e pear trees U ll the rigl:t of th e path . \ r :
are you r ideas 011 the subject? Could you give us a lit TIle dog jumped ora the table. Someone left a box in th e
speech 011 t h is subject? They arc at 13lackpoo l 01/ holid garden and I fd l over it in t he dark. The aeroplane Ilew over
I we nt 011 business The house IS 0'1 fire, I think i t was
the hon-e. Give me a blu e s ky O;_'U my head and a green road
Prepositions and 'Adverbial P articles' 299
298 A Comprehensive English Gra mmar
( SI !' n :)
under my feet and I am ha ppy. An we-coat is a garment
that we wear over our other clothes. More peop le have He has lived in Eagland sille,;l 1~H9, He came to England in
laughed over and cried Ot'fr the books of Dickens than of 1949 and has been here ever since, They h ad wa ited since
perh aps any other writer. English is be ing spoken all ever four o'clock: T hings have changed very much since the last
the world. You don' t need to pay back the money you time I wrote t o you . The church wa s destroyed by the
borrowed , all at once; the repayment can be spread over a bombing in 1940 but lias since been rebuilt (has b een rebu ilt
number of years. Will you look over this exercise (or look sillce ).
t his exercise olier) that I have done, and sec if it is correct ; ( KOTE)
I am sorry I overlooked your letter ( = did not notice it). Sinu is used when a ST.A, RTI " G POI !'T in ' time is given.
There arc Ot'er thirty people in this room . I don 't want to Contpare with/or (page 291) which is used when the Dl'RATl O:-l
make a dec ision at once; I will talk it over with my wife. YOt: of time is measured. Since refers t o the whole pe riod from a
came too late; the football match is all otter ( = finished). point of t ime ill the past up to t he present moment or a given
I tried to waken the man but he just turned over and went moment in the past, so it is almost alw ays used with a Perfect
off to sleep again. He said that he felt so strong he could tense.
push a house ot'er. I know a visit to the dentist is unpleasant ;
( THROUGII l
but come along, let's get it Ot'er. If you will come to our
factory I shall be very glad to sh ow you over it. H is work was The ball went through th e window. The river flows through
done so badly that I told him to do it over again . I have told the town . We walked thr01lgh t he village. Go Ihrough
you over and otter again not to m ake that mistake. I gav" (= examine) these pa pers carefully. I SIIW through (= was
th e children two apples each and I had three left over. 'YOI I not deceived by) his trick. George h as got th rough (= passed)
w ill get [ 50 a ye ar over alld above your usua l salary. lIe IS his examin ati on. He worked all throllgh his holidays. It was
Just gett ing over hi s severe illness. • t/iroligh (= owing to) Fred's carelessness that the money
was lest. The street is thronged with people; do you think
( NOTE )
we r an get through." The soldiers were surrounded by the
Over is used with a considerable number of verbs, as an
enemy but managed to break th rough. Your clothes are
Inseparable P article, e.g . wet through with the rain. He got that job th rough ( = by the •
overlook, caert urn , overflow, czereat, orcrload, O~'fTpO\H r ,
help of) Ids uncle.
ouert uke, etc.
( PAST) ( ~oTEl
Th rough suggests one more dimen sion than across, e,g.
He walked p ast the door. The doo r was open when I walk ed He walked across the fields ami thro.ugh' the woods.
post. It is pa st three o'clock; it is nearly a quarter past , The
situatio n is p ast (= beyond) hopeicurdcontrolfbe lid . @
CRom' D \AROU"O) } I am going 10 Ame rica on Friday. I have already sent my
luggage to t he station. Come on, chi ldren; time 10 go 10 bed
Drake sailed round the world in 1577 ~&! ' The earth mo n s and go to sleep. D oes this road go 10 Edinb urgh? That coat
ro-und the sun . Would you like to walk round my garden; is quite wet; hold it to the fire for a few m inu tes. He looks
Come into the garden and walk round.
•
300 A Comprehmsi1,Jc English Gramma r
PrcposifiollS and. "Adce rbiat Partido' 301
to me for help. It is now five min utes to six. He read the book
from beginning to end. Will you lend yom book /0 George, tr avels under the na me of 1\Ir. Br own, H ere is a tr ee that we
please? D id you send that letter to him? I prefer this book can shel ter under, The cost will be £2 or nnder. I n the
/0 that one. This one is superior 10 that. You can't compare stm ggle for life th e weakest go under (i.e. Jailor di e). I like
this to that. H e's a very wealthy man; a few hundred pounds beef u lldrrdone rather t han overdo ne. It was very late when
is nothing to him. You mus t set to work on t hat job as soon I got .to bed Iasc night nud I feci very much IIndrrslept th is
as possible. I offered him money for the use of the bicycle , morn mg.
but to my surprise he refused it. I s that t ea qui te to YOllr { l' C'TI'L. TILl-J
taste or do you need mOTC sugar ? No more sugar, thank you;
it is exactly to my liking. I lin quite close to the chu rch; in He wa ited till (Irillil) all the students were quiet before he
fact next doo r /0 i t . A ccording to you there is nothing more t o began the lesson, I shan't see you now tilt Friday.
he done. Don't tal k all round the question ; come /0 the point.
I You will soon get u sed to his way of speaking. Let' s dri nk to l },' OTE]
his success. There is very litt le difference in use between until and lill .
I ( TOWARDS]
To begin 0. sentence, IIntil is more frequent th an l i l! . In shor t
:onversational phrases. till is perhaps more usual.
I
A plane crossed th e coast flying towards London. I'll pay
I you something towards what l owe you. He h as never shown
a really friendly spirit towards George. That is the first ste p
G3
He ra n quickly flP t he ladder. They wa lked up th e hill to
• towards getting the matter cleared up . It was somewhere their house. Is t he lift going liP or down ? I was up at fi ve
towards fi ve o'clock when he came. .c'clock th is morning . Wa ke up; it's seven o'clock and time
( XOTEj to get up. Hang your hat up here. My Iricnd was very ill;
• • •
I sat liP all night with him; my brother will stlly up tomorrow
Towards expresses, ' in the direction of', but not ' arrival night with him, The so ldiers blew up the br idge. Hu rry liP
at' a place. Compare: or you will be late. W ill you break flP th is wood for the fire,
He went to London yesterday. please? You walk far too last; I can' t kup liP with you, Th at •
The aerop lane flew towards the sun , stream neve r dries up even in the m iddle of summer. I've
dropped my hook; will you please p ick it up for me' There
( v:m ERl arc a lot of weeds in my garden; I 'm going t o pu ll th em up .
Put you r hands up or I shoot! Cover l iP th e food or the dust
Don 't stand under (underneath) a tr ee du ring a thunder- will get on it, You go on; I'll soon catcti YOl4 IfP . Clfl up the
storm. He doesn't owe very much , it's WIder £10. It is meat for little Marga ret ; she can 't usc a knife an d fork very
ra ining heavily ; come under my u mbrella. I can't use my Well yet. If you can't do the puzzle at fi rst do n' t git'e it up ;
offic e at prese nt ; it is u nder repair. You can' t sign th at ; you you will do it in time if you try. You have worked very well
arc u nder age (not twen ty-one). I did that under orders. >0 far ; kup it flp, You could sec there was someone a t home ,
r came to Piccadilly Circus by U ndergroun d , I have under- the h ouse was all lit up . YOII ought to lodi up these jewels in
lined all your mistakes. Under (in) the circu mst ances I will a strong room. Some girls take longer to mal" up their minds
not give you any extra work. when Lord X goes ab road he than to malle liP their face. I can't buy that car just yet but ,
Prep ositions and 'Adllerbial Parti cles' 3'3
A Convprehens ivc Englis h Gram mar I rimds ."'ilh him again. I have no palience wilh you , you are
I am salling liP for it. He was very angr~' and tore liP the so stupid. j le wen t so fast I couldn't keep liP li'ilh hi m. H ow
letter. Tie liP the dog; he might attack Smith's cat. Aft er is he getting 011 wilh t he hook that he is wri ting? What's the
di nner Susan washes up (the dish es). John h as m ade tiP a matter with you? You don't look very well. It 's nothing to
little song. W ho h as used liP all my t oot hpast e? Harry 's do wilh,you what I say. I don 't get Otl t'CTy lull U'ith George;
parents died when he \\ES young and his aun t brought him lip , yOU sec, T have lIoth ing in com mon wilh h im. If you have any
R i ng m e tip some ti~e tomorrow. You have got the story all cabbage plants to spare I could do ti'ith (= could usc) about
mixed liP. H e t ur ne dthe box llpside dou:tl. It 's liP to )'ou fi fty . I'm just using this spade, but you ca n have it when
(Colloqu ial = It is your duty) t o do your best . What arc yon I've datu wilh it. I'm not argui ng with you , I'm telling you.
up to? (Colloq uial = 'What arc you doing?' Usually lI"i t ~ \ He is content 'Ii.'ith very little. In 1066 the E nglish fough t a
the sugges tion that it is something wrcng.] I kTlOW you an , great battle wilh tile Normans, I n 1805 England was at
7Ip to no good. What:s flP? (Colloquial or slaug = 'What' s war 1dlh F rance.
the matter ?') Time's u]», (= You have no more time ncw)
\0 WITIllS )
( WJ1" H \
You must try to live with ill your income, H e lives u nthin
Can -you come and star 7.£'illi me for a time, and bring yonr Irve miles of London . Sh out if you want me; I shall be
wife with you ? H ave you all brought your books with you ' urilhit, he ar ing. The h ou se was painted green without and
Leave your ha ts and coats with t he attendant. III.' has bee-n wi/hill. I shall be back again l£: ithi'f a year.
with th at firm for a long t ime now. Compare this cheese lVllh
th at and you will sec the difference, The box of eggs was
marked 'W ilh Care'. It is with great pleasure that I give yon \ WITIJOLT )
the prize. Orders for the new car came in wilh a rush. H e wcnr He always goes abou t Id l1W1I1 a hat on , That was done
away with a smile ami a song, The t itl.e came in with gr eat 'withou t my help , 'I>,illlolit my knowledge and ieithont my
speed. TV ith all his faults he was a kind-hearted fellow, I hope consent. I will do th is job for you wilhollt fail (= for certai n)
111.' hasn't met with an accident . A man with plenty of mon ey by tomorrow, You have been warned li mes enthout n umber
has plen ty of friends. He walked along with his hat on tile abont the danger and still you don't take any notice. lie is, •
back of his head. Sleep wi/II your windows open hut wi lli your u:ithollt exception, the best pupil I have ever had . I can say
mouth shu t. I 've brought my brother along with me t o help. that !iiilhOIlI fear of contradic tion . You haven 't time to pac k
lVilh rega rd to t hat business we spoke about, if you are
all those clothes; you will have to go wilhout them, Can you
going 0 11 It'ilh it I can perhaps help you. Lsce urith my eyes, get into the room trithout breaking the lock? 'You can 't have
hear u:ith my ears and smell willi my nose. Her eyes were omelettes without breaking eggs.' (Prot'erbia/ saying). I've
filled witll tears and she was trembling with cold , I am not gone U' itlwll t food for two days now. I've go ne irithont rating
at all satisfied with your work. The cushion is filled widr for two d ays now. If we can't a fford a new car, we shall
feathers. Do you think this red tie goes '/i.'ilh my blue su it : have t o do u·'ith otll it. But a car is something I can' t do
You are always jinding fault with everything I do. I don't tt ithoHt . Of course I know you will work h ard ; that /!.()es
agree with you at aU about that. R omeo was deeply in tooc w ltll ld /hoJit s(ly i ng. The}' left t he party u:ilhoul so muclt " s saying
Juliet. He has quarrelled wilh George. I don' t know why be goodbye.
fell out (= quarr elled] with him but I hope he will soon mall,'
PT(pos jlio ,, ~ a'id 'Ad" eTbi'l[ Particles' 305

3°4 A CompreJutisive Ellglisli Grall/molr
here - -- Saturday the t ath - Apr il we t a n I:i\'e yOll
EXE RCISES ou r ideall - t he subject and It will t hen depend _
you whe ther you accep t an d t ry t o ma ke a success _
1 Use each 01 t11 (' following (a) as a preposition , (h) J. ~ an
It or whether - - t he contrary the whole mat ter 111L1!>t
adverb:
he considered as dennirelv _ . (41) Someone left a box
001:. if!. wp. about, afhr, k j prt , behi nd. (wir, rOllr:d, siller, - the garden and I fell - - It - t he dark. (.p) I
off. Ib ough. stood - the corner - th e road and h undreds __
11 Put in the preposit ions or adverbs that have been cars went - . (4 ) 1 \ \'a lk - t he t own - me and
o m it ted: t hen we will come home a nd sit - - by th e fi re. (H ) I
t l) The man who spoke was standing - me. (1) There h ave been - London - t h e zyt h - J uly. (H I We
are oth ers - - me who beheve that. (3) Pu t the two went _ France-ou r way - - Spain. (~ 5) T his coa t
books side - side. ("l E veryone was list ening - is wet. Hold it - t he tire - a few minu tes. (47) That
Richard . (5) He lined here - - the years J~O and 1941. is t he first step - - gettmg t he matter cleared --:-.
(6) T heir plans have com pletely broken - . (7) ,T he (-fS) I can 't use my office - b usiness - presen t; It
soldiers carne in two - - t ....o. (8) That book was wntten is - repair. (49) I had never had a lesson - English
- - D ickens. (9 ) That is a book - - Russia and the until I tame - London . (50) Th a t stream never dries
Russian people. (10) I ran - - t he t hief but could n' t - even - - the m iddle - - sum mer. (5 1) Come a nd
catc h him. (I I) He who is not for us is - - us. (12) He stay - - us - a few days - Christmas a nd bri ng
has wr it ten ten bocks and there IS not a singte good one ),our wife - you , (51) I did not approve - h is
- them . (13) The mother divided t he apple - - t he acti on an d what he d id was done _ my consent.
two boys. (I.l) Who is look ing -:-- you? (I S) Jan is. very (53) You don ' t need to pa y _ t he mon ey yo u borrowed
good - E nglish. (16) lIe did that - my Wishes. , II - - once. The repaymen t ca n be spread _ a
(17) I bought t hat - the bu tch er's. (18) H e put his nn mber _ years . (5...) Drake sa iled - t he world _
the reign - - Queen E lizabe th I, {55} I have been _
hands - his back. (19) T ha t ought to cost t wo pe nce
0< - - the very most five pence, (20) I h oped it would
Engla nd - - six mont hs b ut have had lessons only _
April. (56) The motor boat cu t _ t he water - . n
be fine b ut it po ured - a ll afternoon. (1I) :'Iy shoes
terri fic speed, (57) 1 live q uite close - t h e chu rch; In
a re made - -leather ; the bo x is mad to-- iron. (22)- I • fact nex t door - it . (sll) It was oomewhere _ live
can' t get this ri ng - my finger. (2J) H e p ut the book o'clock - - th e a ll ernoon when he ca lled __ m,.
- the table a nd sat - a chair. (24) H e has 10 ,000 (59) - - t he circums ta nces, I will not give you a ny
men working - - hi m , (25) What country do you come extra work. (60) You could see - - a ~I anc e t here wa..
- ? (26) H e walked - the room and sat - hiS someone - home; t he bo use was a ll lit - . 1 6 1) I like •
desk, (27) Ishan't be awa y long ; I ' ll be back - - , a .r~a r. beef -<.lone rather than - < lone. (62) The y wa lked
(28) The ship rocked - - side to side. (29) I don t .h e to - t he ne w road, t hen - the hill - - Iny house.
he - debt; that is to be - d anger. (Jo) It IS c?ld (6)) Orders - t he new car came - - _ a r ush .
_ th is room now t hat the fire has gone - . (31) " ,ou (6...1 H e walked - - his hat - t he back - - his head.
must make the best - it. (32) The petrol is a ll runmng (65) - regard - - t ha t business. I don' t wan t t o do
- ' turn the tap - , (33) There are houses - both an )'thinl!" more - it , but I'll keep - - touch - - you .
sides' - - t he street. (l 4) I bough t a bicyc,le -.i~ ·
(35) You must try to 1000k at it _ , my pomt of view.
(j6) I sho uldn't be - such a hu rry If I were - you r
p lace . (37) A friend - min e went with me t o the
Tower - - London . ( 8) Help me - - my coat.
(39) I went there - - busi ness; I han: to work - my
hying. (... 0 ) - - reply _ your letter - - t he t yt h o f
Xovernber, we wish t o sta te lhat we arc - ne.ed -
a traveller - - t he London distric t If you will come
These 'half·conjnnc.t ions· link the sentences Iogicauy rat her

than form ally , and Just before the halt-conjunction the re is a
hre;lk in the flow of the sentence, ind icated in the examples
CHAPTER TWE~TY above by a semi-colon. T he 'full conjunct ions' j oin the t wo
parts more ti gh tly t oget her so that the sentence flows on
\ CON NEC TIVE S) without interruption.
II.> We have noticed in the previous chapter that prepOSItions @ There are, howeve r, other ways of linking tugether
help to link a word wi th other arts of the ~nt~nce, .but the sentences or parts of sentences:
most usual 'co nJxsctir( is a CON UNCTION ConlunctlOns arc --(a}- In a few cases the use of th e preposition is very similar to
used to join wor , p rases or sentences ogether, e g. th at of the conjunc tion. Fo r ex ample, t here is practically no
Tirr,e and t ide wa it {or no man. difference be tween t hese two sen tences:
'To be or not to be, that is the question.' At the farm they ga\'e us strawberri es omllots of cream,
You or I must tell him th e truth. At the farm they gave us strawberries li'ilh lots of cream.
She opened the door and let the cat in. bu t a conjunction docs no t affect, as a preposition nnes , the
He tried h ard but he was unsuccessful. pronoun t hat follows it.
I don't think th e price is too high , nor does H enr y.
@ Some conjunctions are used in pa irs , ~.g. -1 b}-:\ preposit ional phrase m ay be used as a conj unct ion,
You must either pay the pnce or go without the goods. e.g.
What he said was neither kind nor t rue. He doesn' t work hard; ill f ue! he 's incapable of hard work .
It was not only unkind but also unt rue. H is behaviour hasn 't improved: 0 11 the contrary it has
He both reads R ussian and speaks 1~1~.~.~'~Il~.[~,[:§Ei:§~
become worse.
¥f34;r tions used in pairs are Calledl50R~ELATIVE CO~~- - (c)-It is pos-sible to have sentences linked only by punctuat ion
marks, commas, semi-colons or colons, (' .g.
(j) There are some words such as nroerthe,ess, however, meall -
I looked round th e room. Jan was work ing, Pedro was
!t'hile, indeed which join sentences together perhaps rather
reading , H ob was sleepi ng. (Commlls)
more loosely.' e.g. H e doesn 't work hard; he 's incapable of hard work, (Semi.
I don' t know anything against the man; net'ertheless, I don't •
colon )
trust him. . H e kicked open the door, revolver in hand: a dead man lay
I don't see how lie is going to pay back the money he has
on th e floor. (ColO/I)
borrowed : howet'tr !slill , that's his business not mme. ,
I'll bu y a new suit when I get the ch eque for the work I did ; !.f")Con ju nct ions which join together wor ds, phrases or sen-
m eanwhile, I'm afr aid this old one will have to do a bit 'ifnees 01 similar functiona l value as in a ll the examples gi\'CII
so f ar] are catlec CO-ORmC'<' .H I:- G c o x UNCTlO ~S Those t ha t join
longer . ' to ether l'cnt ences 0 thenn unc ttonal value arc called
I can't buy a new suit till I get a cheque for the work ; so t)ll S
S lJ !l O R D I C'<' A TI ~ G CON xs (see l'. 320).
old one will have to do for a bit longer. d , s regards mearung . co-ordinating conjunctions fall into
He'll never be a good violinist : indeed, the professor tol
four rough groups. ..(I)- the 'and' group; ..(2). the 'but' group;
him, so. .(3}-t he 'or' group; -(4}- the 'so' group,
' Sweet. N t UJ E ngli' h Grammar, call" them 'hall«:>nju nclions ',
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A ComprcJunsive Ellglish Grammar Connectives Jog

,""", IlI T he 'alld' Grolfpl Xote, als o, the const ru ct ion 'try aJIIl . , .' inst ead of 't ry 10'
~en erall y used inexhortations expressin g encouragemen t. or
Th e conjunctions in thi s group suggest addition, c.g. IT1 promises. c.g.
On the table for tea there were cakes and biscuits and tarts ' T ry IIlId do this exercise. You must try and visit us in the
and sandwiches. '-
spring. Do try and stop coughing I shall fry and meet you
Frequently in sentences of this t ype only the final and is used . at the station. I will'l ry mill lume the work finished by
the others being replaced by commas, e.g. Wednesday .
On t he table for t ea the re were cakes, biscuits, t arts and Pedan ts discourage the use of this form and insist 011 sub-
sandwich es. stitut ing fry 10 • . " but it is good colloquial usage and is no t
withou t good lite rary justification. It is used only with the
The addition int roduced by and is generally something that
would naturall y be rather ex pected, e,g. simple form try , no t with any of the inflected forms .
T he fur coat was soft and wa rm. -(z'{ T he 'but' GrOl jp!
Th e car is alm ost new and in excellent condition.
The connectives in this gro up suggest contrast , the addition
(We should expect a car that was almost new to be in good in troduced by t hem is generally something t hat would hard ly
condition.} be expec ted, e.g.
'If< Other connectives in this group are illustrated in the The car was quite old Iml in excellent condition.
following examp les: (We should expect the IUW car to be in excellent condition; we
The fur coat was bolh soft and warm. could hardly ex pect the sallie of a quite old one. )
The fur coat was ~t as 'We~s warm. Th e coat was thin but warm.
The fur coat was soft and also warm. .f Other connec ti ves (con jun ctions and prepositional phrases) of
_,V ot only ~ th e coat soft; it was also warm. ' • this ty pe are illustrated III the following examples:
The car was almost new; fu rlher'!!2!e./~s,1 ~ikewise , / The car was quite old; ycl/slill/howf:'er!nn 'erlhdcss it was in
moreover,/agai n, it was in excellent condition. excellent condition. - - -
~--
There is an id iomatic use of the conjunction and con necting In ~Ie of/despite/notw ilhslanding its age , th e car was if)
two co-ordin ate sen tences (one of t hem an imperative) to exce len t coi1clffiOn. -
express ~a) condition, -(b) purpose, e,g, The canvas quite old; desp ite thai it was in excellent condition.
-{a) Work h ard and. you'Il get your reward (= if yo u work Th e subordinating conjunction Ihollgh (i1 /!Jw ugh) can express
. . .)' th is same meaning, eg ,
' Laugh , and the world laughs with you ; T hough. th e car was quite old , it was in excellent cond iti on.
weep, and you weep alone.'!
Utter one word, and you are a dead ma n ! -(3l/Fhe 'or' Grollp!
-(b) Go and ask him what he wants. Th e sense of or when joining words, phrases or sentences is:
Come and help me to lift th ese boxes. -{I) choice (one of two), e.g.
Write and ask him when he is com ing. Take this book or that one.
1 See p age H3. I El l", Wheeler Wilcox. YO\l must work h a rd er or go into another class.
ConnectI ves 3"
310 A Comprehms ive English Gramma r
You are not to blame ; neither i s hc.!
~ 2)an approxim ation , e.g. H e is not to blame; neither are you ,I
The work will cost £15 or £16.
The nearest big towU'is--.zo or 30 miles from where th ey live . -J..41/ The 'so' Group]
But or is not used whe n the difference is b ig; we should no t
say , for example:
TIle work will cos t £15 or £100.
- -
50 as a conjunction suggests consequence, e.g.
The ram bega n to fall , so we went home.
H e didn' t wor k hard, so he had t o go to ano ther class.
Th e nearest big town is 5 or 40 miles fro m where the y live.
-11 Oth er connectives in this grou p are illustrated in the following Oth er conjunctions in th is group are thac/o re, aceordillgly, thus,
hrnce, consequently, and t he subordinating phrase so that . (Sec
examples:
Clauses 01 Purpose. p. 340.) Note that when it introduces a
[Eithen my answ er@yours is wrong. clause of Purpose ra ther than of Consequence, so thai is followed
You m ust ~ work harder £!. go into another class. by m ay , migitt, shall or should,
You must work harder, or e s go into another class.
Some adv erbs fu nction as conjunc tions joining independent
You mus t work harder; tu rwlse you will be pu t into anot her
statements, eg.
class .
We worked until six; then we went ho me.
N either (. . . 1I0r) has tile meaning 'not one of two', e.g. H e broke the ru les of the school; thcrc/ore/so !c01mq1lCntlyl
Your answer is not right, ,uithtf' is mine. accordingly he had to kaye.
N either your answer 1/Or mine is right. H e is clever: onlv he can't be tru sted.
Another pair of correlative conj unctions is 110/ 01dy .. . Iml Someti mcs l]!.' is-pleasant; agil il1, he ( fin be n·ry unpleasant.
also, e.g.
N ot only is your answer wrong bu t mille is also. ISLBORDI"ATI"G cox J C:\CTlO:\S I
He is not only the most intelligent student in the class bul Subordinati ng conjunctions arc used to introdu ce -{lIf noun
also the most hard-working. clauses an d-{ b,. adverb clauses of every kind . E xamples:
Kate that eit her . . . Or, witner . . . nor take a singular verb , e.g. H e said (hal he would help us.
Come and have lunch with me; either Tuesday or Wednesday Ask him when he (an come. •
is convenient for me . You will recognize him whm y Oll see him
I'm sorry, neither T uesday 1lOr Wednesday is convenient He came becallse he was interested in music.
for m e, I will come If you want me.
In these constructi ons the verb agrees in person with the l / you want m e, I will come,
T hough he wasn't in terested in music, he came to the
nearest subject, e,g.
concert.
Either George or I am to blame.
Neithe r you nor he is to blame. (For Adverb and K OIlIl Clnusos sec pl'- JJ3 to J4J.)
The con junction does no t necessarily come between the
As th.is is felt to be rather awkward, the construction IS
sentences it joins.
sometimes changed to:
E ither George is to blame or I am. ' :""o r t he in version o f subjec t "n d ~'erbin thi~ co nstruction . see p, 186,
Eithe r I am to blame or George is.
Connect ives 3'3
3I:Z A Comp rd lf:llsive EIlgJish Gram mar
I never met S l/C" a man as M lhim for hanl 1I"0rlc.
The most comrncnl v.used subcrdinatmg conjunction s are :\0 one saw him but I /me.
that, UMn, lihere, Iihiie, kfore, until, if, after, Sillct, becallS~. There was no one in the house bid sJu: ,'Jw:,.
(a/lthou( h, unless , as . .
In colloqui al speech t he conjunction that is often omit ted i:. Some grammarians and a few , perhaps ra ther pedantic,
fact , the conjunction would be unusual in such sentences as speakers ins ist that than, as, et c ., in the a~v.e sen tences are
conjunct ions and th at the sentences are ellip tical for:
I wish you had told me.
I hope he passes his examinations. You are a better player than he (is).
It 's high time t hose children were in bed. One dar you will be as old ITS I (am), ell.'.
I'd sooner/rather/r ou didn't ask me to speak. But though examiners te nd to frown on th e usc of th.ese wor ds
T here arc other connectives, which are not conjunctlOll;;, as preposit ion s, the u sage has no t on ly the au thori ty of the
that are used t o introd uce subordinate clauses T hus adjective spo ken word but of numerous stand ard au thors including
clauses are joined to other parts of a co mplex sen tence lJy Shakespeare, Swi ft , Pope, Byron and ma ny othe rs . An
relative pronouns or relative adverbs, e.g . interesting poin t , made by \\1. S. Allen ,l ~ s t1~at if the'p~ono\l.n
is fur the r qualified by bolh or all, the obj ective case IS mvan-
Th at's the boo k that /which everybody is talk ing abou t . able used, e.g.
H e's the ma n u'hom I want t o see.
He is cleverer than us all.
That 's tl-e house u:here I was born , (Sl'C p, 328.)
'A stone is heavy and sand weig hty; hut a fool's wrath is
In conversation these connec tives arc often omitted. heavier thall til,," /mtk ' (Bible)
Again , all the in terrogative words can be used as connecti\'e,
in indirec t ques tio ns, e.g. ~rorco\"Cr, when a rela tive pronoun follows ,tJum (a Ji ~erarr
!i.-hat it is. rather than a colloq uial usage) the relative IS always III the
J.;'hcn he saw me.
c\sk him
{
!i.'hue he ,went
u-JrytJ e d id It .
luyw he knows.
{ ..-hiell ho use it was
:rhosc dog that is.
• • •
objective case, cg.
He is a man than U"hoffl no one h as a be tter right to speak
Belial came last; than whom a spiri t more lewd
F ell not from H ea ven. "
Xotc t he ch anged word order when these intcrroga nv.,
sentences are made subordinate. T he di rect term: 'what is 11- (Kate, by the way , the ambiguity of: 'She lov es h im m ?re ~han
has become 'Ask him what it is ', etc, me' which could mean: ' She loves him more tha n I do or SJIC
loves him m ore th an she loves me "] ..
[ Tl IAN, AS AS , suru , AS, lJ u'r !
It is not alwa ys easy to decid e whether thrnt, as . , . II .', GIl
such . . , as, and 1",/ arc preposit ions (to be Iollowc...l alwav-, .
Bul , when it. has the meaning 'except'. is now usually regarded
by the objective case of the pronoun) or conjunct ions (to l.... as a prcposmcn . c.g .
followed by eit her the nomi native or the oh j cc t jve 1.';"1""." Alt of them bill m e had been there before.
according to t he pronoun's logkal:.tatus as subjec t or objt" l
of t he ve rb] . There would thus be hcsiranon ill t he Icllowrnc There is. howe\"cr ,::\ well-known poem that begins:
sentences: The boy st ood on the burn ing deck
You are a better player fhall l lt/ Mm. Wh ence all bllt lie had fled.'
H e is older t ll a tl 1" 11<". I L i '1 HJ: /;"III /illl 5',,,(1.,,. (p o Ij ). I ~ !ill(ln. r" . ",/il' L Dd .
One day yo u will be ,IS old as I [me . I C"lahi'" 'C4 by Felicia Il e m:ml,

3" A Comp rc1! ms ivt English Grammar
'.
EXERCISE S C ll A P T F. R T W F. " T Y - OS F.
I Construc t t en sentences, five cont ai nin g co-ordinating
co nju nc t ions and five containing subordina t ing con- I~TER.JE CT IONS AND EXCLAMA TIO!'\ S
junctions, using a d ifferent conj unction in each sentence.
11 Complete the followi ng sentences by fill ing the blank The ISTERJE CTI QS is a .....ord or sound u sed to exp ress some
spaces w ith the con nective words you consid er appro- sud den feeling or emotion. It thus be longs to the oldes t form
pria te. of t he spoken langu age and represents the m ost primitive type
( I) I don' t a!l: ree ..-jth you. - - doesmy p~Ht ner. {2} H e of utterance . It does not enter into the grammatical constru c-
drinks - - b." - - wme. (3) Their actlons wer e t ion of the sentence.
_ risk y _ pceinvety su icid al. (4) I 'm going out for Am ong the most u sual interjections are: Oil! (expressi ng pain
a $hort time; _ you can get supper ready. (5) Tb~ or su~prise) , A ll! (su rprise or sat isfac tion) , H ello! (greeti ng or
who a re not prepared to study should - change t heir
ways _ m ak e room for those who .....iII ....or k . (6) She surprise}, lIey! (to attract attention), Alas! (a "literary' form
ca n' t hope to pass t he exam".in Decem~r ---:- she' ll express ing sorrow, disappointment). There are some inter-
have to wait t ill J une . (7) H e 15 very senous ly al l; - jection s wh ose w ritt en form rather m isrepresents their spoken
d octors ha ve a lmOl5t given up hope of h is recovery. soun d , mainl y because there are no conventional SYmbols
(8) The)' go to concerts of n~odern music - they which would represent it. There is, for example, Tui, tll( which
really like it. (9) - 1 do not like him very much , I ca n sta nds for the sound made by clicki ng t he t ongue agains t t he
appreciate his q ualities. (10) F md ou ~ : - - t hey are front teeth ; and the re is P shaw! an expression of con tempt ,
going t his evening - ask If we may join t hem . bu t it is difficul t to say wh at exclamation in actual use the
III Construc t four sentences. t.....o illustr ating t he idiom atic spelling is supposed t o represent ; certainly no one sars [PIo :]
use of "a nd' t o express condition and t wo t o dlustrate or rIo:] except when coming ac ross Ps~ U'! in print.
its use in expressing purpose. The in te rjection OA! is frequ ent ly wri tten O! and eithe r
IV Use each of the following connect ives in a sentence: form is correc t, but the fonn 0 [withou t an exclamation mark)
( 1) not only ..• bu t also. (2) both . .. and . (3) so . (,,) should be used ....i th t he 'Nominative of Address' (t he vocative
still.. (,5 ) indeed . (6) th ere fore. (7) unl s. (8) neither . ; .• case) occurring in oratorical speech, e. g.
nor. (9) as . (10) u ntil.
'0 all you host of h eaven! 0 earth !' (H amid)
V Expiain, with examples. .the .difference in f ~nc tion '0 JulilL'> Caesar, thou art m ight y yet.' Uuiills CIICSM r )
between C()o()l"d inatlng conjunctions and subordinating •
conjunctions. (The u sual , modern form of t he nominative of address occurs
in such sen te nces as:
j ohn, I want t o spe ak t o you.
Ha ve you finished t hat work ye t , Smith .~
Here, j oJm an d S m ith are n ot u sed as subjec t or obj ect of a

verb but merely to address or t o attract t he attention of these
peoplc .]
o can have occasionally , in rather rhetorical speech, some .
thing of a verbal force with a meaning someth ing like ' I wish ',
e go
,.,
-~-,

3 16 A Comprehmsive English Gramma r
I nterj ections and Exclamati on s 317
o that I had do ne what he t old me, kind .o f good humoured I~lper at i \'e , less severe and com-
'0 t hat we now had here
m andmg tha n Go away . Get 111 .
Rut one ten tho usa nd of those men in Engla nd
T hat do no work today.' (Shakespeare , Henry V.) ,Kote that if the subject is a personal pronoun (as in the
examples above) it comes before t he verb. If the subject is not
The dividing line is thi n between in terj ections [rcproduc, a pe rsonal pronoun it comes after the ve rb, e.g.
tiona of sounds or special words that we utter involuntarily
under the stress of some em ot ion ) and EX CLA;\IATJ ONS , in T here goes the train'! H ere comes George! There was a su dden
which a n ordina ry word or group of words are used as inter- gust of wind and away wml his hat.! T he doo r burst open
jections. Examples of exclamations are: Good! Bravo! Sha mel an d i ll ru shed the crowd!
Silence! N onsense' Stop,! I sa)'! H urra h! W ell danel Just my luck '
and a variety of ex pleti ves ranging from t he mild (and rat her
ch aracteristically fem inine) Oh dcarl Goodness! Gracious! Dear E XE RC ISES
m et ) W ell I never'! Oh botherl to the more robu st (and masculine) I From the following list of interjec tio ns an d exclamations
Good L ord! B less my soull N o fe ar! and, less soci a bly acce pt able, choose those you thin k most suitable as comments on the
D ash! Blast! Damn!- an d beyond. fo llowi ng sentences;
Some of the exclamations just men tioned, e.g. S i lence! W ell Goodness me! Bra vo! F ancy that ! W ell played, S ir!
don e! StoP! etc.. or Goodbye! Farewell! are perhaps elliptic al Splendid!
sent ences equivalent 'to something like: ' I wa nt silence', ' You (l) Do you know it's nearly midn ight? (2) He's just won
have done well ', etc . Goodbye is an elliptical form of 'God be £ 1, 0 00in the foot ball pools. (3) Th at's game and set,
with ye': Fareioell a n elliptical form of ' May you fare (= go) 1 think. (4) She's just begun to learn R uss ian-s-she'Il be
well'. tackling Chinese next. (5) I managed to catch the post
I l SENTEscE sl
EX CLJ.:'IATOR Y
There are two types of exclamatory sentences whose
alter all.
II Complete the following sentences with 'now', 'what', or
suitable adverbs:
sentenc e structure should be noted: • . . ( r) He slipped on the lad der a nd - he came. (2 ) -
went t he thieves in the stolen car. (3) - - a pity she's so
-{r)-T hose beginning H aUl! or W hat! e.g. deal. (4) Ther e's no time to waste so - - you go at once.
HOlJJ well George writ es! H ow nice of you t o come a nd see us! (5) - beautiful the view is from your window.
How cold this room is! W hat lovely weather we are having! •
W hat a fool he is! What a n awful noise! W hat ru bbish he
writes! Wha t a sh ame that you can't come! How old he is!
(Note the difference be tween the ex clamat ory How old lu is'
and the int errogative Howald is he?)
., 2~ Th ose beginning with an adve rb like T here, H ere, 111, etc"
e.g.
There he is! He re it conics! Off they ircnt l Away you gol
In ) 'OU get!
Sen tences like t he last two (in the second pe rson) express a
• The accusati" e form of the pronoun is interesting.
Sentences atld Cto nscs 3' 9

CIIAPTER TW ESTY-TWO was meant) were asked to supply t he mlssmg words, each
would proba bly supply different ones.
( SE~TE~CES :" :SD C LAl"SES ) jcspcrson defines a se ntence thus:
' A sentence is a (relative ly] complete an d imk-pcuden t
The traditional definition of SIllPLE SE:-'ttSC is: 'a group of hu ma n utterance-the co mpleteness a nd independence be ing
words that ccntams a finite verb an makes complete sense.' shown by its standins alone lit its c3llabilit}' of ~ talJd lllg alene.
JJut thjs dejmitjQn ~ms h:udl>' a~u atc , to cover such { e. of be ing uttered by it self.'!
~Ies as the f211Q\lJug. which rnaxe sense ,t o the person Ot her grammaria ns give t hese defi ni tions:
who nears t hem but which do not centum a finite verb: 'A sentence gives expression t o a su bject to wh ich t he
' St op!' 'Goodbye.' 'Thanks.' 'Of cou rse.' 'Nonsen se.' 'Wai ter, spea ker wishes to draw the bearer's attention, and also to
anothe r bott le of wine.' 'Wh at a day !' ' Reall y" "This way , some t hing wh ich he wishes him t o think with referunco to t hat
sir.' 'Oh! these exercises!' ' Hello! 'Less noise t here,' 'Fire!' subjec t ; and t his is eq ually tr ue whether t he sentence be
examined from t he psychol ogical or the gram mat ical side,
Consider, t oo, the f\Clies to the following questions: Any u t terance which calls Il l' III the nuud 0 1 t he rec eiver
' What time is it ?' ' Th ree o'clock.' t hese t wo linked t hings is a se ntence (bo th psychological a nd
'W ho answered the question?' 'George.' gra mma tica l). whe the r it consists of one syllablt' or Iifty . An d
' Did you know it ?' .~' no ut tera nce, however m anv words 01 svllablc-, II co ntai ns, is
' How much butter do you want" . A pOlmJ and a halj.' a senten ce , unless it docs ca ll lip t hese t'w o linked t llmg ;:":
' All oral or wri tten com municatio n is made up 01 one or
'Coffee, sir?' ' Yes: # 1:3$1:.'
more unit'>, ear-h of which contains a complete uttera nce
'Black or white?' ' lJlouk.' te rmed according to a d..nnl te pattern . Such units are called
'I'll sene you the books.' ' ~? ' sentences. ' I
Grarr..m arians sometimes et over t he difficul ty b ' saving- Sentences may be s nI PLF., CO}IPOl'XD o r CO )t P LE X. F or
that these a[c :clliptical' sentences !.!' th~~ IS ~I.~ :>e il Sim ple sentences see Cha pte r T wo '
ou t but is 'understOOd' by the speat.er ailJ.!tstener. tlllPSIS 15
a common fea ture in English, e.g. CO~IPOt'X D IDOP BLF. OIl ~1t'LTIPU:: ) SF.STI'.S CES
Ti le work is done, the books put a way (= are put away).
Two or m ore sentences may be joi ned by a conj unc tion (or
'To err is huma n, to forgive divine' (= is divine). conju nctions), e.g. •
'Th ank you' (= r thank you) .
I am teaching you English and you are list ening t o me.
'First come, first served' (c= The first 10 come will be the first
Do you understand tha t or is the point st ill not clear?
10 be served).
Bring y our book he re (md ope n it a t pag e 4: b"t don' t begin
Your name and address, please (= Give me ...[.
What if I refuse to an swer? ( ~ What happens if .. . W hat reading.
wi ll YOU do il . . .] Sentences like these arc c a lled CO )I POl: ~ D or DOUB LE Ml:LTI PLE
sentences.
An ymore lares, pl ease? ( Are tnfft a ny more fares still to
1 Pllilo, opil)' 0/ GrAm m a r.
paid?)
1 But in many sentences of t hj ~ type it is not poss ible to 51J.!
exactly what is 'left out'. In most of these examples, If th
I 0" . Li~'i "l L rmg" IIKI , Cr:uu,1l & C u rre y.
I A HII " dboolr 0/ E ng/ i tll Grllmmllr, R. W. Zand~"OOrt
• ~tudllnts wh" wish to e>;a mir.e t he nat ure 01 a sentence mare fully
speaker and the he a rer (both of whom understood exac tly wh ma r be Int erested to rea d Charter 2, ' What is a Sen lence)" in Th
Sr. " . I" " oj li"Kfl,li by C, C. Fri~ (Lon gma n s).
3. 8
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320 A Comprehm sive Etiglish Grammar Sen/(tlu s 411,[ CI4lI S(.~ 321
In compou nd sentences the subject or the a uxiliarv verb I n Sentence 2 it is t he objec t of the verb said a nd is a S OL'S
or both, may be omitted in the second sentence if they 'are t h ~ CLAUSE.
same as those in t he first sen te nce, e.g . In Sentence J It qua lities t h e ver b ' UI I and is all AIHIU UJ
He is sitting a nd (he is) listening to me. (;lA USE .
I'~u mu st come tomorrow and [you must) bring your book W~ en clauses of t~ e sa~e ty pe are joined by and or or,
with you . !he mtrod uct0!1:' conju nction , the subject and an auxilia ry
\'frb may be e mitted If t he)' are the same as those in the fi rst
( C Ol IPLE X S£~TE~cF.s l clause, es.
Each of the sentences in a compound sen te nce ca n stand If he ha~ come a nd seen m e 4'ld (it he had ) discussed t h e
independently. But t here are some grou ps of words wh ich , matter .wlth me, I sh ou ld have given h im my opinion,
even though they cont ain a fi nite verb, are not 'c om plete a nd If IItJ will t-ome ,111t1 sec 111.' ur (if he will) write to I1W . ..
independent hum an utte rances' a nd cannot stand a lone, for ~ fter . you lmve written y our essay a nd after you have
ex am ple: reVIsed It, you may hand it ill,
,"'hich I uant; Ih,l! lie was li,d; whtn he saw a [ oliccman.
These groupsof words, called su BORDI SAT E CLAUSES, do t he work E X EHCISES
of adj ectives, adve rbs or nouns (i.e. they can qualify nou ns or I Construc t examples of ( I) a Simple Sen tence:
verbs or be the subjec t or object of a verb) in a larger urut
(ul »ta tc men t, (h) <juestiOll, (&) com m and.
which is called a COMP LE X SE :>o T IO :>oCE. (;I) a Compou nd Sentence . (J) a Co m ple x Sent..nee.
A clause is a group of words wh ich include a finite verb, IS
grammatically complete a nd self-contained , form s part of a II ',\ Simpl.. sentence is a group or words (includ inl; a
se n te nce , but d oes not by itself make co mplete sense. subject ,111<1 a \'cr h) t ha t makes ccnrple . .. sen-e.'
A complex sentence consists of one or more of t hese sub-
Comment 011 this defmttiou .
ordinat e clauses a nd a M.U :S or PIU :>O CI P.-\ L clause. II I Exptaiu in what sellse=l you could interpret the
A principal clause is usually de fi ned ¥ 'a clause that can (,,11" " 1111: cX l' r~lolLs a nd supply the words !If'': C>o.''3 r,,
stand alone a nd makes complete sense by itself'. But this is not t u ex press each Idea fully. .
always true (as, for example, in sentence 2 bel ow), It might (I) ~~tu r a lly .(z ). Keep,left . (j) What a bore. (..) ~ILl rder !
be better t o say th at t he principal clause is wh at is left of a (,5) I \\0 whisk ie s, p-ease. (6) Oh no! (7) Really)
(1:1) \V~i t . (9 ) o s . yes ? ( I?) J ust a moment . ( J I ) Full,up'.
complex sen tence when all the subord inate clauses have been
(12) :-;0 talklnj{. (13) Seats 1) 1\ top. ( I ..) Ridiculous
•
t aken away. E xamples: (15) Oh, Illy head!
I I V I n vent '1"~ '''''
~ ' 0''
,,~'' to" .<"1,,',1,
~ the following mlght he
P,incipal Clause S'lbordinale Cla use replies:
( I) H a lf pas t two. (l) Th~ce bottl':'5' (3) Red , ple ase
{~ I [hat is the house which I wa nt. (..) On :\Iontlay nex t . (s) Yes. (6) First please (7) C p '
that he was t ired . s ta irs. (8) Thkk. please. (9) ~I a y 15th: ( 10) Of course.
(2 ) The man said
{3J The thid ra n away when he saw the policema n. V Pic ~ out .the differen t clauses (principal a nd sub-
ordinate) In the follo....-ing sentences, a nd say ..... hich
ecrt (Adverb, Adjecti ve or Noun) each of the subor-
I n Sentence I the subordmate cla use qualifies the noun ho••s. dinate cla uses is:
and is an ADJ ECT IVE CU GS!:: . ( I ) Th~ c:oat that is hang ing in the cupboard is mine.
(2) Th IS IS the route I intend to take. (3) He slowed
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322 A Comprehensive English GralllnlM Se ntences and Clauses 323
d own the car as he approached t he crossroads. (4) T he (12) They could no t d ed de what to do. They as ked my
house where he lives has j ust been repainted. (5) I don 't ad vice. (Compo und )
know w here they live. (6 ) The man I want t o see is not (13) She spoke French rapid ly . He couldn' t understand
h ere this morning. (7) when I went to his st udio h e her. (Com plex)
shOVo·ed me all the paintings he had d one rec en t ly . (8)
we shall go wherever he wishes to take us. (9) Walt (14) Any of t hese problems can be solved by ord inary
while I get my overcoat. (ro) The station d oses irn- intelligence and hard work. Xone of t hem are too
mediately t he last train bas left. (I I) Tell m e where )'0 1,1 difficult for t bat. (Compl ex)
are going for you r holiday. (12) The p lace where we VI I Complete t he following sen tences ...-ith main or sub-
stayed fOT our holiday was rig ht on the sea coas t. (13) I ordinate cl auses as may be necessary. Say w hat kind
don't know where .." e are goinjl: this year. ( f 4) Come of a cl ause it is that you add.
where we are going for our holiday. ( 1,5) Do )"01,1 k now (_) - - t hat I saw yesterday - . (::) The concert
w her e Shakespeare was born? (16) That is the hou se - - wu excellently performed. (J ) - ca n't be
w here Shakespeare was born. (17) I d on't remembe r undone. (4) Do the work - immediately . (,5) Pu pils
when Tom came t o see me. (18) I t hink it was the day should obey - - . (6) - is q uite obvious. (7) H e
when we had that heavy t hund ers t or m . (19) If t h at ....as didn 't get t he pri ze - . (81 Beca use he didn 't get up
the day, it ca n 't be a year ago. (::0) I'll ask hi~ jf he early enough - . (9) - where I lost my pen.
remembers the visit. (:: 1) Tell me who are co m ing t o (10) - t ha t he knew y our sister.
the party. (::::) T h at' s one of the boys who are coming
t o the part y.
VI Form compound or complex sentences (as indica tetl )
from the followin g groups of simple sentences. Omit a
word or two wh ere necessary:
( I} The bo y closed the door, He wa lked away. (COIll-
po und)
(::) Richard works badly . He pl ays games well.
(Compound)
(3) The ch ildren had finished thei r jessons. T h ey went
home. (Com pl ex)
(4) We come t o school on F rida)' . W e have a holid ay
on Saturday. (Compou nd)
(5) J ac k wen t up the hill, J ill wen t up tlte hill. T hey •
fetch ed a pail of water. (Compound)
(6) Jack fell down. He broke his crown. J ill came
t umbling after, (Compou nd)
(7) W e dec ided to remain at home. It was foggy.
(Com pound)
(8) W e dec ided to remain at home. I t WiL$ foggy .
[Com pl ex) .
(9) Yo u said someth ing. I do not unders t a nd It .
(Com plex) . .
( 10) A German is com ing t o see me. I made his acquai nt -
ance in Ham burg las t year. (Comple x)
(II) The students "'ere trapped in a ca ..·e. O ne o f t hem
has already been broug ht out. (Com plex)

S lIhQ7 di llll /l' Ctauscs
-(:!) I ~ n ~. r)[-:F I :-: ISG ("L\l:SlcS]
C H.-\l'TER T WE S T Y- TU fl E E I'ow consider t hese sentences:

Bernard Shaw , 1;;/10 w rote St. Jo,m, d ied in 1950.
( S U BO R D J ~ AT E C LAUS ES i
~I r father , u'ho had been on a visit to America. arrived at
Southa mpton yesterday.
@JlAl>j F.CT IVE CLAUSES ]
That sciennst , ;1·hoSi work is "cry im portant. ha s been made
Adjective clauses (sometimes called 'Attributive' clauses or a knight.
•Relati...e' clauses) qualify nouns. The noun qual ified is calle d :'o liss Smith . U·1z(llOl you met at our ho use, is going to marry
the ASTE CEOE~T and the relative clause normally follows t!;l ~f r. Abbott.
an tecedent , e.g. TIle GoMnt H ind, in .,-Iti d , Drake sailed round the world .
Th at is the house that l l&ould lilt, to baty . was only a small sh ip.
(Antecedent: ho,lS')
In all these sen tences th e adjective clause could be omi tted
Somet imes t he adjective clause di vides the main clause , e.g and t he rest of the sen tence would still make perfect sense.
The house that I wOldd like 10 blly is not for sale. The ad jective clauses here arc a kind of pare nt hesis , a casual
remark, an aside or an ex planation . TIley could he wri tten
An adjective clause is generally int roduced by a relative between brackets or dashes. ego
pronoun (thaJ , which , who, ctc.). For relative pronoun s sec
page I 3~ . Bern ard Sh aw (who wrote 51. ) Od ll) died in 1950.
:'ofy father-who had been on a visi t to America-arrived at
South ampton yesterd ay.
They do not define t he antecedent. They do not say which
-( 1) Ion rx 1~[ i ('j V'S E sf Bern ard Shaw am ong a number of Bernard Shaws, which
Ad ject ive clauses arc of tw o types. Consider t he following fat her among dozens of fathers. Wh at they do is to give
exam ples: • • addit ional informa tio n about an antec edent whi ch has already
been sufficiently defined. They are therefore called NON-DEFIN-
The stude nt who answered the quest ion was John . ING or "' )IPL1FY 1~ G CLAUSES. This paren th etical construction of
Th e book wh ich you lent me was int eresting. non -defining clauses is shown by a comma in writing and by a
He gave a t ip t o the porter It'ho ca rried his luggngc. pause in speaking at the ~g (nning and end of the clause. ..
Thank you for the hel p that you have given me. Commas must not be put round a defining clause.
'Th is is the house thai J ack built' Compare t he sentences:
The Du ke of ~f arl borou gh was one of the greatest soldier-
(I ) All the book s. Ii'hirh had p'clll'..s i ll them. we n;" sent to
that E ngland has ever had.
the little girl.
In all t hese sen tences the adjecti ve clause is a necessary pan (She got all the books.] ~O S ·D EF I S ISG CU .t.:SE.
of the idea; if it is left out, th e sent ence does not make complete
sense. All these clauses define the antecedent and give it its (2) .-\ 11 the books u l,ich haJ p ietu'i s it! tJum were sent to the
definite connotation; they indicate w1lich student out of a little girl .
number of students, which book out of t housands of boob (She got only those book s wh ich had pic tures ill them.)
which porter out of seve ral porters. etc. So clauses of this tr Ill: 1l r.F1~IS G CLAt:S E.
are call ed DE fl S It<;C clauses.
J"
326 A CompreMnJjw E nglish era"",.." 3'7

(I) He has a brother. Il'1W is an artist. He pllt his proposal to George, who . after making full
(He has only on e brother, a nd lie is all a rt ist .) enquiries , decided to accept it .
~O~ 'Df: F I ~ l "G CLAUSE . In this example who could be replaced by alld he, thus t urn ing
the non-defi ning clause into a co-ordinate sentence.
(2) He has a brothe r wlw is 1m artist.
(He ma r have several brothers, but one of them is a n E xcept for the two types just mentioned (the 'continuative'
and that in which a whole sentence is t he antecedent), non-
artist.) DEFIX TSC CI.A l'SE .
defm ing clauses are not common in conversational English ,
Or compare: They are more usual in for mal speech and writi ng.
(I ) The work entailed a num ber of expenses, uihich I had not
O~lI SS I 0N OF TH E R E LATI VE P RO~ O I] S iN D E FI SIS G CLA USES
allowed[or,
(I didn't expec t there would be any expenses a t an a nd When the relative pronou n in a defining clause is in the ob-
so I had n' t allowed any money for expenses.] xo x. jective case,it is often omitted , especiallyin spoken English . e.g.
DEFJ SIS G CLAUSE . The man (that) you spoke to was my brother.
(z) The work entailed a nu mber of expen ses u'hich (tha /)I The book (that) I want is on t he ta ble.
I had not allowed f 01. He is the kindest man (tha t) I know.
(I had ex pected a number of expenses. I had allowed There's something (th at) you don't know ,
money for these but t hen some unexpected ones h ad Clauses lik e t hese, in which the relative pronouns are omitted,
turned up.) DEFIS!SG CLAl"SE . are sometimes called CO~TACT CLAUSES.
There is a ty pe of non-defining clause which has for it s Th e relative pronoun can also be omi tted in a defini ng clause
an tecedent a whole sentence. I n this case t he introductorv introduced by there is (was):
relative pronoun is always u·hich. Extlmple5: . The 9.15 is the fas test train (that) there is to Oxford.
They have invited me to di nner, u'hich is ury killJ of them 1 asked for t he best book (tha t) there 'was all the sub ject,
He missed the t rain. which l2,uwy ed him t '''I')' much. I n non-defining clauses, li'ho(m), 'Which are never om itted, e.g.
There is a story of a clergyman, who , preferring not to wear :My brother Alfrt...d . uJro is eighteen years old, has bought a
the u sual cleric al dress , said: new bic ycle.
'I will wear no clothes wh ich will dis tinguish me from my My fat her , whom you met in Paris , is now back in London, •
fellow -men .' This poem, wh ich a lmost cnrrbody k IlOW~ , is hy Tennyson .
But wh en his remark was reported in t he newspapers, a comma
was put in by mista ke , and with its relative clause thus S U MMARY OF Til E Us.... CF. O F RELATIVE
ch anged from a defining one to a non-defi ning one, the sentence A D J ECTI VE CLAUSES
then read: - ( l ll ll H 1S I S G I
,, ,
' I will wear no clothes, which will d istinguish me from my f UT ploplc
fellow-men .'
Non-defining clauses have also a 'continuative' or 'con- who, that which , that
nective' use; that is, t hey are almost equivalen t t o a compound whom, (that) which, (that )
sentence, e.g. to whom, (th at). ,. to . towhich ,(that) . , . t c
• T he relati ve prono\ln fh~ 1 can he u~ wilh d crminl( cl"u" " It Wl l O~C of which , wh ose
ca n no t be used wit h non ..:lefininl( clauses (~ee p. 140).

3" tl Comprehensive English Grammar
- {2 ) GO!'i- DT!F!" I Nt; , \ ( ,.< j

People Things Afte r slImc and ~lIch all adj~ti\'c clause is usuallv introduced
by as, e,f:'. .
-
S ubject who which I shall be surprised if he docs th is the sa me wav <IS I do ,
Object whom which SJlC wears the Same kind of clothes as her sister wears,
+ Prepositio1l t o whom t o which T have never heard .I' uch stories as he tells,
Possessive whose of which , whose ""e arc such stuff (/S dreams are made on ' (Shakespeare,
Tile Tempest,)
--
But, occasionally, thlll call be used af ter S'lnl", e,g,
I R ELAT I FS I " T ROI Jl'CED av OTHER Wonns ]
She wore t il l' S(IIII(' <lrt'% that she wore at ;\Iary 's wedding,
[ W UE.'> . \\'lfEIIl'., WllY \
ArJjE Cl lVE (L\USES WIT I! F ORMA L SU BjECTI ' IT'
An adjective clause m ay be introduced b}, the words:
,
' "wheyr ,
whm ll'hv if these words have the meaning ill which, at which, Sometimes a part of a sentence is given front position and is
fo r which', etc., e.g. int roduced by it is (or some other form of th e verb to br:
singular number] and followed by an adjecti ve clau se, c.g.
Th e place where Macbet h met the witches was a desola te
I! is work that we wan t, not charity,
heath.
I remember the day whm she first wore that pink dress. II h',o Sir ROII'Lmd 1l ill who introduced the I'cuuy pos t in
England ,
I know the reason why he was so angry
It (til/not IN you who will have to take the blame for t h is.
In the above ex am ples t he adjective clause is a defming on e; 11 4 ',1.\' only J ohn 's hanl work that made succ ess possible,
but whm an d uhere can also introduce non -defining claus:~ ,
e.g. • E XEHCISES
\\'e will put off the picnic until next wcnk , when the weath er I Ex p la lll ex actly , g iving an eXalllp!e of cad i, what is
may be better. meant by (I) antecedenr (2) co n tac t clause. (J) de-
They went to the Royal Theatr e, uherc t hey saw Ibs en 's fining clause, (~ ) nOll,detining cl ause , •
' Peer Gynt'. Ll Pic k out tile adjec tivc clause ;11 eac h of the following
sentences a nd g ive t ll c antecedent:
G (I ) This is the bicycle th a t m y uncl e gave me, (2) Do

you kno w a nyon e who wants to buy a mot or-b ike)
A noun in a negative sentence is sOl1ldimes qu.rliucd hy .m 13) Here are the cakes which I bought. (4) The ma n
adjective clause introduced by Iml : was re turning ho m e with t he money, which he had put
There was not a single person there but thought you we re I II in bis pocket, (5) T h e bicycle which my uncle gave me
was a birthday presen t, (6) A mo tor-bike that won 't
the right. " ,~o is 110 use, (7) T he cakes that I bought have ali been
There's no t a man here hilt wou ld like to be 10 your plac e eatl'n, (8) The money which the man had d rawn from
He re 'but thought' = 'who did not think ' ;, and 'but woy,ld the bank was in his poc ke t book. (9) T he hOliSe that
like' ' 'who would not like' , The Im l con tradic ts the negat ive. you sec Over there is ve ry old. ( I O) The thief wh o had
lObbed the man was ca ug ht by the po licem a n,
This construc tion is not com mon ,
I Sc~ page l Or.
33° A COlllprehtllsit,( Ellfili sh Grammar ? ubordi nate Clauses 33 1

III Com bine the following pairs of sentences by using (5) The driver)h as driven a ca r for twen t y ye ars , His
rela tive pronou ns: . . lice nc e has just been endorsed . (6) The worries ' ha ve
(1 ) T his house is very modern. It has tele \"lslon a nd aged him. He h as had t hese wo rr ie s. (7) Lewis Ca rr o ll
an electric washing-machine. . was reall y a ma thematicia n. H e wrote A lice in
(2) That man seems very lone ly. His wife a nd fa m ily WOl1lltrfand. (8) The firm have d ispe nsed with h is
are away. services . He has been employed t here for thir ty yea rs.
(3) Dumas was a famo us F rench novel ist . He wrote (9) T he ho use has two spare bedrooms. we've bought
Th e Three M uske/un. it . (10) T he ra t is in the t rap. It ate th e cheese. Mary
t rus t him with bou g ht the ch eese,
(4) He is a reliable fellow. 1 can
anything. VI E x press d ifferen tl y, by mean s of relative clau ses :
(5) That mountain is difficult to climb. It has m any (I) This is a -bock on zoology, th ere is none be tter.
danuerous slopes , (2) T he reason for his si lence is not k nown . (3) I ended
(6) o IJrize pigeons have b
Those een t
SOl'l n . The)' were u p by making a s peech, and I hadnt wa nted t o. (4 ) My
very valuable. . sister is quite m ad t o want t o be a n actress, for she has
(7) Our dog Spot is seven years old. H e IS a great not t he least talen t . (5) Here is a girl w ith real t a lent
and s he reall y o ugh t t o ha ve gone in for th e t heatre.
favourite with the family. , (6) \V", are liv in!l in profound ly d ist urbing t imes ,
(8) The lec t urer tonight was very mtcresung. He came VII
from Cam brid ge. . Complete t he followinll' sentences by adding the
(9) Tu'ei/lli .\'ighl is a famous comedy. It was wntten appropriate re lative pro noun a nd , where necessa ry,
commas. If the relative prono un ca n be omitted from
by Shakespeare. . a ny of the sentences, put it in t he sen tences bu t
(10) This su m mer has been very warm . That IS very enclose it in brac kets ( ). S ay if any of t he re lative
un usual in this country. _ cla uses are non -definin g.
IV P unctua t e t he following comple x sent ences , a?co~di~g (I) The ho use - you 're I(){\ki ng for is at t he o t her
to whether tlle clauses are defi nmg or non-definmg. _ end of the s treet. (2) T he brid ge _ t h is pho to was
( I ) Many peo ple were injured in t he ca plt: l of
tania where 1,000 stude nts t oo k part In .a emon~.; a
Ht'- taken has since been rebuilt. (3) T he ch ild _ parents
died in t he air c rash is livin g with his a unt. (4) T he
. 1 . t t ee th eir new house which I like ry yach t - you see m oored in t he ha rbou r belo ngs to
non (2) "en o s II t d mu st an American . (5) The p lac e _ yo u a re st a nding wa s
muc-h ( ) The rubbish which John has co ec e __
be b 'rn{ (4) The river tha t flows through London ;s th e site of the o ld marke t c ro ss. (6) You can telephone
e ou . ( ) Th Thames which flows throug 1 to t he people - you t old m e abou t yesterday. (7)
•
the T hal:nes. 5 , e . _ (6) I do not know the Whats t he ad d ress of t he firm _ ad ve rtisement we
London IS a beautiful rrv er. . - h t
h · . g (,) He IS gomg to t e go, noticed the o th e r d ay ? (8) T here 's the bus _ I
town whe re e IS gom . . m prac tic e ge nerally take to go to the office. (9) T he fa mi ly _
rse where he in tends t o put m so e . d
(~)u He is going to t he golf course where he practIse I stayed wit h in R ome a re coming to E ngland t his
la st wee k. , year. (IO) The umbrella - you bor rowed las t nigh t
belo ngs to m y brother . (I I ) Did you k now t hat the
V Com bine each of t he following pairs of sen I tenccs ~~~~ actor - yo u saw playing Haml et is now doing
one sen t ence• bv • means of. ,a reln.tive cause, u K ing L ear? (12) William t he Conqueror - was D uke
con tac t clauses where po ssible: , ._ _ of N ormandy invaded England in 1066. (13) King 's
(I) He will have t o ge t up eat . Ti l' . H e won .t Ilike
. It,'t Coll ege, Ca m bri d ge - is a royal founda tion has a
(2) rve got to cntertam my illo the~lll.la~~. c l ~~s7c 5 beautiful chapel. (14) T e nni s _ is the bes t summe r
d h (3) He went to Ox ford. e re gam e [ an be pl a ye d by t wo or four p la yers. (15) T he
stan cr., . issue was unde rw ritten by
t he re. (4) Ihe l30'd~,<,>ooC hairman of this co mpan v. 9 t h Sy m phon y -
h a rd for the chorus.
is Beetho ve n's grea tes t is very
X y Z & Co. Lor _"" IS
33 ~ II Co mprrh ell s it,~ £ 'lglish Grammar
VI I I Const ruct th ree sentences con t aining ad jec t ive cla uses .<"' lIbOTi! i l/ll l e CI<lUSi'S 333
in whi ch tha i mus t be included an d t hree from whic h ~=~=
(]I](~OlJ ~ CL AUSES '
it can be omitted .
I X ,Re-write the following sentences so that each contains A noun clause is one which does the work of a noun, It
a non-deeming relative clause; may be
( I) Sha kespeare was born at Stratford and wrot e
many plays . (~) Liver pool is a busy port cont aining (9tT II" OR/ECT OF A VERB)e.g,
miles of docks. (3) The Portuguese sa ilor, Magellan George said (th ll t) nf WIlS plfaud to Irdcol1lf our Italian
gave h is name to the famou s st rait s. (",) The paintings fri<'ll rl.~ ,
by Vermeer in the Ar t Galler), are insured for a large
am ou n t . (s ) T his newly-published book was recent ly I know (tlra/) )'0 11 m usl be t ird aft .:r you r long j01lf nq .
summarized in a Sund ay pa per. William dreamed (that) lit u-as fiyi'lg to lite moo'l.
X By in trod ucing non-defining relatives combine eac h This is the most usual function .
of the follo...i ng pairs of sentences ioto on e sentence:
An object clause, i.e. a noun clause that is the object of a
( I) T oscanini was a world-famous conductor. He ofte n
Vlslted London . (z) The Black De ath was a t errib le
verb mar be:
pes tilen ce. I t deci mated t he population of some pa rts .,a) 3. statemen t, direct or indirect , e.g.
of E ngla nd . (3) Some fine stained glass can be seen in He said , ' T Ilt Colr u-ill be rt ady tOR!orrw .'
York xn estee. It is in the );orth ol England. (4) T he
Bill has bee n passed through Parliament. During t he He told me (tnat) tire dtM had bU TI paid.
debate t here were three a ll-nigh t sittings . (5) The F ado .,{b) a question, direct or indirect , e.g.
is a popular form of song in Port ugal. It is oft en He said . ' W here do y OIl lit,t?'
llosu.lgi<: in character.
He asked me whi re [ livrd .
XI Const ruct sen tences conta ining rela tive clauses intro- Can ) 'OU tell me WIJil t th f timr is?
d uced by the foll o...i ng: .
There i~ (ar e, was , were), where. when, why. €XiIi E !iUB Jl:.l..l uti A VERB I e.g.
XII Re-write t he following sentences so th at they cont ai n What )" 011 are doTtlg seems very difficult.
clauses int rod uced by "b ut ': That he will rrf u se the 0fftT is unlikely.
( I) Xcbcdy disagreed witb yo ur proposal. (2) There HOti' th p risoTuT rscaprd is a complete mystery.
was no on e there who didn't support t he action t ake"
bv t he covemment . (31 There was hard ly a year wen t 'HoUl gluJ 1 am to see Y Oll ', were his first words.
b)" t ha t d Id not bnn g him furt her honours. (4) 'Ther e ' Wily are ) '011 so late )' was his next remark. •
was no painter of that a!<t' who d id not want t o do fur A 'subjec t ' noun clause always precedes it s principal clause.
Siena ....hat t he F lorent ine art ists ro ad done lo r The verbal predicate of subject clauses is almost always the
F lorence . verb to be or a verb with a similar meaning,
XII I Com plete these sentences by inserting t he corte... t
introductory word s: (J;€li E OBJECT OF A l' REI'OS IIIO S.) e.g.
(I) He had a na tural t hough t fulness such - - is r arely He only laughed at whaJ1 ue said.
seen in one so young. (2) You may do - ever you They will be very t hankful for whatet'iT )'(.111 call git-'e the lll.
like, go ever you choose and with ever you That student always pays attent ion to u-lsatcvcr the fr,,(h~ r is
please, (3) I rem ember t he t ime - you could buy a say ing .
a-ce. bar o f chocolate for I p . (",) ' Wh at chapter ha ve
you reached ?' 'The one - - the body disappears! ' You can have this for If'hut [Paid / or it.
, Kot e that u'h l introd uces noun tlauses, no t adjec tival ones.

,
334 A Comp reM nsit'e English Gram,nar S " J,Ord ill<lte Cla uses 335
Q(n lE CO"I PI.E !>l E "'T OF A VE RL/ ' e.g. Th e tll<l! may be omitted except when the nou n clau se precede s
th e main ve rb! c.g.
The fact is thai he d()(sn 'I reA II) Iry . H e said (that) he would come.
It seems/appears that he has nlt'e' bern paid the monty. I am afraid (Ihat) yo u are right .
That is not whal 1 want.
T hat he doesn 't want to see us is qu ite ob\-iolls.
" bat surpri sed me was thai he spoke En glish so lull.
Nou n.clauses t hat express a hope or a suggest ion often have
(J}\ IN APPOSITlO l' l TO A NOUN ) e,g, the auxiliary verb may , m ight or should, e.g.
The fact that the p,isonrr was guilty was plain to every one. I hope we may ha ve the pleasure of seeing you aga in.
The news thai U'e tire having a holiday tomorTOtf' is not true. H e h oped th at they m ight h an the pleasure of seeing her
Th e idea that y ou can do tMs work wilhout tAi nking is quite again.
wrong, Th e teacher suggested that each student sho lJ d tell a story .
(SX U SE P W ITH A S UMBEK OF P KE D ICATI VE A DJECTIVES ) like .A noun clause m ay occur in the exclamatory construc tlon e
certain , glad, sorry , e.g. WI th ~uc h words as 0 (meaning ' I wish '), Alas (meaning ' I am
I am cert ain that 1 poued the letter. sorry'], cs.
She is very glad that you are 'f ble to collie. o that I could swim like y ou!
I am afraid that y ou are , ight , ' A lliS, that Spring sh ould vanish wit h the Rosel'
H e is qui te confident Ihat he will pass the exn nunation, (Om ilr Khayydm , t ransla ted by Fi t lgerald)
I am sorry Ihat y ou' brother is ill . I n the chapt.er o~ P arts of Speech it was emphasized that
It is possi ble that 1 l /laY (might) not be able to ~lIIe. words are classified mto P,arts of speech according to the work
It is impossi ble that he sMuld make (sllolJd IUlt'e made) a m is- th ey do and not according to the ir form . This stipula tio n
take like that . app lle.s to. clauses also. T he same clause may be a noun claus e,
In the last tw o sentences t he noun cla u ~e is in ap positi o!L an adjective clause or an adverb clause, e.g .
to it. In sen tences like this, it is called t he FOKM AL SUB J ECT; the (I ) Tell me where y ou went.
real subject is the noun clause. In t his construc tion the Ihal (2) I am going to t he house where y OIl lunt .
clause is always in end-position. Note t hat the auxi liary after (3) I am going where YQlI lunt
it is possible is mayor might: after it is impossible it is slwuIJ .
I.n Xo. I th e subordinate da~se .is a noun clause , objec t of the •
Noun clauses are usually introduced by that or an interrogative ver b tell. In No. 2 It IS an adjecti ve clause qualif\'ing the nou n
pro noun , adj ective, or adverb, e.g. house, In >10. 3 it is an adverb clause of place. -
STATnI E ST~ H e said that he knew you .
what I wanted. I~ X EnCI S E S
where I w as going. I Pick o u t the n ou n cl a uses in t h e following a n d describe

QUESTI ON S: He asked me who I was. t h e function of each : •
why I had come he re. ( f) That it was done d elibera t e!}' is q uit e clear. (2) We
how often I had come. grea t ly regret t hat we were obliged to refuse your
1 Another nou n or nou n clau se tnat is added t o a noun to explain i: ' I I !s no t om itt ed "hen t he noun clau,,", is used with a further
further is sa id 10 be in a pposition 10 it, e go ~tr . Pr iestl ey. IJu Itar M - , lu oo rd ln.a ; e cla,;,'<e t h":t prec~C" it , Compare 'He sa id he "'ould come
ex pla ined the wor k , Ada m, 111, ga. d,.,,,, d igs in the ga rden. He nry YIi I. for dln ?er and H e !<aId 11<,,1, , f he cn uld ma. na ge u. he would CO me for
lling of E ngland, di ed in T 5~ 7, d in ner , • See pa ge J f 3.

A ComprthtllSit,t Eng lish Gramma r

/ .
SlIbordUlittt Clauses 337
invita tion. (3) Many people are wondering when inter- ( I) Tcll mc which of these patterns y ou prefer. ( ~) The"
pl an etary travel will become possible. (4) Can you want to kn ow when we are goinl; t o take ou r holid a):.
ex plain to me where he lives? (5) \\'hat you are attemj't- (J) She en qUired at t he shop when her costu me would
ing is really too difficult for you . (6) The hospita l will be ready. (oJ) ' Why d id you st ay ou t so late?' wns t he
greatly appr ecia te aU you can do for th e patients. mother's firs t q uest ion . (5 ) The Tu mou r t hat prices will
(7) We .....ere greatly- am used by what you t old us. soon go down 15 unfor tun atel y un t ru e. (6) The t rut h IS
(s) It seems that he is not coming t o t he party after all. he.do:es no t wo ~k hard e noul;h . (7) ' What on ea rth ,' he
(9) Th e notion th at people can work lC$S and earn m ore said, do you think YOlI are doing ?' (8) It is prn;.~ible that
IS con trary t o reason. (10) I am delighted th at y ou ha ve I shall KO a .... ay for the week-end . (9) That he should
succeeded in getting t he job. be delibera te ly dishonest is unthin kable. (10) As t he
II Complete these sent ences with noun clause objects. da y was fine I proposed that we should So for a picnic,
Use the interrogative pronou n or adjective indicated \'II Turn t he following sentences into ind irect speec h in
t o introd uce each clau se. s uch a ....ay t hat each con tains a nou n clause:
( I) I do not know . , . (wha t) , (2) I did not kn ow . .. (I) I ha ve crossed the Channel a bo u t fifl ~' t imes.
(how). (3) Nobody u nd erst ands . . . (wh y). (of) P lease (l l They have sold a ll thcir property ill England.
tell me .. . (who). (5) He co uld n' t ma ke ou t . . . (where). (J) How Ion,:: ha ve yo u been worki ng in I hi ~ offic e?
(6) Can you fi nd out ... (when). (4) Smoking is strictly forbidd en . (5) Don 't wai t for me
afte r eigh t o'clock, (6) X otice: T icket -holders a re as ked
III (a) Supply noun clause su bjects to complete the to be in t heir seats by 8.15. (7) Ou gh t I t o go to see h im,
following sentences: I . w<;m dered ? .IS) Shall I ever master English prou un-
( I) What is none 01 my business. n ahon? (9) 1hey hope t o get away c nr ty this evening
{2} That is clear t o anyone with a grain of sense. (10) Wrl l you join me in II dr ink ? With great plea sure,
(3) How is beyo nd my comprehension. th an k you.
(4) When , . , d epends on tile t ime at her di sposal.
(5) Whether ... is for your husband to decide.
CillillC>\ D V E HB CI. AU SE S]
(6) Who . .. is more important t han where it comes
from . • Ad verb clauses do the work of ad verbs. T he chief ty pe~ of
(7) Wh y , .. heats me! ad verb clauses are t h ose of:
(S) Wh ere , . , is immaterial, 50 long as it is d one.
(b) Re-write t he above sentences, us ing ' It' as t he ..{ tX MA:-; ~ ER,lwhich i nd ic a t e ho.to a n ac tion is done, c.g.
formal su bjec t . H enry d id the work as it ought to be done, •
I V Form a nou n clause: W h en I get the money I shall spen d it as J Ukl:.
(a ) I n a pposition to the noun 'suggest ion'. I sh a ll do t.h e exercises as 1 hQl't bun taught.
(b) As object of the p reposi t ion 'on ', He r a n as If (thollgh) his lIf e J eptnded on it.
(t) A s com plem ent of the verb ' was"
(ti) A s complemen t o f t he adjective 'aware'. ,,\d ver~ Clauses o f. m an ner a re usually i ntroduced by t he
~nl u,n c hon sas, as If . as though,l followed bv a past sub-
\. What kmd of clau ses are the ones in italics ? juncnve, e.g. -
(/I) Tell me t be reason why .II, did it .
tbl You can do it .llow yqu lib. You look as if (= as you wou ld loo k if) YOIl had seen a gh ost ,
(e) we don 't know uMrt wt art goi"g.
(d) The place u:.IItrt u't art goi"i is a long way from any kl~ But t h e Co~jullC tion introdutin, & tl&uH: i, no true pido 10 I h ~
t own. In ud o f da~ introduced . The u.me word may, lL5 ....", 'bown e&rlin
, '- ed uce d~tfe~nt kind. of t l.u,~. The true gu id e i, I ho "'Ofk tha t Ih ;
" UH: IS <I<>mg ,
VI Give a full description 01 th e noun clauses in t he
iollowing sentences'
S ubordinate Clauses 339
338 A COtJlp,dreH sive E 1'1:1ish G, amma,
I shall wait u nt il you come back . (NOT: shall come)
~2 l (PLAc E) which indicate u'ht1e an action wa s done, ~.g . He will let you know as soon a s he has a n y news . ( ~ OT : w ill
The house stood v ·he,e the L emd on ,oad lIlu ts the Bnght o>! M~ .
roed , \ \ 'e u-ili sll1d the money as soon as the goods are dtJivatd.
St ay uht1e you a,e! (S OT: ;t>ill be delivered]
I .....ill go ;l'ht1nJt1 )'<Iu go. I am going to 'Write to John as soon as I h,li'e a spare moment,
'Fools rush in uhe,e a ngels [ea r to tTead: t By the time you Cd back , dinner It·ill ~ ready
Adverb clauses of place are introduced by t.~h e'e, or wh e,ever !<bli p" ,,}
-(3l\T1J>1E]which ind icate when an ac t ion wasdone. These The construc tion ill place cl auses is simil ar to that in tune
clauses can be introduced by a number of conJu nct IOns , e.g tlau ses. A Future Tense in the principal cl ause IS generall y
It'hell, u hile, after , bejoTe, "'llil , since, as, as soon as. accomp anied by a Present Tense in' the place clause,
Examples: I will go where you tell me,
W hen it ra ins , I usually go to the cmcc by bus. 'Wh ere your treasure is, th ere tdll y ou r heart be also.'
I learned a lot of French whil.: I was i 'l P aris . But oth er sequences of te nse are possible according to the
She learned E nglish be/are she canu 10 En~llmd ". e eanmg. eg.
He kep t on with his work " ntil he had ji fllshed It. I sho{l ",((I him where I nrst f ll tt you .
The thief was arrested as he uas leat1','l: the batik . Z 'hen a place clause is in t roduced by 11'11"(";''', the subj unctive
u ivalcnt may is sometimes used, ego
TE SO SF:<; ,' SED IS :\ n VF. R B ( LAI;SES a t T n l!:' .... SO P t.AC F I will find her wherever she /li llY be .
Wherever you may go, he will not forget you.
-441 1 ImeI . " ,
In adverb clauses of t ime, a Present Tense m the pnncrpa. 4l'REAsm.... rn r.o,.L;'; E J which indicate li'hy an action was
clause takes a Presen t Tense in the time cl ~u se ; a f'ast Tense no. These clauses are generally introduced by bCf<1rfSl' . since,
in the principa l clau se takes a Past Tense m the time clause , su ing that, nmc th(lf, c.g.
H e sold the car browse it tras too small,
Example .•:
S illce;" s/su i" g tlllll/lIou' that] yo" U'0I1' 1 help me, J must do
PRESES T: I like perfect quietness when I am wo, kitlg. A~ you
the job myself.
go out, please close the door. As soon as it is dark, th e light ,
of the t own go on, , Clauses beginning with 115 , since, sui rIg that, usu ally precede
PAST" H e liked perfec t quietness when he U' IIS work ltlg, He the principal clause; those beginn ing with (,ec a ljS~ usually come
u t('r it, e,g.
switclud off t he radio as soon as the jazz mu sic started, As he
urent ou t he slammed th e door.
A s my secretary is airay at p,esorl. I have a gr eat many extra
let ters to answer,
But a Future Tense in the principal clause generally takes a I ha ve a great many ext ra letters to a.nsv..e r ucarlSe m.l-'
Present T ense in the time clause, e go se:rtfa,y is aU',",y at present.
• Alexander Pope {1688- 11141. EU~1 "" C. ;lieis. . . . . • t he forme r sentence t he emphasis is thrown on to t he
• .AI i. llled .... be n ....e ue t bin king 01 th e c~ne ~f an ~t1on. FO~ lth ~: principa l clause : in the la tter it is throw n on to t he ad verb
re&loOO , he ver b in an adverb dall!lO beg ino.n, .... Ith u 1\ genera y I , ause.
the Contin uous 'reese
J~O A CompreholSlI'( E"glish Crammer S ubordi'WIe Clallses

J41
I hid the book 1('5t he shotl/d sec it.
Additional emphasis i.s ~ivell to t he advedbf~:f:::d~~~~~~i
when it is prece ded by It IS, It was, et c.. an , I hid t he book so t hat he should not see it.
e.g. U h I Id lt Wh en the subject of the subordinate clause of purpose is
It was (only) lxcausl the ca r U'as so sm a t at re so the same person or tJling as t he SUbject of t he principa l clause,
In this const ruction. beta u$( must a lwavs
; ~ be used • never as, etc purpose is ofte n expressed not by a clause but by th e intiniti\'c
with 10, in order 10, or so as 10, e.g.
If the sentence had read:
They arc climbing higher to get (i ll order to gd . so ,1$ to gtt)
-! s tht car U'as so snlall he sold it a better view.
t he emphasis on, the reason for h is selling it would not k l \"C I will send him our proposa ls now to gll'f {in Ordt r 10 glt'~}
been SO strong. him time to consider them.
'5)y t:RPOSEI Th ese clauses are usual~r i nt rod~d b~' :'o I~'l! .
'I come to bury Caesar not to praiJt hi m.'!
. "'\or ,tT
In ,. " . and the somewha t archaic lest (m ern. Jor Jta. -( 6) l.:OSCESSIOS (meaning 'I concede tha t . . .', 'I grant
thai ' so that nat). that . . . . ese clauses are introduced generally by llwugh.
Some people eat so that thry may {it'e. although, ti!" 1 thol/g/., occasio nally b y rren if, whern 'tr , U'1lt'ltvtr,
Othe rs seem to live in ori n that they may eat. W tvt r (wit h an adjccti ve), whether . . . or not, no "Inlier
He worked hard so that ht might win the PrlU;,. 1I'helher . .. or not , e.g.
He took his shoes off so Ihat I shollidn'/ hear HII ,. , Though (althOltgh) he tried hard, he was not Successful.
Ili , t his lest )'011 ShOl.ld make 'l mistake (for He did well ill his examin ation, even if he didn't gd a priu .
;e:rmtl~~t l~'~U)-~~lloUIJmake a mistake/so that you should However hard he fr ies, he never seems able to do the work
not m a ke ~ mist ake). satisfactorily.
. . f urpose are in trod uced by lI!at. Wketlur lie works or not , I don 't th ink ho will pass his
\\ lien affirmati ve clauses 0 p J iu ture t ime and mIght examinat ion.
lIl ay is ge.neral.ly used t:
resent (~ ~cluding those introduced
for past time: In negat tv e c 3.uses, . d should for past H'halet'er y Oll may S/lY, I still think I did the righ t thing.
by lest ). shalt is used for present t ime an N o mailer wllt/htr y ou ague or not, I shall pay him the price
he ask s.
nme, e.g, h . 1 et a better
They are climbing higher so that t ey ma) g Quite often, especially in spoken English, the word s, ' I t doesn 't
matt er' introduce a concession, e.g.
I will send him our proposals now. so t Ira t h e m ,_".1have nrne
view.
It dotsn 't matter lehal y ou say, I shall go to the danc e.
to consider them before our met"tmg · .1 be free to go aW 1Y In concessive clauses t hat imply a fact, the verb is in the
He is working late so that he " 1,1)
ta lkative mood ; but sometimes, in concessive clauses tha t
tomorrow. h . ht! get a better view. Ider t o future or presen t time, the subjunctive mood or a
They cl imbed higher so th at t ey "ug h h . Ittt ha\'c IIbjuncti" e equivalent is used , e.g.
I sent him the proposals last week so t at e ill Ig
It would be worth while trying eren thollgh it should 'lot
time to consider them. . hl be free to go ;LW1Y $~cud at once.
He worked late last night so that he ''''g l
'Thollgh y our sins he as scar/ft, the}' shan be white as
tomorrow . snov.·.' (B i ble)
1 In the"" sent e nces u·iII OT C<111 c~u l<.l be
Id used in. t ead o f "' ~.l
be u.al ins te ad uf ..,,;hl
, In the"" se nte nces could or wo ..1 CO LI .
342 A Comprehensive English Grammar Subordi'l<lte Ctal/Sts 343
Other const ruc tions with concessive clauses are: When all adve rb clause of comparison i ~ introd uced bv 'than
Poor as he was ( = though he was poor) he was honest. ibnt' , ShOI/ld is often used as an auxiliary, e.g. .
MlU1I as J admire hi", as a writer (= though I admire him a I would rat her lose t he ch ance of ge tti ng this job thaPl that
great deal) I do no t lik e him as a man . you should ask your brother to recommend me.
Try as he will (try as he may) (= th ough he tries hard], he S othing would please me more OllJPl tllat my daughter shol.ld
never seems able to do the work satisfa ct orily. maTTY}'our son.
F or all that he seelllS so bad-tempered (_ though he seems so
bad-tempered], I still t hink he has a very kind n atu re. i-(8)Vo s PrmriH or( s l' PPOsfTJOs ). which indicate on what
ndition ~ tliiilg happens, h appened or \\;11 happen. These
Th ere is also a construction-s-especially in conve rsat ion-s-in uses are Introduced by t he conjunctions 'f, 'm /t s:s (= if not),
which though comes at the end of the sentence, e.g. ~t; , as long as, or that (aft er sl.pposing, prOt'iatd, on
Henry looks stu pid: he knows mathematics , Ihollgh . dltlon) e.g.
I shall go if he ask:s me.
This is no t a complex sentence so theft: is no t a clau~ of I sh an't go unless he asks me.
concession in it , but though (= nerertbeless, all the sllm e) gives
I shall go, whether he asks ". e or not.
a concessive meaning t o it.
I shall go as long as/p rOt1ded tllat/on condition thallI/tasks lilt .
When t he subjec t of the clau se of concession and the S upposing that lie asks y ou, will you go?
principal clause refer t o the same person , a-ph rase wi th thougll
m ay take the place of HIe concessive clause, e.g. There.is a type of cond iti onal clause, used in sentences of a
;JI"overblal na ture, whe re the condi t ion is expressed in the fonn
Though bea/tn , we were not disg ra ced. :l a command, e.g.
Though no swim mer, Mary splashed abo ut happily in the sea , Give [i.e, if you give) him a1/ illch and he 'll take a yard. I
•••) ) cml PA IOSQS Th ese clauses arc introduced by as (pre- A sk (= if you ask ) lII e 11 0 questions and I will tell you no lies.
cede d y so, sue I, <:I S in the principal cla use). tha n (preceded by Spare the rod and spoil the child . (= it you spa re the rod,
a compara tive in t he principal clause), e.g you will spoil the child.]
Th is work is not so (as ) easy as yOIl thi1lk. For furt her treatment of adverbial clauses of condit ion, see
T hat quest ion was no t such an easy one as [ thought apter Twenty-four.
That question is easier thdn [ Ihollght. ;r(9)( RESULT }A clause of simple result is usually introduced
Anot her type of ~omparatiYe clause has. th,e construc t ion so that, e.g.
'The . . • comparative ... the . . . comparative, e.g. I received my wages yest erday, so thaJ I can now pay what
T he more you work , the mort you earn.' l owe you.
The more he has, the more he wants. He was speaking very quietly, so thut it was difficult to hear
T ilt sooner you finish your work , the S{lO'tltf you will go home what he sa id .
In some proverbial expressions this cons truc t ion has become is construc t ion differs from the similar construction intro-
nry ellipt ical. e.g. tieing a clause of Purpose, in that it is not followed by 'Play,
~jght or sM••ld.
T he more. the merrier. The soone r the be tter.
I Th e u~u.al prov erbial ex pression is ' •.. and he'l take an Ill'. (An
'The me.ning i~. ro u ghly , ' Yo\lr eoo.r ning$ " ill be propo rt ionate t v ....u a n old me Ull.re, in Englalld . , inebet. Or iginally it wu the
your ...." r k ' . 8t h of an ann. Compare Ilbo"" t be 'bo....• or bend in t he u m)

34-1 I A CompTthmsll·t English Grammer S ubordinate C lal lStS 345
,\ clause of result associated with degree is introd uced , silence - - he began t o play . (6) They promised to .)
so . . . tllat, SlIl:J, .•• that or so . .. as to. e.g. ' wai t - - t he clock st ruc k eight, (7) I gave up s tudying
mathematics - it was too difficult a subject (b: ) It
He ran so fast thllt I could n ot catch him. was only - the t rain was la t e t ha t I d id not meet
It was such a warm day 'hat I took off my ja cket . you. (9) He oft en worked late - - he could earn more
W ou ld you be so kind lIS to carry this' m oney. (10 ) I a m posting th is lett er to night - - you
w ill rece ive it in t he morning . (I I ) _ she may have
EXE RCISES told you. I still th in k he is not t o be trust ed . (12 ) The
expense may be justi fiab le - it don 5C\"m ex-
I Pick out the ad verb clauses in the following se n ten .e, cessive. (13) ) {lIch - I en joy his lec t ures his manner.
and say what type o f adver b clause ea ch one is; isms rrrrtate me. ( q l - we we re very tired after t he
(I) When we arrived at the JootLal l field the gam e ~,~" Journey. we we re in good spirits, (15) The oral examina-
started. (2) R ich ard le ft d ir t)" Ioo t ma rks wherever h t ion was not $0 great an urdealc-c-c-, r had [eared . ( 161
went. (3) K ick the ball hard. as Richard did . (4) DCI.: - - th a t my expenses are paid I shall he wil1 i:ll: t o
handle th ose cups a nd sauce rs as if they were m ace r..: attend t he con ference. ( 171 You ca n co un t on h im to d o
iron . (5 ) I am standing where I ca n sec t he game '.. t he job exac t ly - you want it <lone. (18) _ the
You can't co me into this room wh ile we are havffiJ; a money does no t arrive in time, how will you pay YUlir
lesson. (7) As won as t.he hays ca m e in to the room t ll ~ landl ady? ( 191 I shall use th is money exactly - - I
noise st arted. (8) Use the paint-brush as I sh owed )"(1" like. (20) Those books 'mnl be found _ t he)' are.
yesterday. (9) E very where I looked t here were dirt y
Iootmar ks. (10) Ou r frtends had a rrived when we fM III Add ad ve r b cla uses to t he following m ain clauses. as
hom e ( ul I need ,~ hammer and Ila~ls. because I ~Ia indicated :
going t o repair the shed, (12) We couldn't. p~ay the ( I ) H e work ed . , . (M au>ltT)
match . because the !OK was t oo thick. (r J) W e shall (2) . . .• please come a nd call OIl me. (T i ",e)
co me an d see you , if we have a holiday. (1.1) Al~h Oll Sb (J) ., you ca nnot a fford to slac k. (CarlSt)
it was rather foggy , we played th e match . (15) \\ c ~ IHi.ll (4) You don 't wan t t o go . ,., d o yo u? (P hlu)
play the match , even t hough it is rather foggy . (16) \\e (5 ) He refused t o have cit-stoves in his hous e ... (Ca i/,'e )
had to cancel tl,e match, bec ause It was so f(jg ~ )", (6) ., ., it is bett er t o have it. just in case. (Col1ct Hion )
(17) Mr s . Brown lock ed the cupw ard. so th at Richard (7) . . . , you r conscience will leave you no peace.
should net take t he cakes. (18) I will tell you th e secr et (Collct.ui onr
if you w o n't tell it to anyone else. (19) II you ..... 1:1 tell (8) . ,." I shall write to him t omorrow. ( PUTPOSt )
me t he secret, I won't tell it to anyone else. (0: 0 ) Iller (9) , there is no need for rud eness. (C ol/ct.ls ioll)
went swimming. although the sea ..... as v ery t ou gh . (11) ( 10) , you wou ld not be so rude. (Con ditio,, )
He t old me the: secret so tha t I sh ou ld help him ( I f) I t 's as b road (Co", p a, iso n)
(21) ~1rs . Brown locked the cu pboan J. because she di,;n: ( I:!) I t "s not so cold (Co", p aTison)
want Richar d t o take t he cakes . (13\ There was a storm that nig h t such .. . before nor
II Complete the following se ntences by put t m g con' . . . since. (Co", p aTiso,,1
j unct ions in t he vacan t spaces and , at the .end of e~ (1.4) "[ary is cfc ve re r . , , ( Coonpa ,i~o >l)
sent ence. say what kind of ad verb clause IS ernplo) ed ( rS) The sooner he get s ou t o f tha t habit, . , , (C('m "
in it , pariso,,)
( 1) H e d id his wor k - he t horou gh ly w jo:"ed i;. (16) I would rather come a nother day than t ha t
(Coonpariso,,)
('J - - I have finis hed my university st udies I Sh~ (t 7) , he will go ou t tomorrow . (Co" ditio"l
spend a year in travelli ng . (3) Pu t those books b~
im medi&t1lly-theybelong. (-4) We to?k ~ lot o f pl:otO~ (18) he wou ld go ou t t omorrow . (Condition )
_ we we re in S wiberland , (51 The pianISt wa. ted fo; ( 19) . . .• he would have gone Ollt yesterday . (CondiliOIl)
(lo) You can do what yo u like .. . (Conditio 'l)

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A Comprehensive English Grm>!mM
34 6
IV Pic k ou t t he adverb a nd ad jective clauses in t he
following passage, a nd classify them: C 1C\P TEH T W E :\ T Y - F O U I ~
D. was a t all boy who had ou tgrown his strength and
lIad no brains. Wh e ne ve r he was asked a q ues tion. he
would sa y. 'E T . . -: as he never had t he least idea wha t
[C O ~ D I TI OI\ :\ L CL A USE S)
the answer w as . One day , d uring a Gene ral K nowled ge Condit iona l clauses a re of t
lesson , th e master had a li t tl e jo ke w ith him. I n order form and meaning of t he \ \' ? kinds, dist ingllisllcd bv t h e
that he might give D . an op por tu ni ty t o answer a t least between t hem is impor t a nt principal clau se, The difference
one question, he pointed t o him and asked him t o nam e-
Abrah a m 's b ir th place. Though D., as usual, had n ' t t he
least idea, he repl ied q uite corr ectl y. ' Ur' , which was
no more t ha n his usual 'Er .. .' ,
, ( T v pe I : QpEN Coxo rnoxs \
Anoth er habit by which D . will be reme m bered w as T y pe I IS represented by sentences like :
h is fond ness for rid ing hi s bicy cle ui> and dow n t h e
High Street, w here he co uld he seen by large n umb ers
of the school. He wo uld ride a t fa ntastic speeds, as
Z£:I;~~lo:::p~a;:I~~[\~2 s: ~\~:l~xamination ,
though his life were at stake; his sol e object , howeve r, Unless the rain
I! . h SlOps I sh all not g 0 for· a walk
was t o see how many electric li gh t bulb s he could break yOIl are n g t, t hen I am wrong, '
throu gh a n over_~encration of elec t ricity from the h u b The position s of the clauses b
d yn amo. The faster h e rode, the more success he had in if-cla u se is placed first it i~ r tt can e reversc~l, When t he
breaking bulbs, N o boy I e ver k new w as q uit e so stup id , '_ a lcr m ore em phat ic
or , in his way, so mem orable , If he were no t so stup id, I will help him 1/ h e as ks m e. -
I' d say h e m ust now be a raci ng-motor ist ---or a n I won 't help h im u-nless he as ks tile
archaeologist! wili d o t he work l! (P r Ol 'l·dcd Illal
He ti" ' · lon condition Ihal) he has
the
V Const r uct ten sentences each con ta ining all adverbi a l
clause int roduced by a word or ex press ion fro m t he ".
All these sentences ca nt' . di .
following list, a nd a t the e nsI of eaclcsentence name th l< be fulfilled , Thus the rain al~aa c~n ItlOl.l that mayor may not
kind of ad verbial clause it contains: work or lie may not' y s oP. or it m ay not ; john may
as, t ho ugh , as soon as , fo r fear t ha t , however , seeing
sent ences do not sa; ~~~tmay be right or ~ou may not . T he
that , o n conditio n that, in order to, no m a tter , t he
less ,' .. the less,
realized ; t hey do not st ate t:
~~ndltlOn \~'llJ or will not be
will (or will not) work or thatl;o lC ra(lll WIll stop, t hat J ohn
•
conditions in t hese sentenc~s ar: , are ?r arde .no t) wrong. T Ill:'
l
" open can m ons
[ TE S SES USE D I N O PEN CO " DITlO" S I

"conAdtgreat
.
mons,
many co m b!ma t rons
e,g.
. of tenses m ay be'- u; cd III
. open
€I P resen t Tense in ',j' T elise itj

ctaust' il lain clause
I You arc figh
If . t I am wrong. Present
f you help me I wi ll help vcu. Future
m
A Compr ehe1ls1u Eflglish G rlllllJlJ()r CO lld itiUJlIIl Clauses 34()

FOlSe i n G OTd T he f n tur e. Tense cannot be used in the If clause
Pre sent Tense in '1/' even when the meanmg IS future , e,g.
clause •\[,1111 clU lI.I,'
Future Perfe n J sha ll go for a wa lk If tIll' rain ,i'ilf 5t0 [1. (\\'IW SG)
If 1 get this right, I shall have answered
I sh all go for a wa lk if the rain slops. (RIGHT)
every question correctl y .
If what you say is right , t hen what I said Past If ill is ~mlr poss ible in such rases if It is used to express not
was wrong. future time but willingness, e.g.
If you meet Henry , tell him I want to sec I mperative If yO'll iritl sign this agreement , I ii'ill let you han the money
him . at or n-e.
If vou sh ould' mee t Hcurv, tell him I want I mper ati ve
~ ~
This could be expressed rat her more indircctjv diffidently or
to sec him. politely with u'ollld: -,
If th e ~rounJ is very dry, don' t forge t to Impe rat ive
wa te r those plants. If you wou ld (It'01//d he so kind as t o/l('oIl1d be kind enough
If he should come , please give him t his I mperative to) sign this agreemen t . I wi ll let you have the money at
once
book.
If you should be passing, do come and see
us,
Imper ati ve
m,peID H\'POTIlETlL\L CO:->DtTIOSS, SUPl'OSlTlO~S
If the train should be late, what will you Future The following arc ex amples of Hy pothet ical Conditions;
do? If H en ry lu re here, he wo uld know the answer,
The form with should (i.c. should + infini tive.wit h?ut to) ,is If I ha d the m Ol l e....., I would buy a new ca r,
u sually used when some course of action is ~ o be env l sage~ 1)1 'If w ishes tI'ere horses , beggars would ride .'
cer tain possible fu ture c i rc ums ~ anc es , It. IS thus most tre- If I If'ere King, you shoul d be Quoon .
que ntly employed when the mum clause'is a command or a III this type of sen tence, too. t he clauses may be reversed , e g.
question.
r would buy a new car If I had the money.
o Past Trnse in 'ij'-clause Tense in
su.« clause ~ch sep t ences make a hypothesis which 'may be contrary to
act or Ju st somethin g not t hough t of as a tact . 'If Henry \\'C1'e
•
If I said that, I apologize. Present bere , . .' implies tha t he is not he re: 'If I had the moncv'
I f I sai d that, I was mistaken . Past :mplies t hat I have no t the m oney . Or t hey may Imply a doubt:
If I made a mistake , I will try to remedy it. Future ,If J ohn wor ked hard he would pass the Examination' suggests
, . , but I am do uhtful whether he wi ll work hard .'
P resent Perfect T ense in 'If '-cli/llse Tense 11; I ~ sen!ences of T ype II (Hy poth etic al Condi tio ns) th e past
.\ [aill c!,ws,' 'cbjunc t tve is used in tile 'if ' d am e and "Mild or shm'/d ·f t hl'
Future nfillitivc arc used in the main clause. Sentences 01 t lLis kind
If I have made a mistake, I will try' t o aay refer to present time, past time or futnre time,
remedy it ,
If you have done your work.you ma y go to Presen t )(P UI' SE NT T f\\J. j
the cinema. If H m ry were here, he would kn ow th e answer.
~
' Th is SCrlterlCC (",nh should ) , ug ges ts [l rat Ile r mo rc ren Iv'I e pos'i
." b,I;'.\'. If I had the m Olley , I shoul d buy a new car.
t ll a " thc prc~'ious cue. follow us on facebook: facebook.com/CSSTimes
A C01llp1ehmsivt English Gramm ar Co nditional Clau ses

35° 35'
If the grass needed cutting, I would cu t it. \ V,e can sum . .rnarize the verb
'" f arms in se n tenc es o f Hypo-
th e t lea I Con d ition like th is: """ v
If the hat slIited me, I would buy it.
Despite the Modal Preterite terms were, had , needed, suited,
the se sen tences express a pRES ENT condition (see page 161). Verb i ll 'if ' claus e V frb in ,l! lI i 11 cl,lIIse
They mean: ' If H enry were here sow .. .' 'I f I h ad the money
sow . . .' 'If the grass needed cutting sow .. .', etc. P l< ES J-::-': T Simp !: P ast Ten se (or uonld (ShOldd) I +
TI)I E Su bjuncti ve) Lo re infin iti n ',
-(b)( PAST T[~I E\
PAST TI~rE Past Perfect Tense
He re are sentences expre ssing hypothe t ical condi t ions in the 'tI'ollld (sJwlIld) I hm'",
past time. You will note that in these t here is usually an + past par ticiple.
impl ied negative,
' If J ohn had worked h ard' (in th e PAST) 'he would have passed F L: T URE A; foe P resen t T im e would (should)' +
the ex aminati on.' (Im plied ,V egalive : . . but he didn 't TIM E (oft en wi th a t ime bare infinitive .
adverb or ph rase)
work hard). OR:
'If you had asked me' (in the l'AST) 'I woul d hll1'( helped you ',
[". .. bu t you didn' t ask roe'} .
weT(: to + bare infini-
'If I had had the money' (some years ago) 'I wou ld have
tive
bought a bigger house' (. .. 'bu t 1 hadn't the money').
'If the hat had suited me' (when 1 saw it in t he sh op yes-
terday) 'I would hat-·( bought i t.'
' I should never have done that work , if you had 1101 helped me .'
, IC~N DITIONS EXPRE SSE D BY I l-i VE RSIO N )
\ \'hen the if clause con tain I ..
'If you had n't told me abou t It, 1 mighl never have gOlle t o had or should it ca be S one 0 the a uxiliary verbs wen
inversion of v~rb an~ CUb~ePtlaced by a clause without 'if' by
see it.' ~ jec, e.g.
W ere John here now (= if J ohn .
..(Cl ! F UT U RE T1~IEJ explain the wh ole mat t were here now) he would •
The idea of fu tu rity in hypot hetical co ndi tions is often W er.
ere ou r t rain to a rrive p t II
expres»cd by the same construc t ion as is used for the present , ti me to visit your sister. IInC ua y at I2-45 , we should have
sometimes with a time adverb or phrase, e.g.
If Richard worked hard next term , he would p ass the ~~~\~~.u (= i/ you had) asked me, I would have told you the
examination. I will ,go , should it be (= if 'J it should be) neceSSll ry.
If you went there , you would see wh at 1 mean.
But futurity in the 'if'-c1ause is frequently expressed by uere . ~
~ ormally $It.Q1<ld is used 0 111 '0
bu t shQ1</d may be used wi" Y,', t he rat perso n singula r a nd plur"d '
to + infi nitive, e.g.
]P
' nmIse,
. d ete emtua
'
n on , e tc] l or0whler
i hpehl1/
rson s t o e
.
. . "
xpress spe.:; Ia] Ide as
What would you say if I were 10 tell. you th at Mary is goin g t he exa mp le o n p age 34g-'If r " C S ~ Is used(see p p. 163_51. Not e
W ou ld may be us ed in an y p er so n, ere Ki ng, you .• It.Q"ld be Q ueen . '
to be married?
If our train e ere to arrive punctually, we should have time
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A Com p rchensi,'c E ngli sh Gr<ll!lnti.l r Conditimlal Clausrs

Iuno th e co u n try ' omo rrow if I (he ) 353
E XERClS b rave gon e IIlt<'fnre co t _ you , (8) I should
v I ' 11' un 'y yesterday if it (be ) flfle
1 Co mp lete t h e followi ng sentences with th e c orr ec t II ,l u\ ses wh er e it is p ossible . .
foll owin g co n d it io n a l s t . to dn so , rc-wrtt e t he
ten se of t he v erb in b rackets. are "hy po thct rc af' en enccs so fl oat the co nd it ions
(1) If you a re kin d t o m e 1 - good to y o u [be}.
(2 ) If I ~ th is ti m e I sh all have complet ed t he ( ~) ICe mel ts ] f yo~ th row sal ' .
lee w, ll melt if y ou thru w :a~~tolt. ( I ) ThIs sheet of
e x amin a tion . (succeed ) (3) If you r statenlt:nt is corr ec t t his today, I shall h ave ke ,' ,:n It , (J) If I fin ish
wh a t he _ me IS Ilntrue . (t ell) (4 ) If you - tan has arrived we can ~ t m} prcrmse . (4) If t h e
willing t o go, so _ I. (be) (5) I w ill pay him well if then , it IS not sonow (6) 1~ ,II once (5) If that was so
he _ _ t h e w ork properly . (d o) (6 ) If I rea lly - t ha t m his room
,
'00' t h' ,
' ..." e mg was \.
you found that he was no t
I am vcr y sorry. (s ay) (7) II y ou - - t h a t y uu - \\'Ill be a ll r ight if yo u t a ' vro n g . (7) Everything
th e book by mis take I shou ld h a\'c u n d ersto od , (sa y, (8} If h e really did do it lid\ c ,dOl;,e as you were to ld ,
take) (3) II I d id b u r t his feeli n gs 1 - to expla in to t o do With him (9) I f J' on t \\ Ish to ha\'e any thin "
1,iIn (t ry) (9) If he h a s lo st th e key h e - - to buv , , ames m ade ' -"
It was an unin tention al a mista ke, I am s ur e
a n o th e r one. (have} (TO) If y ou - you r h om ework nustake when work- one, (10) If James made a
yOIl lIla y go o u t . (fin ish) ( I I) I I you - me a t th e eff C(; t s 0 f h is m istak eIllg
time I should h a v e under stood at once. (t e ll) (12) I w 'Uout
. hIS prob lem, IIlen the
VI l h I soon show t h emselves.
sh ou ld alwa}'s h a v e d o ne tha t if tb e v - it at t11 e
start , (e xp la in) (n) \ \'e _ much ear lie r if we had
nlepast
{ Yes t erd ay
•
{ t" o~ .
cc a y
{tn . Ihefulu re
t omorrow
k n own t he t imes of th e trams , (go ) (14 ) T hey w ou ld
n o t h ave gone to that uotci d t hey - it s p r ices. Esac I1 of th e fo llowin
stands, one of t h e at! scndtences co u ld inc lu d e. as it
[know] ( t 5) l Ic . _ his chi ldr en abroad fo r the ,en en ee. !inclu d in g thxrv c. a ve rbs o f tim e. \\' rr te each
sentenco
summer if h e _ the mon ey , (se nd, hav e) (T h ree • . h on e with t h
..ac Ihe rime-adver b , and th en re-w ri.te
for m s p oss ihle ) rna kimg any c h a enge 0 s er n two
. . . a dverb . s , w 11 ere p ossible,
II Ex p la in full y , \n th o n e exam p le of e ac h. the term s exercise h as been partl ~es~arfY ' fo h e lp von, the
O pe n Cond it ion and Hy poth\:ticai COlt<:h tioJ\, • ( I) If t ,. '", - y one or t h e first sentence
I IS li ne (t oday) I an mg .
I II Add to each o f t h e fo llowin g w h a t IS neces sary t o make gu ing o u t' or 'sh.:d l 'g o o\; t'1o a lit (or 'sha ll be
a complete sentem;e of each o n e, ,:ontain ing a clau~ of If! t h a d been fme-y esterd'ay I _ .. .
hypotheti~al con dit ion : If It IS fine tom o rrow, I _ _ ' •
(I) If I w\:re Ch a nc ell or of the Ex ch eq uer, (2} If he h a d (2) It
th e choice o f a career (3} If I ha d m ore tim e t o sp a re . fog woul
g y , d no t Iraa've h ee» so b ar!. if it h a dn 't bee n
(4) I sh ou ld lik e t o go to t h e thea tre to night. (5) If b e (3) We sh o uld be ve ] ,
took more trouble over h is wor k . ( ~}
If he came I sh~ YII; ~ased If y ou would come ,
I If Compl e t e t he foll o wing se ntences by p u tt in g t he (5) 'ret me if Y OIl waun~ t ~e v e ry s u r prised,
b ra ck e ted mfinitives III the corr ec t tense . (6) If yo ur behav iour <10 ' ,
yoursel f wit h IU' frie~~ not Imj![()\'e, y o u \\'111 fin d
(I) Y ou cau go wh e rev er you (lik e) , (2) \\'11e1l yo u V IT s.
(fin ish) y our g ame, w ill YOIl please h a ve a word w it h Express t he fo llow , - - ,
gra n d m a , (3) You h a d be tter prep " re for fail u re, in and add a '0'· I lllg a s co ndition s wi t h o ut usi ng 'It'
n a m cau se '
o rd er th at y OlJ (not be d isa p po inted ) la t er. (4) Nothing ( I) If my pareuts we re' on ly h ere
is more cond u civ e to u nhappiness t han t h a t a man
(fa il) to r ealize himse lf com ple t ely. (5) If you ( tl ,row) a
( I) If!
h ad been war ned -
stont: into a tank o f water it (sin k). (6) I am goin g int o (3) If : t sh ou ld b e ad visa b l~
(4) If It were not! t h ' ..
t h e coun t ry t o m on ow j f it (be) fine . (7) I sh ou ld go (5) If it wer t ?r e e xpense in vo lved
... e 0 ram .. .
,
3S,t A ComprehellSIi-'C E1zglish Gramma r

VII I E xpr ess t hese stntences III another w ay without usm :;
ClIAPTlH< T\\'E:-': TY-FIVE
if: ' t i m e dout worry. p ) If yo.r
I'
{r } II y ou haven t got id "t ( ) I' Jl h el p you If yo" \ AX.\ L YS I S OF S E:-':TE:\,CEsl
nsked him.Tte migh t coust er rc. 3 b"k ()IIJam b
haven ' t Icund it by t he trrne hI c(>1~~~ Ida L " "'c~e e<.l at I t '
,
t ook up ac ung ,
I ' m sure e v;v u ~u
, Jd not beha ve '
To ana lyse a complex serrtenre, that is to break it up into it
(5) If he were a u honourable man·lhC '-'ou to h im '1'11 1 ('ompolwnt parts ,1II d to sl-ow the mutual rr-lation s of t ho-,,'
16) If au see fum ' .,r emem ier me .
ld have gone If we had
' pa rts, g i n' ~ I'ractic1'ln t he H'cognizing of the various ty pes 0 (
ythu ? (7) N•eiyther a f us \\()u
o us. clauses. Tile number of clauses in a pass01ge for analysis cal ,
k n ow n how unwelcome we were. he ascertained by counting the number of Jinite verbs in it
IX Co rrect or improv e t he follo win g se ntcTl.ecs: 1' 1 I ' E ach clause contains OTIC finite verb. so if we know tile numhc
'I
( 1) If I s hould be rrc 1.
I WOll 1<.1 buy aI CadLllae.
hall be gladl
d
, of tin ite ve rbs we kn ow t he number of clausr«.
it would be fin e, I should go °lllt: (I'll 'I~thershoul d UC It is often easier to recognize subordinate clauses tha n th c
' dl I . rd some sampics. 4 I " principal clause. Th e student th erefore may find it a help t o
you kin y orwa d {) "[o th er wou ld b e
glad if y ou k indl y closed t he oor 'd~~ (6) Un less he pick out and draw a line through all the subordinate clauses
too h o t if y o u '."'o u ld close ht~l~vi1l get wet. (7) I ha d what is left will be the principal clause. The followi ng example
d oes n't pu t on h is rain coat be ed me not to, will sho w th e usual method of setting out a passage for analySIS
done it, if my fa th er had, ~o~ dis~~rhance like t h e
(8) If y ou would h ave orea e Analyse the following:
ot h era, you, t OO , had been arre sted.
-l I ~ Th e boy, who was crying as if his heart would break, sa id
when I spoke to him, that he was hungry because he ha d
had nothing to eat for two davs
I
Kind of
•
ClauS(
do use
Fun efi on I
The hoy said Prtm-ipal
-
makes a I
,
-who was erv ing Adjcctive
statement
'ilJall lics 1my
I.
- -mc difies
as if his heart would break Adverb
--
when I asked h im
- -
(.'fanne r)
-- ''-·,IS crylllN I
Ad verb modifies ,
-t hat he was hungry (Time)
- - -N Olin silid
-Obji'U--- -- 1
I
{If
i
eat for two days
-
hc ca u se Le had had notJl ing to
/- ---
..\, h·erh
(Heason)
Sdld
ruo di fa-s
IlImgry
,

355
INIS
J
I.
,
f Visit www.csstimes.pk to download more E-Books /IJlal}'sls uf Sentences
__ , , _ , ~ 357
356 A Comprehensi1t English Gramma r - -- , '---;---;- - - ,
-{2rlf it were not for this perpet ua l imitation , we should be
tempted to fancy that children de spised us outright OT
only considered us in the light or creatures brutallv
strong and brut ally silly, among whom they cond; .
scended to dwell in obedience, lik e a philosopher at a
barbarous cour t.
Kind of F un ction
Clause clause I
we should be t empted to fancy P rincipa l makes a

statement
if it were not for t his perpetual Adverb modifies

imi tation (Cond it ion) should be
lempted
t hat children despised us out - Xoun ob jec t olin , .

-- - - - . ..
r igh t f ancy
or only considered us in t he Noun Obj ect o f 10

l ight of creatures brutally [ancy
, -
strong and brutally silly
among whom they conde-

•
Ad jec tive q ual ifies

,
~
- I~
o
0
~
.,
sccnded to dwell in obedience, (features - •
like a philosopher
barous court
a bar-
, e -" "
~ ~
" ~
•
""
-
,
, ,, ,
,
• " , , ,• " , , ]
" ," " "0 "c
If a 'full ' anal ysis is required . the above two passa ges could be , ~
ij < < ~
-a "0 " ""
- " , .:> ., "z ~
-a B "e -~ ,
~
t r-eated like this: " Ii
a
"
E - E ~
I ~
,
-e
,0 -~.
0
"~
~
,
, ," . ,,
,"e-' zc ",c •
, ,
", ,, - , "2
0
;E ~
, -e < co
,
' -, ,
est-•
" ,, E ," ;,; •"
-" •
,
ii ~'-
, •, I
~
~
-
s
-
0 ""."" ,
.0: -=
0
- 0
"
0~"
iJ I
AlIillY~'is of Smfmces
359
EXEHCISES
r What do you u nderstand by:
( I) a complement. (2) an adverbIal adjunct, (3) function,
(4) a dausC'. (5) subjoct. (6) predicate. (7) object.
J I Analyse the full owing passages indicating only the
d a u ses , tJWft kind awl t heir function:
( I) The pirates, who had hidden the treasure on the
island , went back again because t ht"y th ough t that
l!l\~y <.: ' ''dd IIOW remove It with salety.
(~) Richard, t hough he had no t previously answcrtxl any
q uestio n s when th e teacher asked him, now said that
he knew the answer to th is cue b ecause it was in the
lesson that he had just read.
(J) when the teacher asked whar pa rt of speech a word
, , was, john said, ' I can tell you t h <;: answer, II y ou w ill
" " give me a sentence HI wh ich t h e word is used' ,
(I) James controlled 11lmsclf, for he did not want to
,,• betray his surprise, and hrs whole fut ure d e pe n d ed

"" S' l\XCSS at this illlel' vicw,
(5) The bells, which had been silent fo r so lo n g, pealed
o ut to anno unce that a n heir had at la s t be en born,
((,) Xichcias and lois wife, th oll gh they were h itterl y co ld ,
rCllla in cd to cheer with the t housand s tha t had
ga thered in front o f the palace gates.
(7) As dawn a p pr oa c h ed , t h e sky grew red, t he crow d s
became qui etCI-, the Cold was making Itself felt
somcwllat less aCli tely, and an a tmos phere o f steady
calm replaced tl le l." xtremes of indifferen ce on the on e
hand and uncontrolled abandon on th e o th e r. •
{Ii} 'Though fond of many acquainta n ces , I d e s ire an
llltimac y onl y with a fe w. The :'Ilan in Bl ack , whom
r have o ft e n ml."ntioned, is o n e wh o se friendship
I cou ld wish to acquire , bceal,se h e possesses my
esteem ,'-Oliver Goldsmith, T he ,Hall i " B lack.
(9) ' T h is auth ority of t he Knight , tllOugh exerted in that
odd m a n n e r wh ich aCCompames him in a ll tbe
c irc u m s t a n ce s of hfe, has a very good eff ec t u p on t he
parish, wh o are n ot p olite en o ugh t o see an ythin g
ridiculous in his beha~·io\lr.'-J osc ph Addison ,
Sunday." the Cou ntry.
(10) Amon g the many t rib utes p aid to him was one wh ich
said his services t o the fr ee worl d had heen incnf,
cula b le ,

A Comprchensi~'e English Grammar

3f~
( II) ' In spite of thi~ . how ever, m ost of us can no t hel p
belie ving t ha t t he philosoph ers were n gh t - rigl,t
when they proclaimed. amid a ll t heir differences,
th at mos t of the things we bot her about are n ot
wor th bothering about. It is easier t o believe that _ ,CH APT E R TWE:-'TY ~ SIX
oneself is a foo l than that Socrates was a foot and
yet, if he w as not right. he must have been t he
greatest fool who e ver lived . The tru th is , that e very-
I D IRECT AN n T ~ D IRE C T SP EECH I
body is agreed that such m en as Socrates an d
E p ictet us were right in their indiffe rence t o external In ~ir.ect, speech we, have the exa ct words of the speaker, e g ,
th ings. ' ~ : S;ll,(~' I am learnmg ~ng1ish' . J,n indirect or reported s peech
Rober t Lynd, On not bel1Jg 1I p hilo5 0p"er . e gtvo the same meanmg bu t Wit h a di fferen t form, so that
(12) Avenge, 0 Lord. thy s tau gh tcr cd sain t s , wh ose bones the words spoken arc incorporated into tile structure of the
L ie scattered o n t he Alpine m o unta ins co ld; m a in sentence, e.g.
Even t he m who kep t thy t ru th so pu re of old, - Direct : 'J am learning English, '
When all o ur fa t hers worshipped st ocks an d sto nes
Forget not: in t hy book rec ord t heir groans _ l udlreet : He said that he was learning E nglish ,
\Vho were thy sheep, and in t heir ancien t fold The difference between t he two forms is show n by the tense
Slain by t he bl ood y Piedmon tese, t ha t ro lled of the verb, ~ogeth~r \\:ith changes in the person of tile pronouns
Mother with infant d own the rocks. Their m oans and possessive adj ectIVes and of certain words th at denoted
The vales red oubled t o the hills, a nd t hey 'ne arness' in the d irect form. These latter may be replaced by
To Heaven. Th eir martyred blood a nd as hes sow
word,S sugges,t ing 'remoteness' (in t imc and place). There are
O'er all t he Italian fields, where still doth sway
The tr iple Tyrant: that from t hese may grow also In some instances changes in word order.
A hundredfold, who, h a ving' lea rn t Thy way , The verb or verbs that were in the present tense in di rect
Early may fly t he Babylo nian woe. ~pe ec h are, generall y (bu t not always} replaced bv correspon d-
Milt on (1608-74), all tile late M ossacre in P lf d»lonl , Ing ve rbs m the past tense. The changes are: -
G} (ClI A:\'G ES 1:-1 VERBS )

•
Te nse Tfll .l (
-
PH ES E :\'T s n lPL E I T' AST sniP! ,':
I'RESE 1'> '1' CO )l;Tl" L'O us PAST CO~Tl Xl'Ot'S
PRESE :\'T P ERF I:;C T PAST P E RFECT
PAST snll 'LE PAST J'FRFE CT
UCl;OIJ1CS
F UT n <E TEl'SE} {Fl!'fl' IlE I:\' T HE PAST
shall and will
COS J)ITIOX AL i~dlOlIld and icould
PE RFE CT
CO:\'D1TIO:-lAL

3b:.: Visit www.csstimes.pk to download more E-Books
A Comprehensive English Grammar
Examples.' Direct and In di rect Speak " 63
-
0'
DI RECT; 'Fools rush in where a ngels fear to tread .'

DIRECT I~DIj{ECT
(Alexander P ope)
I~DIR ECT ; Pope sai d t h a t fool s rush in wh ere angels f m r to
He said thai:
tread . ~
I ioritc home every week. he wrole home e very week.
Il!HECT; T he sun i. 92 mi llion mil es aw ay.
I go to my class every day . he wenl to his class every da y
I~J)J REC T : Ill' said th a t t he sun is qz million m iles nwav .
I am learning English. he was learning E nglish .
I The Present Tense may be used a lso wi th a statement ex-
I ltave learned E nglish . he had learned English.
I shall see her in Lon don , he wOIII,], see her in London. pressing a repeated or h a b itual act ion , e.g,
DIREC T: I ge t up at seven o'clock every m orning.
r have bun p/ayi'lg foot- he had been playing football.
I X DlR.ECT: H e sa id th at he gets up at seven o'cl oc k cverv
ball.
be had written a letter t o h is mornmg.
I urou a letter t o my
DI REC T: My wi fe al wa ys drinks roffee for breakfast.
brother , brctlier.
IND IRECT: He said that his wife always dritlks coffee [0'
I can spea k Germ an . he could speak German,
he might be able to go, breakfast .
I may be able to go.
I don' t write every week . he didll'/ u rite every wee k. 0 CHA NGE S IN PRO!'>· OUNS \
I d01/' / go to my class every he did/ j" go to his class every
T he pro nouns and possessive adj ectives generally ch a nge as
day. day. follows:
If I had my pen , I could If he hi/d had his pen, he could
u rite the answers. have '(£iriltfll the answers , I D IR ECT IND IRECT
I , me my, nunc 11e (sh e}, his (he r). hers

I n sh ort , in t hc examples so far considered, t he reported ver b hi m (her) his
goes one step into the pas t . If the verb if! the principal clau sc we, us our, ours they, t hem the ir , the irs
is in the Present Tense, Present Con tinuous Tense, P reset
Perfect Tense or Future Tense, t he verb in t he reporte d " you your. yo urs th ey , them their, t heirs
I
sentence will not change, e.g.
Examp les: •
DIREC T: 'This work is too difficult. '
DIRE CT I ND IR ECT
IXUIHE CT: He SllyS
He is saying (that) th is work is too d 1iffrcu1t . I hring my book every day ; He said that hl' brough t his
He has said t he book on the desk rs book every day; the book on
He will say /n in e. the desk was his.
Note that 'inverted commas' (quotation marks) are not use d She said that she hrought 11,'r
in indirect speec h . book c\'ery day; the hook on
whe n the sentence expresses a fact that is supposed t 0 the des k was hers.
he unive rsally true and not meld" applicable to th e t ime wh oH tve bring ow books every They said that Ihey brough t
the st at ement was made, the Pre~ent Tense may be used i n day; the books on the desk their boo ks every dav: the 0
reported speech, e.g.
o
are oro-s. book." on the desk were /l1f·in.

0 ______ , ____

-
364 A Comp rehensiv e E nglish Gramma r Visit www.csstimes.pk to download more E-Books
But t hese pronou ns and possessive a djectives ma y vary Direct ami Indirect Speech
according to circumstance. Common sense will d~te rmlil e
whic h pronouns should be used . F or examples consider t he DIRECT 1:>IlIRECT
following situations :
TEACHER: John, y ou must bring your book t o t he class. I will do it hac a nd 1101<" . He sa id he would do it there
WILLIAM (reporting this to someone else): The teacher t old /
and then,
John t hat he must bring his book to the class. George said, 'This is the George said t hat that w as the
WILLIA~1 (remin ding J ohn of the teacher's orders): T he teacher house whe re Shakespeare house where Shakespeare had
said that you must bring y our book t o the class. . was born .' been born .
J ORS (reporting what t he teacher had sai d): T he teac her said
that I must bring my book to the class.
Note t hat if th e princ ipa l cl au ~e gon rning t ilt, direct speech
cla use does not come a t th e lwginning of a sen tence , the vcrh
ITITM'? T HE R CII ASGE S]
generall y comes befo re t he subject Compare t he example
Words denoting 'nea rness' bec ome the corresponding word s gi ven above and t he follow ing two versions:
denoting remoteness: 'Thi s,' .I' llid (;"O YKf , 'is IIll' 11<1\IS(' wlun- Sh:l kl'spt':m' \l' a ~
this that born '
these t hose 'This is t he house wh ere Shakespl'a re was horn,' said Cco-ge.
here t here
now
ago
becomes
then
before
IINllIHECT \lUESTIO:\ S I
today t ha t day All t he examples given abo ve a re of statements; bu t t he
tomorrow t he next day cha nges in ten se, pronouns, c tc., noted when direc t speech
yesterday the previous day: t he day before be come s indirect speech apply al so t o q ues tion s and com mands.
•
Bu t wit h t hese t here are additional point s to note. wben a
For example: • direct ques tion is t u rned into an indirect q uestion:
1. The int er roga t ive construc ti on of ti le d irect ques tion is
DIREC T I ~ DI RE CT re placed by t he stat eme nt construct ion in t he indirect q ues-
t ion . So do (does, did) of the di rect speech is no t used in t he ..
ind irec t q uestion.
I saw t he boy here in this He said t h at he h ad seen t he
boy there, in that room that day, 2. T he verb that introduces t he indirect ques tio n is ask ed
room today . (or some simi lar verb, e.g, enquired, wondered , uumtcd to knOll!
I will see these boys HOlI-'. He sa id he would see those
according t o the sh ade of meani ng to be ex pressed ).
I spoke to them yfsterday . bovs then. He h ad spuken t o 3· T he connective joining t he indirect q uestion t o t he
th~m the day hefore, princi pa l clause is If or whe/her,l exce pt whe n t he direct
I will teach the sa me lie said tha t he would teach question had been on e heginni ng ~I'i th an interrogative such as
lesson tomorrow that I the same lesson the next day trh or It'hat,) why? ctc., in which case t h is interrogative is t he
taught t wo days ago. t ha t h e had t aught two days connect ive . Some e xa mples will make t hese points dear, Xot c
before. part icularly the change of word order from tile interroga tive
const ruct ion to the sta tement construction .

A Comprehensive Ellglis h C mnunnr Direct and l ndirrct Spa ch .:1(' ,~

r I J1. C lI A ~ G E S wn e x THE VERB rs A SP ECIAL F I.'>ITE 1 lIL C HAKG F.S w n zx TI lE D IRECT QUESTl Q)'J
BE G1 :-.' s l
l\\' lT~;; A»; IK TERR OCAT l\'!'
DIRECT Q L'ESTlO ~ I'(DIRE CT Q L' ESTl O~
D1RIX T QtTE STl O'( IX])Il~ ErT Q UE STl O'(
I s Cha rles you r brother? He asked me if (whethe r)
Charles was my brother. 1 "'ha t is 11" '/lIllie? lI, ask ed me what tier 1I11mr:
lias john many friends' He asked me if (wh ethe r} [ olin WIIS .
had many friends. \ \llcrc 1/ 1'( yOIl going.- He as ked me where I ire s
Can H enry speak ,Span ish ? He asked me if [wh et her] gOPlg.
H en ry cou ld sp eak Spanish. How w ill she get t he re> II, wonde red how sha would
W ill y ou helP me? He asked if (whether) I wou ld get t here .
help him. Wh ere does she live? He asked where she lvord,
Ha s J[ary spe n l all t he He asked (enqu ired) if (whe- Why do they go to Paris s o H e asked me wh y they u-ent to
money? ther ) Milry had Sp ell! all t he often ? Pa ris so of te n.
money. Wh at did she say? He asked wha t she hlld said.
I s H fIIry I'((IlIy irorking He asked (won dered ) if H enry \ \ 11Y d id you eOlne here? H e asked me wh y r ha d w ine
hard? was really <corking hard. t here.
Where t here IS a m ixture of st a temen t s and q uest ions t he

on CHANG ES WHli :-i TilE V .- rs :-:OT A SPECIAL FI »;ITq int rod ucing verb will \'ary a ccord ing l)' . c.g.
• • - Dl ~ E C T ; He said, 'I have left m y wa tch at home. Can you
tell me t he time? '
DIR ECT QUESTlO :-> l:-> D fRE CT Q UE STl O:-i - I N DIR ECT; H e sa id tha t he had left his wa tch a t bo rne find
ask ed me if I could tell him t he ti me. •
Do you know :'<t r. Brown ? H e asked if (whet her) I knei..
?lfr. Brown,
Does Pedro speak E nglish? H e asked if (whet her) P edro
( I :-J DIRECT CO ) ! l\IAN fl S l
spo k e English . When a direct com ma nd is turned into an indirect one t he
D id you Set! George a t t11C He as ked ;J (wh et her) I had following wil l be noticed: '
football match? sun George at the foot ba ll --(a) TIle verb used is not sa)'1 (with to) bu t one likl' .ord,'1
match . ~om m a n d , lelf ,' ask , request , acco rding to the sh ad e of m'ea n ing
D id they all do the exercise Intended .
He asked (w on dered) if [whc-
correctly' -(h) A Direct Object, representing the person orde red rs
t her) they had all done the introduced .
e xercise correctly.
-(c) The impera tive form of t he ver b in th e d irect comma nd
. becomes t he cor res ponding infinitive.
I ~Qle Ihat in ;lHli rec t q"".;\ioll ;; th e q u e,; t ioll mar k i, n ot ",cd I F or say a ml /. lI see pa ges 36<)--7 2 ,
'"
Viral and lndiftct Speecll 309

A COlPlprehtnsit'e E nglisll I,r,ml»la r
W hd llt1 usually exp resses a doubt and an alternative
ibilitv or a choice be tween two alternatives and so is often
DIRECT CO MMAS I> I S P I RF. CT co ~nf ~ s D
lowed h y the correlat ive or, ego '
He ordered him to go away. I don't kn ow U'hetht1 J should go away or stay he re,
Go away!
He asked me whetMr you would rather han' tea or coffee
OFF IC E R (to solJitts): Pire! The officer COtrl nl.JnJtJ t he
soldiers to flu . for breakfast .
Run qu ickly! H ~ told (Qrdeft d , asked, re- Whtl},er is ofte n followed by or FlOt , e.g.
qlltsttd , commanded) me (hi m , I don't kn ow u/u fller it is raining or not ,
he r , us, you, th em) to ru n
The al ternative is frequentl y suppressed, c.g.
quickly,
H e (she, etc.] asked me (him,
I a m doub tful whether I can find ti me to sec him (or not) .
Play the piano, please. The question ichcther (or no t) he sho uld be invited is no t
her , ctc.) to pl ay the p iano,
H e (she, etc.] asked (begged , for tnt: to decide.
Do write to me as soo n as As k h im irhctltcr he 's coming on F riday (or not),
you amve. entreated, et c.] me (him, he r,
et c.) to lJ..ritt to hi m (her, etc.] Whether and not If is used:
as soon as he (she , etc.) "I}- when the indirect quest ion precedes the ma in clause, c.g
arri ved. Ir ht tJu r this is true or not , I canno t say.
h}- before an infinitive, e g.
.An indirect negati ve com mand is expressed by ask , etc., and She hasn't deci ded :",'hetha to sail or fl y 10 America .
a negative infmiti ve, e.g . {3~ When the subordinate clause th at it introduces is really
•
J concessive one. (See COSCESS I \'E CL .. rsas (pp. 34 1-.2) and
I S DI~CT SEG.HI\'E
DIRECT SI:::G ATI\'E COSD ITl OS AL nAl'SES (pp. 343 and 34i-SI).)
CO~I M A:-- D CO~ I ~I .~ :-- D
I SAY a lld lEl. t-I
Don't shut the door. H e asked me (him, her, ct c.] The", tw o word s often cause difficulty. •
not to shut the door.
\: s ,W \
Don't all answer at once. He told (ord ered , etc.) t hem
not to answer all at once. U Sa)' has t he meani ng 'to u tter', 'to express in words', c.g.
Don 't be late tomorrow. H e told t hem Irot to be late the He always say s what he means. Say you arc sorry lor what
next day. you have J one. What d id you say' She says her praye rs
every night. Who said that ) Shelley said:
'Life, like a dome of many-c oloured glass,
\ ' WH F.T1IF. R · and 'IF "]
Sta ins the whitt: radiance of Etcr nitv
In indirect questio ns there is not much difference in mcanmg
between iJ'htther and if; usage generally Iavours if whe never
€) Say is used with direc t speech and indirect state ments, e .g.
the distinction in meaning is not importan t , ego He said , 'Tile point is quite dear.'
He said that the point was qui te d ea r.
He asked me If (U'M ther) I had seen the film .
DiT", 1 alld Lndi rcct Spurn :}i" I

370 A Comp rehens ive E'lgli sh Gramma r
I n t hese ca ses tctl __P1U~t a lway's have two objects: (I) t he
fD With say it is not necessary t o supply an indirec t objec t , r?on a~dressed .and (2) t he noun clause or equivalent e.g.
that is a word t ha t represents the person addressed ; but if an n in finitive . TellIS never used t o in t rod uce d irec t speech . -
indirect ob ject is given , to must be used, e.g .
He said to me t hat t he point was q ui te cle ar. fP W it h commands tett is followed by a n in fi nit ive :
He told the boys to leave ,
<DIn reported speech say is never followed by an infi niti ve,
Compa re: (~'~A~'-'a-n-J'-,,- c-L)
I told the boy to leave. ! I I( ~ 11I1fl'Tt'm:.<, lx-twecn t he meanings of M)' and en C HI be SCI 'lI
I said t o the boy thai he must leave , 111 t he Iollowing:
I T ELC \ ? 'lr as(' [ell me your name, ' ( = I do not know it ,)
Please SII)' yo ur na me.' (= I want to hear 110 11" it IS pro-
(i\The original meaning was 'to count' . When Milton in
nounccd.)
'L"A liegro says:
'And every sheph erd tells his talc
Under t he hawthorn in the dale.'
! I D IO~I.-\TIC U SE S OF 'S AY ' 1
he means that the shepherd counts the numbers (Iale originally I a m gla d to say t hat he is better. I have nothing furth er 10
meant ' number') of his flock. T h is meaning of tell still survives say on t he matter. It is said t hat he is wor th h a lf a million
in a number of words and phrases; for example. officials wh o poun ds. He is said t o be wort h half a m illion pounds. You
coun t votes in the House of Commons an d ba nk officials who must go t here because I SllY so, Suppose I we re to lend h im.
payout money arc called telleTs. The ph rase all told means 'all $(Iy , five pounds. Mr. Brown is ou t ; I can' t say whe n he will
counted ', e.g. be. hac k. He ,~ilid to himself (= tllOl1ght) t here was some-
There were twenty of us, all told , wh o went on the excursion. tln ng \\Ton~ What?o you/ What would you say t o (= hOI\"
\I ould you li ke) a dn.nk? \\ hat I say (= my opinion) is that
So, too: • •
His hard work is beginning 10 tell. (= t o count, to have an women should be paid th e same wages as men. Yes, I t hin k
effect) t ha t goes unttront. sily in g (= it's so obvious that it doesn 't
T hat was a telling argument /a telling hlow. (= one t h at need t o t:e
stated ). I. sey l Look who's coming, (I sa y!' is a n
ex clamat ion e xpressmg surprise, sat isfaction , protest, c tc.: ~
coun ted)
A clock tells t he time. also ~o a ttract atte nt ion). T he concert ta kes place in a
fortn igh t's time, II/ilt is to say on l\la y 15th.
@ But t he more usual meaning now is ' to na rrate ', 'to recount '
'to reveal', ' t o explain ', ' to order', e.g. I I lllO MATI C USES OF 'T EL L]
to tell a story; T ell me all you know; I can't tell you how
sorry I am ; 'She never told her love' (Sha kespea re, T welf th D on 't tdl m.e it's fou r o'clock already (= surely it isn't .. ,).
,'\light) ; to [ell a secret; I can' t [ell how it was done; T told T.lI e. two. children arc so much al ike t hat you ca n' t l<'il ( =
hi m t o go aw a y. distinguish] one from t he other; you ca n' t tt'll which is wh ich
I t's d.itlic ~lt to lell what t his is made of. He Illa y pass his
CS!. T ell is used with indirect speech , for statemen ts and
c xa m mation : you never can lell. N obo dy ca n tell what till'
comma nds, e.g . conseq uences may he. You can't tell from h is fa ce wh a t Ill'
Olaf t old Pedro t h a t he had en joyed his stay in E ngland
• In American Englieh, S a.y! is prefe rred to I ..'yl
T he teacher told t he boy to leave the room at on ce.
Direct lind bl dl1~ct Spa cli 373

}60t ball on Satu rday . (6) :'ol y fa ther told me t hat 1
c o u ld go t o Eng la nd for a year . (7) ) lar\' promised
Ellen that she wou ld write to her e\'en: week. (8}
T imothy shou ted t hat he would bnn ll: h el p: (9) R ic h a rd
said t h a t h e was SOTf)' he was la t e , ( to) :'olary said tha t
sh e wou ld be 18 on t he 15th of )[a)' . ( I II :'o lr s . Green
I S E S TE S CI:: P ATrt: RS'5 W IT II
ukf'd Marga.ret if she was t ired . ( I Z) George asked i f
t he y h a d taken his dog J ock lor a wa lk . ( I J) T h e
The sentence patterns wit h sa)' are: hu n t e r asked i f t hey had h ea rd th e sou nd o f wo lves.
I l of ) The li t tle g irl asked if the b a b y had a name y e t.
- (I )-say + object (or so) , e.g. (15) T he passeng er inq uired what t ime t h ... tr a in for
He said nothing. Lo nd o n left. ( 16) Fred a sked W illiam if h e h ad read
T , ta su re I sla n d , (17} T h e s t ra n ge r asked the way to
1 say so. the ra ilwa y station, ( 18) T h e lady asked Georg e if he
..(2)- SIlY + ' that' clau se e,g. could swim . (19) Richard a sked h is m ot he r if h e m ight
have a n other p iece o f c ake. (2 0 ) J oh n ask ed H e n ry if
He said t hat he was ~tr. Brown. hi!! exercise was c o rrec t. (T llis is ambigllQIfS, GIVt two
..( 3~ say + to + (pro)noun + 'that ' clause, e g. aOlSfWrs. ) ('l I ) The teach er o rd e red Hi.:hard t o go
He said t o th e porter that he was ~Ir . Brown . away . (22) :'o l r . Bro wn a sked his Visi tor to co m e in. ('lJ)
H is moth e r to ld R icha rd n ot t o eat all the cake.
l S I::S TESCE P.~TTE RS'S WITH ' T E LL' j (24) Th e o fficer co m m a n d ed the soldiers t o fir e
fz, J The sergeant to ld t h e sen try to stay at his JI05t
un til h e was re lie v ed . (z6) T he teac h e r told Tjmothy
-I I ~ ull +indirect objec t + d irect object, e ,g. t o do t h e exerc ise correc t ly o r he would have t o ~ta y
He told me a story. in . (z 7) T he fa rmer asked t he vis ito rs net t o lean' t he
gate o pe n . (z 8) R icbar ds fa ther to ld him n ot t o climb
..(2}. ItU + direct objec t + to + (pro)noun, e,g", • th at tree in h is ne w trousers . (29) The teacher to ld
He t old a st ory to his children. H e n ry to get his work done proper ty o r h e wo uld
.(3~ ttIl +(pro)noun +
infi nif ive, c.s. punish him, (30) H e told h im to d o som e exercises
every d a y if h e wa nted to pass his examin ati on ,
1 t old him to go away, 11 \\'11<' 11 yo u ch a ng<, sentences from direct speec h to
~ 4). lell + (pro)noun +
nou n clause . e.g. indi rect speech , what usu ally hap pe n s to (a) verbs in
He told the porter th at he was :'tIc. Brown. t h e Simp le Present t ense, (b) ver bs in th e Present
Perfec t t e nse, (, ) pronouns a nd possessiv e adjectives
Tell me what is worrying you. in t he r s t person ~
111 Ch an~e t h e fo llo win l{ from direct speec h t o in d irect
E XE RCISES speech . ( Bcgill: H e {S ht, T1uy, J ohn , Tilt ItQchu, eI C.)
said dud.)
1 T h e follow in g seutences a re III 1Il<IU ct: 1 speech ~iv~
the direct words o f the s peake r. A ud the nece"5al) ( I} ' I like my d og J oc k .' (z) ' I am g oin g 10 t he p a rty
p u n c tuation. . ....rth m y bro t h e r,' OJ ' \ \·e h ave p len t y o f nme to do
I ) H en ' said t ha t he was go ing t o Lo ndon With ~ ~s ou r work ' (4) ' Geo rge has wr itten me a long le tter.'
r;,
~ather. !olugaret said t hat t heir t ram w?uld ar nke
in five m in u tes. (l} Lil ian sa id that h e r s~s ter spo ,e
l;'i) ' W .. are very lirl'1.l. ' (6) 'You ~ilJ~ "cry nicely,
)largaret ' I;) ' I am g iving a p rize for th e locst hom e-
French well . (4) George said t h at h e hoped It woul~n t work ' (8) ' 1 am F re nch b ut I h a ve lea rned English a t
rain. (5) Richard t o ld )[3.11' th at he was playing school.' (9) ' 1 w ill l a k e you to my house , (10) ' Yo u
374 A Comp rehm~iv( E1lglish Grammar Direct and Indirect Speech 375
ca n come with us if y ou lik",.' (II} ' I don't like En gli sh \" T ur n t he follo wing uaperenves in to illd ired speech:
food very muc h .' (12) 'Thi s time-table IS t oo co m- ( I) TE.\C IlER t o HlcH,\ RDl ' \\'rite t hat exercis e o ut
plicated for me.' (13) '1 h a v e t o go t o the dc n ~,st oarefu lly.' ( a} IIlr:<; TEI ~ to FlnE:<;ll: ' ~Il<,,}t th e wol f.'
tomorro w ,' (14) ' Th is IS th e book we have bee:t locking (3) OFf ICEk to SOlDI U{S: ' Uring t he gun in tu po sitio n.'
for,' (1$) 'He has to ca tch a n carly ~ram c,:er y, (4) :'Ifary said to J ohn. ' Open t he box lor m e. please.'
m orning.' (16) ' 1 c aug ht sight of Joh n this m o rnm g ., (5) :'I[rs. Green said, ' Pl ea se slug a t our party. lIIar-
(17) ' I must go to t h e Post O ffice befor e It closes. ga ret.' (6) 'Release the p rison ers.' said the officer t o
(18) ' I sha ll be doin g exact ly t he sam e work nex t t h e sergeant. (7) T he captain o f t he shipwre<.;k ed vessel
Mond ay as 1 am d o ing tod a y .' (19) ' I wrot e, to t hem said to the sai lors, ' LowerHie boats a t once.' (8)
only last week.' (2 0) ' This book was.le,nt to 111m weeks TEAC HER to GEORGI!: ' Be careful' t h ink before v ou
ago and he has on ly j u st rdurned It. a nswer. ' (9) 'UCflA Rn: ' R ea d my ~xerc ise, John , and
tell m e if it is co rrec t.' (10) TJo;ACliE R: 'Write your n a me
IV T urn t h e following q uest io n s into indir cc t speec h : at t h e top o f y o ur p a p er an d answer fo ur q uestions,'
( I) :'fary said, 'Are y ou h ungry, Margaret? ' (.2) ~ilian ( n) TRAVELL ER t o T" XI DRIVER: 'Vict ori a station as
s a id, 'What d o you wan t , E llen ?' (3) J o h n sa id , Shall fas t as you can, I .must c a tch th e 12.50 bo a t -t ra in.'
1 clo se t he window ?' (4) 1:EACflER: ' H ave y ou a ll
un derstood me ?' (5) }f"RGAIUiT (to HI CHAH D): Whore VI Re-write the follow ing short story in indir ect s peech,
are you goin g for y our h olidays?' (6) RICHAR D (to Be g in : Th e writer sa id t h a t _. . (Ca ll t h e ant lu and t h e
SHOPKEEPER): ' Wha t is t he p rice of th at b ic y cle ] " g ra sshoppe r she.)
(7) Geo rg e said, ' W h e n will y ou get h ac k from Lond on, The Ani and Ike Gra sshopper
John ?' (8) George said, 'Ho w long does It take t o ~et I wi ll te ll yOll the story of the ant and the gr ass-
t o Lon d o n, J oh n? ' (9) Richar d said, 'Ca n Y';lU SWim, hopper, It is a cold winter 's d ay a nd an ant is bringing
J oh n ?' (10) GEORGE (to TEAC HER): 'Shall I finish m y {Ju t some g rams of corn t h a t h e gat hered in the
exercise at ho m e?' ( II) ~l ARY : ' ~ [ ay I h a ve a n ot l.lCr summer as he wa n ts to dry t hem. A grassh op per who is
c a ke, p lease ?' (12) LILIAN (to EI_ l EN): 'Do y ou lik e very hungry sees bill and says, 'Give me a few gra ins o f
my new hat ?' (13) MOTHER (t,o MARGARET): :H a v e ):ou corn; I am dying o f h un ger'
finished y our hom e work yet? (14) GEORGE: Have you 'Bu t, ' says t h e ant, 'what d id you do in t h e s ummer?
been using my t ooth -pas t e , Richard?' 4Is) Mary sa l~ : • Didn't yo u sto re up any corn ?'
' I s yo ur new b a by a boy or a g irl, Mrs. T h om ps on . 'No,' replies th e grasshopper, 'I was t oo busy.'
(16 ) Eliz a beth s a id, 'Did :'Ilargaret Ieed t~e cat befor e ' W hat di d you do ?' says t h e a n t .
she went out?' (I 7) RICIl-\RD's ~IOTIl El{: 'Did y o u brush 'I sang all day,' a nswers the g rassh op p er,
your teeth p rop erly, Hi c h a n P ' (18) T he hunter sa~rl, 'If you sang all summer, ' says t h e a n t , 'you ca n
' D o y o u he ar the roar o f a lion)' (1-9 ) The hu nte r s aid , d ance a ll win ter .'
'Did y ou hea r the roar o f a lion)' (zo ) ViSITOR (to ~oy):
' Do y o u go to school every day? ' (2 1) GEORGE: May VII Exp lai n t he uses of th e ver bs 'sa y ' and 't ell' in
1 borrow your bicycle, John ?' ell) STRA:<;GER to FRED: indirect speech and illustrate y o ur ex p la n a t io n wi th
'Can y ou t e ll m e where :'Ih. Gree n lives" (23 ) ' How a re examples .
y o u going t o d o that?' (24) ' W h ic h of the rou te s t.o
L o ndo n do yon prefer?' (25) 'Ca n you tell m~ whICh IS
t he ro a d t o O xford? ' (26) ' Is rt true that Ed wa rd I~
getung marr ie d ) ' (2 7) ' D oe s he play t h e piano or t he
v ioli n ?' (28) ' I cannot fm d my purse. Can you lend me
fift y peo~e .? ' ( 29) ' How d id rh ey Ira,vel bac k home ?;
(30) ' D id t h ey all atten d . the . meeuug , last ,llI ?l •.t?
(1 ) 'Where does J o e have h IS SUitS m ade ? (p) \\ hich
110tel in E di n b u rgh is co n sidere d the best ?'

l ' IIII( I, m l ' (ll/ Ji7

CIIAf' TER TW £ NT Y - S I::VF. S
n-tumed to her dressing-room after the performance she found
a no te fro m a rival ac tress ~Ia rv Robinson wf-..iRh vcrv
, P U:-;CT U ATI O:-; \ generously, said: . , .
:\fary Robinson say~ :\Ir". Abingt on is rhe greatest act ress in
Punctuation is simply a device for making it easy to read and Lond on.
underst and written or printed matter. In speech we can make
pauses be tween words or phrases we can use gestures, give :\I rs. ,\ bington . equally genero us, added tw o commas and sent
em ph asis to a word and raise or lower the voice to hel p t ~, e the note ba ck to :\lis,; Robinson , h now rend:
listener to understand our meaning; in writ ing much of that :\I ary Robinson, says :'>lrs. Abin gt on, is the greatest actress
work is done by punctuation . in London
Sentences arc separated fr om one ano th er, and the pa rt s of
a sen t ence are clearly dist inguished . by means of the vn rion, TIll'. pl'illC ipa ! stops arc the flllt stup (), .tIll' colon (:), till'
kinds of st ops. W hether yo u are reading alo ud or silen tly , your sell1Wo~(Jll L} , tile comma (,), the question mar k (f ), till' ex -
voice and you r eye req uire fr equent rest s. It is t he funct ion of clnrna tion ma rk (IL the dash (-), quomtinn marks (' ') ami
punctuation t o indicate where you can make these wi th out t he apostro phe ('). '
injuring t he sense of t he passage. It is virtually im possible to lav down exact rule s for the usr-
The proper use of stops, too , gives clari ty of meaning to a of st ops , for punctuauon j<; near! ", as m u-Ir a matter of the
passage t hat might be misunderst ood or even not un der stood author's s ~ rle as is ~i s choice of words. and pract ica lly no two
at all. A sentence like the following, for example, would. wri ters. given a fairly length y p<l"~age to punctuate, would
without pu nctuation , be so am biguous as to be practically use ex ac tly the same pu nctuatl ou
meaningless: Rut there <l r~ a number of /!.o"". 11 PfjllCii'k~ that can help,
'Among the pe ople prese nt at t he the atre we re the acn cs- and we may hUl"fly summanze t hem as Ioltow-:
Elizabeth Dixon the wife of George Grey author of th e p:ay
H arry F orster th e son of the prod ucer " ir Laurence R icha rd- 1TH}: n'u STOP I
son Charles Ha zlitt the dramatic crit ic of t he Daily .\' ,':' 5 The fu!l sto p is used :
and crit ics of oth er newspapers .'
...( Z~ A I the end of all senten ces exce pt quest ions and ex-
But when it is pu nctuated the meaning becomes clear: clamations , e.a.
'Among the pe ople presen t at t he th ea t re were: t he ac tr ess. He needs yo ur help. (Sta/ell/tIIt)
E lizabeth D ixon , the wife of George Grey, author of the H elp him. (CoJllman d)
play; H arry Forst er , the son of the prod ucer; Sir La urence Will you hel p hi m) (Qtlt.~II'O 'I)
R ichard son ; Charles Hazlitt , t he d rama t ic critic of th e Dd ily H,. ail'd , ' Help! Help! ' (E xdll",<lt!'(ltl)
N eus; and critics of othe r newspaper s'
.J ! ~:'\fr~r ~bbn' \'i ations suc~ as ,:'01..-\ .. (~ :'of aster of Arts),
H ow a comma or two can change t he meaning of a sentence '~?lr..S -. I a~fltlt (= H er .?lfaJei'tys ship .""liam) , U.S.:\
may be illus tra ted by th e charming (bu t probablr fictit i(y , (... United St ates of A m ('fI('3), t'.g ( = Latin: (umplit:rati:r
sto ry of Mrs. Abington, the actress who played m the nret = for eX<lUlpl,'), etc, It 110 used ;\ft"f iuifia!s , I, g. , ' . II Brown,
performance of Sheridan's Sdool for ScandaL I When ,h and afte r contracted words e.S Xov. (= ~o\l'mber) . memo
(= memorundum].
,,.
• 1; 71·
But if Ihe .cont r:tction inc lude s tIll: Jill,,! lct tcr of the word
the full stop I,. e tten omItted, e,g . Dr, :'orr, Ltd, (has, etc.
>-8 A Comprehensive l~llg!ish (lramntar

." 379
\ THE COLO~ J You h ave done the work well; therefore 1 WI ll pa y you well.
-{I }-- Th e colon is used to separate two sente nces of wh,ieh the " au must tab> m ore exercise; otherwise yo u will get too fat .
second explains more fully the meaning of fh c fi rst , r.e. It often R ichard didn' t work h ard ; so he didn't pass h is examination.
means t he same as 'that is t o say ', e g.
Richard's work is un satisfactory: his answers are t hough t . I Tl I l=..... ·W M ~IA I
less, his spelling is careless and ilis writing is bad.
T he co mma ts the most frequ ently used punct uation mar k
It may also take the place of a conj unc tio n introduc ing a and lias many uses. Your common sen se a nd the desi re to m ake
clause of reason , e.g . y our meaning clear wi ll often tell you where a pause is needed ,
Thompson isn't go ing t o join our finn : wt: cou ldn' t ortor but th e follow ing 'rules' , t hough the y do not cover all t he
him a big enough salary (= because we couldn' t .} uses, m ay be hel pful. A comma is generally u sed :
-{2}- To introduce a nu mber of items in a list, or to in troduce -( r}---To record a list of things, ctc., e.g.
a quotation, e.g. At the party we had cakes, jellies, ices , biscuits, chocolate,
He offered me t he choice of anyone of t hese for a wedd ing and lem onade.
present: a set of fish knives, a pewter teapot , an electric
~ o t ic e t hat t he comma is usually put befo re (Iud and the last
toaster, a st andard lamp. , item . Some writers d isagree wit h t his.
Shakespeare said: ' Neith er a bo rrower nor a lender be ,
-\ 2)' To m ark off d irect speech:
( TH E SE MI-COLO€] 'Tel l me ,' r sa id, 'ho w yon know all that.'
The semi-colon is u seful when we need a longer pause than George re plied, ' I heard it a ll the radio.'
is indicated by a comma, but when we do no t want to hreak the
line of th ought , as would happen if we used a full st op, It -(3). To mark off sen tences or clauses where a pause is needed
is used : • in reading. This is a lmost always t he case when an adver b
-{J}- T o sepafate co-ord inate sentences when a conj u nction is clause precedes a principal one,
no t used, e.g. ..\!t hough it was foggy, we playe d the m atch.
' You r appearance .pleased my frie nd; it delighted me: 1 have explained t his work t o R ichard, but h e st ill docsn'e
1 have watched your behaviour in strange circumstances: understand i t ,
1 have studied h ow you played and how you bore y~ur If you will hel p me, 1 will help YOIi.
losses; lastly, 1 have put you to the tes t of a staggermg Wh en an adve rb clause follows th e pri ncipal clau se, the
announcement , and you received it like an invitat ion to om ission of t he com m a places more emphasis on t he adver b
dinner.'- (R L. Stevenson, T he Suicide [[ HO) clause , c.g .
Note how, in this example, shorter pa uses are sho wn by t he 'He came because 1 asked hi m to ' (answering the question
commas. 'Why did he come?')
-f2}- \Vith words like therefore , homver, lIetterl~J('!css, besides, -( .J.rTo m urk off words used in addressing' a person (the
also otherwise and sometimes so. T hese words Jam sen tence- Nom inat ive of Add res s). c.g .
but' are stronger th an conjunctions lik e mtd, and so need a
st ronge r punc tuation mark, llerc arc some examples: George , I ho pe yo u and :M ary can come t o the party.
r should be very glad, Charles. if you would do t his for me,
380 A Comprehcllsive ~'ng!ish r;r,11I11/l" r Punauat i 011 J8 r

"'(5" To ma rk off words or plmlse"o like hQil'e\.'(r,1 therefore. 'if
course, fo r instance, et c. I TIlE D"''' l1 I
YOIl know , of course, t he wa y to Lewton: I needn' t, the re- TIll' dash is llsl'd to illdicatc-{l }an ;dtr-rthough t-.an emcnda-
fore, send you a route map. tiOII. or ",2" a n unexpected turn in a sentence , e,g.
I spoke to ~r ar)-,-yoll.. know, Ha rry 's wife- and told her
..(6)oo In descriptive titles such as: w hat you said .
E lizabeth II, Qu een of Gre at Brit ain. The info rm ation tha t Fred gives you on eve ry subj ect under
I saw Mr. Sm ith , your teacher, this morn ing. the sun is alwnvs very full an d is given wit h an air of
~7).. To ma rk off ph rases containing a participle when a pause cornpkte con flrlence T here rs only one th ing wrong wit h
is requi red in reading: it- oil is ne ver c or roc t .
George , seeing tha t h is brot her was hur t, ra n t o he lp hi m . ( Qt' OT.\ [ 10" ) ).-\RKS I
The comm a is not use d in E nglish to separate a de fining Quo' at ton vtarks a rc used t o enclose d irec t speech,
re lative clause! or a nou n clause from the res t of the sentence.
It must be used before the relati ve pronoun in a non-dehning I sad , ' 1 have only spoken to him on one occasion.'
clause. l ie shou ted , 'What [Ire you doing lu-re? "
"Llrn ve spoken to h im : r said , 'on only one occas ion.'
H ere is t he book t hat you wanted. (Defin ing Clallse)
H e asked me wh e're I was going, (Nolin Clau se) Note that tile fu ll s top, exclamat ion m ark , the question ma rk
George , who is in my class, has won a scholarshi p. (;\'011- a nd til ~ comma come ins ide the quotat ion marks.
Quo lation ma rks m ay be singl e (' ') or double I' ").
defining Clause)
( Q l' :r:: ST IO ~ )IARK ( I T HE ,\ PO STlW PliE I
A Question Mark is used after a d irect ~ u e st i o n , but not T he Apo strophe is u sed to show -r r j-the possessive case, e.g.
afte r a n in direct one, e.g. m y brother's hou se, J ohn 's wife, the boy's cap (si ngular, one
D irect . I said t o him, ''\\ b en arc you going to Scotland? boy). the boys' schoo l (p lural, for a lot of boys).
I ndirect, I asked him when he was goin g t o Scotland , -4 2}o- TI I ' ~ om ission of a letter or letters, e.g. •
I" I'e (= I have), don't (= do no t). it's) (= it is), o'clock
I T il E E X CI, A~jATlO X ~1,\RK l (= of t he cloc k) .
The Excla mat ion Mark is used after an interjection , a n I TH E l' SE OF CAPITA1.S
ex clam atory sen tence or a n expression of great feeling. A ca pi tal letter is used:
'Hello! I d idn't expect to sec you .' -tI}o- F or the beg inning of a sen tence.
'The re goes our train" .{2}o- For prope r nou ns, e.g. J ohn , November . London, etc.,
'Wh at a won derfu l day that was" and for ad jectives formed fro m proper nou ns e.g .
1 Th e COmJI'.a' are not used when }w,,'eut ha., t he mcaning 'to wha t Scotch whisky, the Fr ench: language, Elizabethan poe ts.
<.Iegree'. e .g. However busy he may l>e . h c a lways man a ges t o an sw er 'Com pare t his with t hc possess ive ad jective iI" e.l),
l ett e rs promptly, Th at <l og has hur t '/s foot.
• See :llso p age 325. Therc is 110 apostrophe in any of the po'Scssi \·c pronouns.
3 82 A Comprehensive Etlglish Gram mar Pu nciuaiion
A capital letter is used for t he name of God, Christ, Tr inity , Th e seasons, in ord ina ry writing , do not have. a capital
Bible, etc.. and a pronoun or possessive adjec tive ap plying t o lette.l", nor do th e po int s of t he compass u n less t hey refer to
God has a capita l letter , e.g.
They trusted in God t hat lIe would save H is people.
West. T hey live in Ie
gpecific regions or are part of a name, e.g. He came from the
Northern T erritory ,
..(3 ~ For the ch ief words in t itles of people, b ook s, plays EX E HCI S E S
etc., e.g. I Restore the capita! letters and punctuation in th e folluw-
Elizabeth the Second , Alfred t he Great, A Midsummer Ill!; passages:
Nigh t's D ream, A Tale of Two Cities.
(. )
",,4)0 For salutations a nd form s of add ress . e g. Oil lette rs: T he following was written on th e gravestone of a n
Dr, Mr , Miss , ~[rs, and lor t he greeting and co mplimentary army mule here lies maggie t he mu le who in her time
kicked a gen eral t wo colonels four majors ten c aptai,~s
close, e.g. Dear Sir, t wenty-four lieu tena nts forty sergean ts two hu ndred
a nd twenty privates an d a bomb.
Yours faithfully, P}
..(5" F or t he abbreviations of degrees, ti tles . etc. i cant unde rs ta nd it said mr williams oh wha t cant you
~I.P . (= Mem ber of Parliament), Q.c. (= Queen 's Counsel}. und erstand said his friend well said mr william s ju st
look at th IS s uit im w earing t he wool was gro wn in
B .sc. ( = Bachelor of Science). australia th e cloth was woven in yorks hire t he buttons
were made in india the suit was made in london and i
.(6~ The opening word of d irect speech , e g.
bought it in cairo whats so remarkable about that asked
H e said , 'what do you want? ' his friend isn t it wonderful said williams ' t aking no
T he capital letter is not repea ted in the second part 01 a notice of the interruption t hat so ma ny people ca n make
a living ou t of something i havent paid tor.
brok en quotation, e,g, • •
'I am wor king hard now' , he said , ' in order t o provide for (3)
myoId age .' a very agitated woman rang up her doctor and a ser-
vant answered the phone ca n i speak to dr russell she
..(7)..F or t he first word in each line of poetry: said its u rgen t im sorry madam t he doc tor is out will •
She lived unknown, and few c ould know you lea ve a message oh dear oh dear my ten year old
little boy has swallowed a fountain pen when will the
Wh en Lucy ceased to be; doctor oe In im afraid madam he wont be in for two
But she is in her gr a ve , and Oh , hours perhaps t hree hou rs three hours cried the woman
The d ifference to me! (W ordsU' orth) wha t sh a ll j do in t he mea ntime im a fraid madam yoult
but some mod ern poets disregard this cunvelltio n, have to use a pencil,
11 Our p ursu er soon ca me up a nd joined us with a ll t he
",(8)-F or the first person singular f (b ut not for me, Ill)', etc.] familiarity of an old acquai ntance my dear charles cried
he sh ak ing my fr iends ha nd where have you been hidi ng
-( 9~ For personification (generally in poe try): t his halt a century i had positively fancied you were gone
o wild West Wind , t hou b reath of Au t u mn 's being. down to <:lIltivate ma t rimony and your estate in the
cou ntry during the rep ly i had an opportunity of survey-
If Winter comes, can Spring be far behind? (S helley) i:lg t he ap peara nce o f ou r new compani on his ha t was

A CompuJunSit'l English Grammar

p inch ed up wit h pecul ia r srnar t n ess h is looks were pa le
thin and sh a rp ro u n d his nec k he wo re a broa d blac k
ribbon and in his bosom a buc kle s tudded wi t h glass h is C IL~ P T E R T W ES TY - E I GIIT
coat W,l.S t nm m ed w ith tarnished l wist he wo re by his
side a sword with a bl ac k hil t and h is stockings o f ~l!k I S E X T E ~ C E PA TT E R~ S )
though newly washed ....e re grown yellow by tong service
Oliver Goldsmith. BtQ:u T ibbs. A book of English A st~dt:n t generally learns to use a language t ha t he wan ts to
F·.55ay' . I"en can. acq Ul~e • .n o t by t he
ab st rac; tions of g rammar but m ainl y by
III youre a very s m all c hap said m r tOOtS yes s rr im small pracnce rn t he patterns which a re t he li ving su bsta nce of t he
enou gh returned pau l t hank yo u sir for t oots had lift ed !anguage. T he. mo.st impor t an t of t hese are t he V" b p atterns,
him int o the seat and done it kindly-too whos yo ur ta ilor r.e. t he c ~mbmat lOn s t hat t he verb can make wi th comple-
inquired t oots after look ing at h im for some moments meri ts, objects, gerunds, clauses, etc. So, when t he student has
its a woman t hat has m ade my clothes as ye t saul pa ul
my sisters d ressmaker my t ailor s bu rgess and co said
lear ned on e pattern, e.g . the pattern
toot s fashionahle h ut very dear paul had th e wi t to (A)
shake Ilis head as if he would have said it was easy to see
t hat a nd indeed he t hought so your fa thers very rid} Sllbject & V ( rb + Obj~ct
15nt he inq uired mr toots r es sir said pa ul hcs d cm bey
and son a nd which demandt"d t oots an d son sir [cpli~1
pa ul.
I heard t he bird I sing
Dicken s, DC>"l b~j' Q'l d S,m., he can , by a na logy. make a number of ot her sentences o n t he
I V it is a little pa inful to picture our heroes at such
same pattern. e.g.
moments it is di.,;llracefu l to visualize such vi ta) and I saw hi s h and shake
important bein gs submItting to t he finllcring a nd H~ m ade me go
fussing o f persons .....ho jf they .... i11 forgive my saying \\ atch hi m swim
so evoke n.. ,·ery roma n t ic i ma~e nut merely ' 5 it
l.nplcasant to ell' l,;.a~e I he m a:i stalltlll'g urcrc turrung I felt his hear t beat rapidly
rou nd when told to raising t heir a rms like zanies a little Did you see him turn pale? -
higher my lord If you please 49 ' 3 mr b u rk insha w ~ 9 ' J
repea ts the s ub~rv i en t rn r burk inshaw scribbling in his Si milarly from thc pat tern:
notebook 1I0t merelv is it humiliating to conceive of a (E) •
mere tailor mak'ing chalk mar ks upon t he backs of
statesmen rounded with t he wl'i;j:ht of half t he world S ubject 6- V erb b rfl1litive
nay the impression Cleated is more profound than an y
pain evoked by the picture of th e magnificent in humilia- I ex pert t o lea rn English he re
tion it is an impression w hich derives its deep poign ancy He li kes t o do h is work well
from the realization tha t even the most majestic among Do you want t o come t o t he concer t?
llS wear t wo buttons on the back of a tail coa t.
Harold Xicolson. ,\te fl's Clc>thu_ A book o f E nglish he ca n, by analogy, make:
Essays, Pelican, I intend to work h"d
He decided t o go to Paris for h is
holidaj..
H e lea rned t o speak E nglish before he
carne he re
'"
386 A COltlpTe!lenSll.il': E,lgli,h (;mm lllUl

Sentence l'a!tallS
But, un less he recognizes which verbs can Ill' used in which
patterns, he may be tem pled , on t he analogy of pa ttern (XI
T/; (f ~ VE !~ Fl
,,
& SUBJECT
t o sav:
li~kned
the hird silUj T here is
I Tilere were
or on the analogy of (B) to say; TIlere will he
English here There arc
I enjoy to learn There wore
hi s work well
He can't help t o do T here IlCN!,;
all of which are incorre ct .
In almost ever y case. the constructi on;; illustrated in the

patterns th at follow have been noted and. explamed in ea rlie r
sections of this b ook; but it may be useful to list here the main
verb patte rns that occur in the langu age so t ha t, as verbs are
encountered in the studen t's generallcadir.g , he can note nne
record in which patterns they are used,
T he following are the principal ver b patterns:! I t seems t hat both of •YOU were \\ .rong,
It pays to e:
o gn'c honest value [or mo ucv
f PATTERN@~UbjCct .,- Verb J It doesn' t matter wha t you thi nk . -'
It (so) happened t~l at he was sho rt of monev at th at
SlIbjul tune. .
T ime flies. •
B irds sing .
roared. Sec pages 1 0 0-1
The !;on
~! ) t ooth is aching. •
Who is spe ak ing? ( P '\ rfE H:-> i$'
_.__~
Subject ....
.
V'
t'l
h -I- COin
' ph' mcn t
----
SvllJI£CT & YU -W nm l'J.E .\ lE :-> T
Tw o variants of this pattern shoul d be noted: 1- - - --
- ~ --'-
{I) Wh en the formal sub ject there 1S u sed (see page 3·1-' He IS rich .
This occurs when the subject of the verb to ~'e is indefinit Nelse-n was a S~L1 Jor.
There , as used in this constructi on , is meaningless . The r This rs my brother
sub ject comes after the verb , e.g. Seeing rs believ ing
\ \110 are ron?
T h e ord~,. given her e follo ws ttmt listed by Dr. IJalmc r in Tl!&t rs
1
Gtamm'" ,~f" E nglish Wo<'ds [t.ongmans. 1931';) , ..\ fuller treat mcr.t
~ ~ -.i what I want
given in A Gu irJ$ 10 Pili/ern.' amI Usa&< in EngU,h by A. S. HO" l
{O,U J". 1954 )-
A ComprehulsiL'e English Grammar Sentence Patterns 389

- ( PATTERNGJ[SUbj ect & Ve rb + Adver-b Com plem e n t I
Sl;BJECT & VERB COMPU:)'IE~T
out of the question. Sl;IlJECT & VFt R ADVERB CO),IPLE),IE:->T

What he asked for was
Are t hese t he shoes t hat vou were
TIley are h ere.!
looking for ? He went to Ma nchester.
I am in a hurry. Go away!
All I want is to help you T he glove must be somewhere or other.
T he mi lk tastes sour, He tries ha rd ,
These roses smell sweet She cried as if her hear t would break.
T he poet Chatterton died young .
Til e children arc runnmg wild
~rr. Brown is looking old . T he formal subject there can be used in t his pattern.
Keep ca lm!
r OR),{AL SUBJECT there + ADVER" CO),IPLEMENT
T he formal subject f i l S used a lso In this- p.attc~n: I n this case
- VERB + SUBJECT
t he real subject of t he verb is generally an in finitive phrase or
a clause, but ot her subjects are possible. T here are fiftee n studen ts in my class.
T here's a lot of noise ou tside.
FOR)IAL Sl:I3J ECT Is t here any cheese in the la rder?
CO)IPLE-
SUBJECT
it + VERB
1>I E ~ T I' Will there be a fest ival a t E din burgh next rear?
See pages 34. 183 , 26.-t .

It is silly to tal k like tha t,
It would be better to do as he suys , PATTE Il~SU bjCc t & Verb + Direct O bject I
obvious that you are prejudiced . .
It's
It's
It was
no use
a pity
your saying that you are sorry,
that you didn't th ink of that
SL'BJECT & V E RB I DIRECT OBJECT •
earlier. Ho did t he work ,
Is it a fact that the Robinsons arc going T he postman de livers letters.
to Americ a? Do you kn ow t he answer?
It will be very ruce when t he good weather comes T he little boy can dress h imself.
It is ,~y for someone as wealthy as you H, said t hat he was going to Gcr many
to t a lk about giving to ch a ri-
tomorrow.
ties
It was impossible for two su ch people t o wor k
See Pescs g, 22, 98 , Ir4, 333.
t ogethcr happily.
I 1 I n excl a matory se ntences thc adverb comes before the subj ect. (F or
Sec pages II , 34, 101, 329 , 334· excla ma tory sentencc'! see p . 316.)

390 A COlli rehensit,( E11{!lis1l Gra mlllit'

11' Se'ltenet PaJt( , ns
tp.. . TTERS § ) Su bj ect & Ver b +
P r epos ition
,
39'
: P r-e po si t ion ul Object St ' 1JJE CT & tE Ra
IH RECT OBJ I,;CT
.... OVERB COM PL EM EX T
SUB J ECT & \'F. RB
1- - - - - - -1-- - - -1
I will wait
,.
PR .E POSI T1 0~ PR EPOSrTIOX ..\ 1. Oil J EC r , H e locked
H e gave
H e engaged
the house
all his mon ey
up. r
away.!
I
y ou a garde ner
She depend s mo. He felled to do rho lIard work.e
the t rces
He succeeded opening the box , He engaged to let in more ligh t .:
a ga rdener because Ill' wanted
Th ose t ools belong Fred .
E very one was h oping a fine day. someone to do the hard
Don 't worry t he result of your He treated work. '
his wife as if she were a dl iJd.1
examina tion.
I was longing for h im to invite me t o See pages II , 280.
the party.! I
The}" waited foc me to pay the bill . I
You can rely on him to do everything P.. .TTE RI'
that is neC' e s~ary I S ubject & Ve r b -+- D irect O bject + Adjecth"c
s t: n J£CT & V1iR a
OIRF.CT Oll JETT
.-\DJF:CTl VF.
I will get
the d inner ready .
ubject & Verb -i- Direct O bject + Ad ver b He hel d
th e door open .
a m Ie rncne The dye turned h er ha ir
You h ave made green,
t he car d irty.
Can you ge t th e w ind ow
SUBJECT & VERB DIRECT ODJ ECT .-\m'ERB CO~I PI.E:)It::NT H e drink s open?
h is Whisk y neat . •
I pm th e shoes in you r cupboard
H e sent the letter by registered }XISt ,
H ave you pu t the cheese in thc larder? A considerable num ber of b
some of t he comm onest are: vcr s can be used in this pattem :
You will wan t th is to morrow.
bake, bend wil b k Ii
The dog chased
Put
h im
your coat
for hal! a mile.
a ll. I
S
feat'e, m4k;
"
pack ; a. 't
QIn ,
;'%' pcut,'n hoset.
II ,
em ,li , jilJ, grt, hQId. kap.
u'ash, wipe .
T um the ga s ofP ce page J 2.
• Th e di rect ohjec t a.nd a d ve rb

I Th e object he re ill t h e accusa u ve in finit iv e (~~ ? :JJ ). &e~ 'Tn ccs . -.s. P ut on you r coat ~Plemcn t ~"n be te\"l' tse..l J!1 th e",
• The direc t object a.Dd ad ve rb comp!cm~:l t can be reversed in th ~ • ho::,.. I\"c,·o com ple me n t hc . . . PI'· ~(i? aud ~80, )
se<:le ncel>, e.a- Pu t on yo u r COOl! . (See p . ISo I Here It i~ an ouJverb clause. i~~~.";j~~jl\·e (,f I'u rpu~c (s<"e p, IjJ )

~
Sentence PllflerJi~
393
P ATT£ R:-: (§).I S ub j ect & Ve rb + D i r e ct Object + 10 PATTER)'.;,(lO: S ubject & Ver b +
Direc t O bj ect
y~ + Adje ct~~~ _(o r __ ':-.~mJ)l c~_cntl_~ I !4- Prepo sition - r- I'rcpos tu ona t ObiectJ
- -- - ._- . -
SU BJECT & DI RE CT / I' REPOSI C I I' REFOSITIO:> AL
SU BJ ECT & VE RB VERn OB JEC T Tl O:> I OIl J ECT
They told him t o be c areful. I gave

-it -
happy.
to' h im .
I w an t you to be Please explain this to me.
He likes his staf to be
(t o be)
punctual
ri ght.
II They offered tbc hou se to n,
Th is proves me They welcomed hi m
(to be) a we al thy man. to t heir horne.
We 0111 t h ou gh t him He aires a lot of
r prefer my c offee (to be)
-
hot.
I
~
I will do
money to George .
the work for~ you.
Th e commonest verbs with this pattern are. He bought some bloH's fo<
believe, consider, declare, f ancy, fed , jind , glless, imagi ne, Please thank hi m fo< I .'fary .
me.
j udge, knoU', like, prefer, prcce, ttl, show, suppose, suspect , Save
I io,
some sweets your brother.
think , understand, want. Excuse io< intelTuptiug you.
me
Seo pages 12 • 233. I'll never Ior-
grve : him for that.
P ATTE R ~ Subject & Ve r b + Dir e c t O bje c t + Obje c t Tel! m, about! your work.
Complement J I told them of' y ou,
.
SUB J ECT & VERB DIRECT OBJ ECT IonJL\~T C:O~IPLlD~ They accu sed
H e threw
h im
a ho ok
of
at 5
stea ling .
me .
- l ie spends a lot of
H e called his cat Sa lly.
They have made Richard captain of the foot - money on 6 cigarettes ,
I Compare yo ur wo rk with'
hall team H enry' s.
I su pplied him with ruouey .
The Arch bishop
crowned Henry King of Englan d.
~-
See pages 2 2, 98, II4.

-- - -- --
Grandfath er has •
made \Vimam his heir. , So ';IC o f the mo,-!' comm ::> n verbs with tLi~ J'"tlcrn arc,
\ Ve sh a ll name th is ship Princess A lice. •
Cal '.'''',ttl I" .. ~ tJa rd. add, M u ,g. carry, 'o",parc, d '''.1'. I ">I~" . f d ck , CiVl ,
I ki1tul , J' on . "'01'~, aft". 0"" , fmss, P"'y. p 'omi;~. T,'ad. tf:I""~. u!l , sma'•
. lIou', I.. l'e, "'M it., 1"" . lif . !l,ri le,
There arc not many verbs that a rc, \1, «, \ with t his Pa ltern. T he • (t.) wit h j M:b,. illK, b ~,y , ci"'''',e, cooll, do. [tlch, lo"e"v<. £ '1, I.a ,'e.
o, d( " play , pTa"" p" "'$ II , ' (", n, Hl'e, ,nilr,
"I""'.
ch ief ones are: • (t) w,th about: a. k, t o" ; II!I. 'l",sli"", .-e- ~ " " ' f. nUl""'/, l<'fl, Ir< ,,,U~ .
appoint , baplize, call, choose , christen, crOl l' l' , elect, wlitl,', w""', :I'O H~', u-t;le.
• (<I) wit'll oj: ..c(l<S~ , j"form, rr",;",l, lell.
name, nominate, proclaim, • (f) with at: "i.".
hurl. poi'II, '11001, Ihrow,
See page 1 2. • (I) '\lth un: ""'W~'- . maht. r"d, spmd, "'.1<1(. ,,,i:,'.
' (g ) with 1;"'11,: <vmp,,'<'.}iU, ",i:r. Pro:';rl~. "'PI'''
A Comprehensive English Grammar 395

{ 394
There are a groa t number of verbs with this pattern , SOllie of
PAITE RN" $ Subject & Ve r b + Ind irect O bject the most uspnl arc:
1+ D irectObject
clim b, colnc, drirc, r!ro}" f lit!, /Iy , j o!!,,,.., gro,;', jl0llP, nmrch,
S UB JECT & VE RB IN" D1RECT
DIHE CT OB JE CT Sec pa ge I ~.
.
1/10; '( , ride . rise 1'1111 , sink, . IUllk, !i'eiEll, n-orte ,
sirim ~
OBJE CT
I gave him a lesson. IpATTEH:>@ SU_~.j ~ct ~ V~~b +_ ~~lfinit_i~:_~b:~rc\ I

They sold m, some bad apples . I & SUB JECT vnw itL\I'~2 __
I:\Fl '-:IT1\
OE
H e told m, a lie.
H as he pai d I
you wh at he owes you? smg,
H e wished them 'A Merry Christmas' .
Did R ichard lea ve his brother any sweets? I join th em?
go n ove.
Your h elp has saved m, a lot of wo rk. answer that ques tion )
H e did m, a very good tum . re fus e t o go ?
answer tho question .
The most usual verbs with this pattern arc: go.
ask, bring, buy, cause, deny, do, envy, fi nd, get, git'e, hand,
leave. Lend, ma ke, order, owe, pass , pay, read, sell, send, show, TJ I(~verh-, {ollow ing this pat tern aTI: HI" S pr-c-ia l F ini te s can
spare, tell, throw, wish, write. (dJlIld), do (does, d id). S/III /l (sl lO\I ~ (I ). In'lt (Iq.uld), !lillY (m igh t).
mnst, 1Ie::d . dare and tile phrases: ha-i better, " '01rld m ilia.
See pages 22, 98, lI4, lIS, 222.
-Sec pages
, .. J82 -"'15
-.
~AITERN@
. . [SUbj ect & Ver b + (fo rp + COlDp le m e n t } \ r .-\TT E I< C\' $,.illbjC. C~ & Ve rb + Dfrect Oblec t + Bare
I nft nt t tve
SUB JECT & VE RB (jor) cmIPLE MEN" T
. .-
DIRECT
- . - I
SI:J3JE CT & VEI Ul 1 ~ l'l~ITIV:E (B ARE)
•
o n J EcT
He walked 10< ten miles.
The Hcadm aster spoke 10< an hour. I made him come.
They argued 10< h ours. Ld him speak.
We h ave come a long way_ I heard him shunt.
They wait ed J 10' an hour before gomg steal th e money.
We saw the bov
The river rose
away.
ten Iect in the nigh t.
WatclJ rue, swim the river.
I h ave never known
The house cost £10 ,0 00 . I----him-----
come punct ually .
That car will last (you) a lifet ime. C.C
1 he verbs With this patto n arc chir-flv:. ..- -
bid ,jeel, hav e, hear, tmour, l et lIIa ke. need. B , notice, SU , entcti.
' f or is used o nly in sentences exp ressin g dura t io n . Sec pages 21 0 , 225. 2V .
A Comprehmsive E nglis h Grammar S entel'lce Pattems 397
I
PATT E P.~ $, \ S u b Joc t & Ver b + t ,. In fin itive}
txrax no-
SU BJE CT & VE RB GATlvF. ISFISITlVt:
I~ F I~ITI V E WORD
SUBJECT & VER B
I w an t t o go a.....ay. r can' t dec ide where to go for our holidays.

H e ough t ! to help you. I've los t my pen-knife,
we h ave' to be home by 10 o'clock. a nd I can' t think where to look for it .
You are' t o see the H eadmaster at once. H e's very greedy and
we must try to help him, never kn ows when to stop eating .
I don' t like t o ask y ou. I'm wond ering what to do nex t .
Did yo u remembe r t o feed the cat?
I d idn't dare to ask for a rise in sal ary . T he usual ver bs tal...ius t his cons truc t ion are:
ask, fOIlS iJ". decide, discouer , (/Il[l/iT.·, e.tpillill,fillli out,forget ,
Some com mon verbs using this pa ttern are: guess, k now, leaTII , remember, SU,' settle, td l (= know).
ldg i n, cease, com mence, continue, dare, decide, expect, f orgtt , understand, uonder.
have, hnpe, i mend , learn , like, lot'e, mea" , need ( A), Off", ollght , See page 234.
pref er. pretend, promise, reJUSt: , remembn , start. swear, try ,
wllnt , tnsh.
•
( P ATTEI' S ¢p S u bject & Verb + Direct Object + to·
See pa ges 210 • 230 • J,P . lnfinlrh'e
PATT E R ~ 16: Subject & Ve rb

Infin it ive
+ Inte rroil,at h 'e W ord + to-
-I S TJ:: HHOo
SCBJECT & VER B I
DIRECT OBJ ECT
I to"-I~n SIT IV E
""stT'V~
I'll ask him to help us .
GATIVE T hey wan t m, t o give them a lesson.
SUBJECT & VERB
W OII:U
H e t aught his cat to open the door.
She lik es her guests t o feel at home.
1 ,\; 11 remembe r how to do th is in future . r warn ed him not t o be late.
ho w t o dri ve the car. H e d ared m, to climb the tree,
H e w ill soon fi nd ou t
Do you know how to answer t hat ques-
t ion? I Usua l ve rbs:
Go and ask how to get from the station advis e, allow, ask, c/ln't bear, beg, Co1l/Se, choose, dare (= chal-
to our ho tel.
.
I le nge}, ( "COIITace. expect , fo rce. g(t, hale, hdp. intend, i nvite,
" leave , like, lOt'e, lIIeali (= in tend). order, permit, p"sllade.
1 Q .., /ol /o,, ~, (wit h the m eaning illu strated abo\'e ) and be (With t h e pTtfer. remind, teach, ttll. tempt, llrge, want, uarn, wish.
m.,a ll illg ' ilhutr.. le<.l ebcve ] are the o nly sp<:<:ial finites t ha t ta ke t he
I n finitive wit h lo. _ {~ee p . 1 31 .) Sec pa ges 23 I, 233 .
S entence PMIc"I S
-
A ComprehCllsi t'e E Il", lish Cmmme r ~ PATTE R""' @ S ubje c t & Ve rb ..;- Direct O b je c t ....- Pr-esent I
Part iciple I
P ATTERN ~ S ubject & Verb + D ire ct Obj e ct +
nterr og a t lve \Vord I- to- Infin it ive
- - ----- ----I
DIRECT
SUIlJECT & VEHll PRESEST PAKI"ICIPLE
I Sl:U JECT & DIR ECT
I
I.'\TEH1W -
GATl VE to- I S FI:-> IT IVE -. -
OB J ECT
VERB OB JECT
w o rm He kept me waiting,
-, We saw him pl aying football ,
Show h im Low to d o the cxe r- T caught them stealing apples.
Cl~C .
I I call smell something burning.
I ha d to tell hi m h ow I to make a tet e- Our fas t car lef t the others standi)lg.
phone call. I
You must t he children how to behave pro- i • , ver bs:
Usual
t each perly.
where t o go for a g-ood catch, fe el, find, hear, imagine, kup , leaw , li slen to, look at,
Can you ad- mo
notice, sec , sel, smell, start , li'a/ell.
VI'" meal? ,I
Don ' t forge t me where t o turn off t his See pages 237, 239 ,
r--::-~--::-------,
t o t ell
Usual verbs:
main road.
- I
--,
advise, ask , i nform, remind, ShO ll', icach., fell.
See page 234. • • !lll/ H'I
O~JECT
I'N,;T I'A l< T1U I'L E I
- --- - - - - -
1PATTERN ~ + Geru n d I
- ~ -- -- - - --
Subject & Ver b T want my fish Iricd , no t boiled.

You should get those shoes mended
•
S l: BJ ECT & VERB G E Rl: :->D Th ey have just had th eir h ouse painted.
I We heard thl~ music p J:1Yl'd by t he b a nd.
H e loves ska ti ng, \ \lren t lH'y opened
Your h air need s cutting. the sa fe t he}' found the mon ey gone.
Stop wasting m y time. \\'1.' saw big trees torn np by their
Would you mind pass ing the sugar ? roots .
I can't bear seeing perform ing a n imals. L '-- _
Do you remem ber seei ng that film in London?
L'sual verbs:
[eel, gel, 11(1;),'. hea r, like, !>I,lke, pYl'ja , S<,,', ;,n'!!, 1,'ish
See p.lges 195--6, 237, 239.

5 u:ltlu:e J'(ltfer ns
A Comp rehul$ ive Engli sh Grammar , ) l Rd 401
.... IT lO f( ~~ H' SUbject & Ver b _' Dlrec.
+ (tha t) + Noun Claus;) n ll'rro"ath'c Wor d -I- X ' t Obi"CI "':"
I I
PATTE R:",~j S U bject & Verb ' o u n Cl au se
SliBJECT & \ "ER B (thot) + :;01J:'" CLAl:SE It Sl'RJI::CT &

\"Efl lJ
DIRECT
OBJ r.CT
mc.RO_1
C.:l.T1n: sac s C LAUS E
H e said (th at) they would come and see u s. H e to!d J ames
He intended
I hear
that his son should inhe rit t he bu siness .
(that) y ou are going t o America next
week .
The t eacher
showed
h im
why
how
he must wor k harde r.
he should answer the
quest ion.
I
I'll remind y ou What
I expect (that) you are surprised at the news . Can you tell m, I want you t o do.
whose statue th at is?
Will you u, wJ1Cn t he goods we orl!ered
please inform
Usual verbs: Wll! be despatd ,ed ?
at kl/()U!ledge, admit , arrange, believe, t an'l bear, confess, don't Usu al verbs:
cere, declare, demand , dmy, exped , explai" , f ear, hear, lI ope, cotll'inre • i n''J'Ofm , f( llU./ld. Mtls'\' !tach I II
imagirlt , inUtld, ktl OU', netice, propose, " t ommtlld, soy , see, See 'J. • , ,. • 1£,1r'l
- pages 333, 33.f and 369-71, .
SMtr, suggt st , suppose, th i"k , undtrsta'ui , li-·ondtr.
P.nTE R ~ 24
Set pages 333-5· SUbject & " erb + so
SC BJECT oS: vr un
PATTEE~
t
S u b ject & V"b + D ir-ect Object + (that)
I th ink
+ No un C lau se I He hopes
'0
so
I am afraid
DIRECT (thai) + NOUN CLAUSE •
SUIlJEC' & VERB OBJECT Freque ntly t he pattern is inycrted c
I told h im (th at ) he mu st work harder.

-=-__
so I 'Id i,'u '
...,~ , !' . .g.
so oc 11<'",11. d e .
He warned u, (th at) th e road was a bad P .... n "El: :-; ~4 Bl S ubject & V'-'rb + 1101
one. Thewgati \'c
- , canst rucnon has 11v! Instead f - .
That ex perience hi m (th at) honesty is the best
policy .
I I hO'le not
1
.
H e IS afraid 11(>(. etc.
0 $0 .
t aught
I fmally con..- mced him (HI at) he had been mistaken . TI,e .. c~·~ usillS these construct ions are:
("c 4 ,.11J l¥:litt,( CXP~ct hop
T he verb _" . '.," e. S,,)', SIlP"OS~ . th i'IN See P:l.I;Cr oc.
~ I"", n ot l. t , $t'C can he used ' .
(A l inverted (So ,
I I/(1" , e tc .]
on ..\" With Pa ttern 2...'

A Comprehensive English Gramma r
EXERCISES
CIIA I'T F Il T\ \'E :;'T Y -I\I~E
s bv adding the words
I Complete t he following sen~entc et th e t ype of pattern
you consider necessa ry an s a c Til E PR ON UK CL\TI OK OF E ?\GLI S II
used in each sentence:. " f the wind drops.
1' 1 - - may be sno w this evemng I There are innuruer.rble diHe rent ways of pronounci ng English ,
1' 1 - - is cutting his lawn. l Canada , t he l'nited States, South Afric a , Australia, New
any matches in your pocket. Zealand , Scotland, Ireland , Waks-all han their character;
(3) - t the parcel by registered post,
1.1 - - sen ... t istic pronuncia t ion of E ngiish a nd somet imes severa l varieties
(5) We ima gined - to be hones. I n England itself there a rc man y diffe rent town and count r y
accents ,
p tt rns do you associate
II Wi th what typ~ s of~eH-tenc~a~y ~f them can be used
t he follow ing \e rbs . t ow of Sentence Pat t er n ? The ty pe of pronunci ation which is de,....-ribcd in t his ch a p ter,
wit h more than one ype . can and referred t o in t he hook, is that wh ich is sometimes known
Jell, le a~' e, consider, suspect, choose, deny, rISe, , by t he name ' Receive d P ronu nciation ' (K P. ), It is t hat used
learn, expect. . answer in tile E nglisli ' Public Schools' and by H. B, C. announcers. and
Cons lr ud sentences to illustrate your . conseq uently by very many well-educated Jleople in England,
espec ially ill t he southe rn half of England. It is not associa ted
Construct th ree sentences with each of these patterns. wit h any particul a r town or region of Englan d. and it is
III ( 1) S U BJ E CT A ND V E R B + OI RE CT OI>JECT + P HE PO SI - gcuorallv u nderstood th roughout the English- speaking world .
TIO N + PR E POS IT IO~ A t. aDJ ECT. For t hese reasons it is generally considered t o be t he m ost
(2)
. , + DIRECT OIlJECT + IIARE
SUBJ E CT AND. \E.R.D, b t hat can be used in t h is sui table pronunciation for foreig n st uden ts of E nglish to learn.
I NFI~IT IV E . Give SIX ver s It will be a ppreciated t ha t in a book it is not possible to
Pattern . + E"E'.
~
d escribe sounds adequately- part icula rly th e vowel sounds.
(3) SUB J ECT + VERIl
PARTICIP LE .
7" D,I RE CT-erbsOBJECT
) [entlOn SIX \
PH ••
whi~l can be used • The student sh ould listen, if possible, t o a good speaker of
E nglish or to grumophono records.'
in t his pattern. T he distribu tion of sounds in E nglish is not shown consis-
_ . . Patterns mentioning all t he con- tently by t he spelling, so that in writing about pronunci a tion ~
I V ~ame t he Senten~e n the following sentences: i t is necessary to usc a ph onetic alphabet. In t his book a
stit uent parts use I f II
id s the examination a ter a . broad form of til e I nterna tiona l PllOnetic Alpha bet is used.
(I) It s~ems that he dl. ~as I can 't tell when to tcle- In a phonetic transcription , t he sa me letter a lwa ys represents
{z) Can t you keep q UlCL (d31 , h r husban d .... hen she t he same sound, or, more e xactly, t he S01me pllOncme. Although
hi
pho ne rm. 4 "
I) ::ihe r ermn
I ) t'( e .
I should like my h,m c u
t
t he [I] at t he beginning of a word, e,g, lea], is a differen t sound
wa nted to use the car .. 5 t adilv (7) They
short . (6) Ke e p ploddm~ al%)1\~uemu;t'shOW your from the [I] at t he end of a word , e.g. fe el, t h is diffe rence is
never used in E nglis h to distinguish words: beth [ljs are
challenged us to r un a m~~. (9) He does not kn ow
son how to dance sm~ Yto remain silent . (10) I mem be rs of tIl e same p h01UlJle, a nd we can use t he sa me
when to speak and \\ h;~he refused to accept m y symbol for both , noting where ea ch va rie ty will occur. On t he
offered to help th em bu 1/ tennis tha n watc h It. other hand , si,~ a nd Si'lg are recogn ized as different wo rds in
offer. ( II) I would ra t her f Y. k 1' 31 This watch Engl ish by th e cont rast be tween [n] and (1)J; t hese so un ds
f • ted for SIX wee s , .
( I2) The rest ras , . ( \ We ellVY you you r t herefore form separate phonemes.
should last you allHyO\~rl:fe'a
good fortune. (15 ) c " as es
:di
of time on propping
I F or e~ ;:ml'lc, EHentilJ1 English gramophone record, [Linguaphonej
up the bar at t he Club.
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A Comp rt!lmsivl Engli sh Gram mar
\ T H E SOU:-;DS OF E:-;CLl SII ! ,
<DIVo",", 1 .-\ dipht hong (h fiers from a pu re \"owe! IJ\ that ti le t ongue
T he ch ar ac terist ic sound of a vowel is d eterm i ~:'~nb~~ ~ ~ : and lips. instead o f rClIlaiJ,ing in a fixed position, move while
shape given t o the interior of t he m
. d h t e Vowels may
"d'a""'
be° u t,h b}fi'
c ass! e
, Flr~nt Back
.
it is be ing- pronou r.ced. I n practice it can he regarded as a
~~:~tr:1 :Cc~~~g t o whether the fro~t. back orcent~al pa rt
cur,loill3.liu ll of two vowe! sounds; IJIlt a llil'ht hong can foml
only OPl' syll able or part of a syllao!e . and the transit ion from
. ised In E nglish th e bps are generally spread
of t he tongue IS tal - hi t h t gue is raised t he one element to the other is m ade not bj- an abru pt challge but
~~r~ft~e~~f:~~;'~:~~S;:~~ ~~e~ene~a~_~' Slig~\~~u~~~~ by a grad ual glide. TIle p honctic symbols represent 'a pproxi-
mately the beginn in;; and t he en d of each diph thong.
for t he bac k vc wets--ebe higher t he ton gue IS TaIS r ' . .
t he lips are rounded. For the Central vowels, t he IpS are In a
neutral posi t ion; the}' must not be rounded. Pholll"/!c Sylll ,'>o1
E\;IIII'l '!rs
-' r.1) ci pay, cake, face . a ble, game.
We dis tinguish twelve pure vowel sounds: -' l.j) ou low, no. both , sOJ.p. own.
~ t .5 \ ai
I FROST VOWEL") ": r6) au
lit>, by, kind. five, ice.
Exa,nplts cow, now, out, rou nd , mout h.
P1wru1ic Symbol -{ I j ) III
Loy, to}', noise , oil, coi n . .
High ..(1) i: sea, sheep, eat, seat, leave. ,
-' IS) ia beer, ncar , beard, here , ear.
..(2) i sit , live , cit y, sing , ink. . (19) ea
Low
I ~3) ,
.(4) a
set , bed, ten , egg, had.
bad, sa t , apple, man, ca t.
.(20)
-I"2I )
00
ua
t here, pear, ch ai r, air, care .
1100r, tore, roar, sh ore .
10 1lf, moor. cu rious [' kju;Jri;Js)
•
:S)TE. ~Ianr spl'akf'rs of R.P. do not use Diphthong :-: 0 . co.
lfl.'CK VOWE LS I They u se ins tead vowel XO.,7 [0 :), and p-ronounce [do :],
Low -(S) a: bath, cart, heart, fa t her, far. [to :], etc . •
-i6) ° hot, often, dog , long, wash .
saw, sort, caught , law , nor.
..(1) 0: @ kU>O SO>OA:;TJ
-is) u good, put, book, full, wood .
H igh 4 9) u: bl ue, sou p, root, fool, boot. Consonan ts lIlay be classified according t o t he way the}' arc
l otn1l'd in t he mouth . Ti le Jollowing types arc llist iul;lIisllCd ill
E nglish :
\ CE S TRAl VOWE LS ,
(t) P tosire, "DIe breath is sto pped compl etely III the mouth
cut, come, young , mother , gun , relea sed SUddenly with all e xpl osive sound.
-(10)
..(n )
-{u )I
It,
~:
~
bird, .....ord. earth, fur, hurt.
asleep, father , Saturday,
o
l!;lt l tll CII
r ' jcd til:!. The breath is not completely stopped but the
iI.I~ -pac .ll;ll is narrowed in t he mouth so t hat frlo.t um r an be
heard .
labour.
6 ,') A rr!jC~ Similar t o a plcsive consonan t. but the release
I This lOund occur. only in unstreued syllable-;, o('TJ';e-l lr IS ess sudden , so that it sounds lik e a pJosive con-
son ant followl,d by J. fricative.
406 A ComprthCIIsiw E llglish Gralilmar T he PrOl1un ciatiOil of English

@ N asal. The breath is compl~ tely s t~ppcd ill t he mo uth (as
4
j "'ICd css I Q)( \'"ASi\ 1. (O,'1 S 0~ A ~ TS I V oiced
for th e jSlOsive consonants) but IS permitted t o come through
the nose. X ,'Sa.! p d~silg e ope1l 1/1Id
6) ~Ii.t!ou'el. Like vowel-sounds, but so sh or t th at they Mouth stopped as for [1'], [IlJ m
form on ly a g1Tde t o the fo\luwing sound , and are t rea ted as Mnurh st opped as for [t], [dJ n
consonant s. . Mouth stoppell as for (kJ, [gJ
In addition there are two English consonan t sounds whi ch
cannot be placed in any of the above catego ries .
V OICE D A l' D V OICE L ESS SO UN DS . Sounds m ay he produc ed G)[Snu-VOWELS i
wit h vibration of the vocal chords (voiced sounds) or w it hou t
vibration (voiceless sounds). As a result the~e ar.e many pairs Like \'ery short fa]. Lips rounded . w
of consonant s which have t he same formation 11\ t he mou th I. lkl.' \"Cry short Iil- J
but are distinguished by being voiced in one case, voiceless in Wider ope n ing than for UJ [::;J; t iP of r
t he other. tongue curled bac k, but retracted from
the teeth-ridge so that there is littl e or
V oicd ess 0 (P LOS1VE CO~SON .\ NT;; I V oiced no fri ction. Body of tongue lowered .
B reath slopp ed by.'
b
P Lower lip against u pper lip .
d @iOTIlERCO~SONA:\TS r
t Tongue against teeth-ri dge.
g Tip of tongue t ouching t eeth or teet h, f
k Back uf t U1l6tUl: against ruof of mouth
ridge , sides of t ongu e lowered.
@ F R IC ATI V E C ONSO:-;A ~TS As th e body of the t ongu e is tree t o ta ke
A ir-p assage na rroweil 'Ili'U II.' • • up many different positions in t he
f Lower lip and upper teeth. v mouth , it is possible to pronounce as
e T ip of tongue and upper teeth . e m any varieties of [IJ as t here are vo wel
s Tip of to ngue and teeth ridg e. z sounds. In. English we. lIlay distinguish •
J Fron t of tongue and bac k of teeth- two vanctrcs-c-an [ij-Iike [l]th at occurs
ridge , wit h wider opening than lor at the beginning of a word or SYllable
[5, z] . (leilf, laugh) and a 'darker' [uJ-like [I)
G:>(A FF Rl c .... rE C() ~ SOX .... XT i) that occurs fi nally or before a consona nt
d- (feel , milk).
tJ Like rD and [3) but ti p of tongue "
touching teeth-ridge to 'make a com- b Br:ath only, the mouth ill position t
plete stop at first. articulate the foJlowing vowel. a I
'c Like [r] but tip of t ungue touchi ng
te eth-ridge to make a comple te stop at Note Oi l [r]. By speakers of RP., this sound is pronounced
fi rst . I n [t rl the [r) also is voiceless, the o.ll.zy before a ~'Ofi'el sound. It docs therefore not occur in words
~ r] elemen t has mo re fric tiou t han (r] like card, u;orth, form [kard. w~:e, fo:m], in words like fathe r
alone. «car, lore pronounced III isolation ['fa:oo. nia, tot], or in the
Ii l, omprehenSwt t.ngtish Grammar T he Pronunciation of Ellglish 409

sentences: ' He was near the door'; 'He tore the pa per' . But \\ 11.en a voiceless c on so~ an t closes the syllable, th ese vowels
[r] is pronounced in ' Father ate them'; 'far away': 'ncar and and dlph~h.ongs arc ve ry ht!le !onger th an other vowels in the
far' ; 'for e ver", since in these examples the words are pro- same posltl?n. Thus t here 1S httle difference in the lw gth of
nounced without a break, and tr.e sound immediately following the vowels m th e following pairs of words:
the let ter r is a vowel. btat [bitt], bit [bit]; f oot [hit], boot [hu :t]: short [jo rt], shot
[Jot]; bite [baitJ, bllt [b.\ t); reach lrutfl. rich [ritfl.
Double consonants rarely occur within English words. EW'Jl <U [.. on SOI/ IIlII>
..
when two consonan t letters are written (e.g. biller, banner, The consonants [IJ. [rn], (nJ and Inl are similarly lengthened
follo w), only a ~'i ngle consonant is pronounced, Do ubl e COI\ ' at th e end of a word or before a fi nal voiced consonant.
sonants mav. however. occur in compound words or where a
word ending \\" it~ ,.,1. consonant is followed by a word beginning Thus:
.....ith a similar conson ant. c.g. pm-knife [pen-naif], full lo.ld killed [kil :dJI kill [kil:j kilt [kilt ]
[Iul loud], bad dream [bad drirru]. In these circums tances a hummed [ha nud] hum [l1l,m:] hump [hamp]
consonant of double length is pronounced. When tw o plosive things [Bin:z] t hing [Bin:] th ink [BilJk]
consonants are brought t ogether in th is way, there is us ually wind [winrd] win [wiru] wince (wins]
only one explosion , bu t the sto p is held longer than for a single
consn nant , e.g . bed time, big dog , sit dou-n, u'Jw! time.'
ISTRESS]
, St r~ss is th~ prominence ~ive~ to certain syllables by varia-
nons in tile pitch of the voice (m tonation) and by the use of
(9 VJtu /s il1hiJ2Itht~0':ii g~e ater .brca~h for~e. A syllable may have main stress, in-
All the diphthongs, and the vowels containing the 'lengti: dicated m this section by th e sign (') placed before the stressed
mark' I :] in t heir phonetic symbol ' (i:, a:, 0 :, U:, at} m ay be syllab le; or secondary stress, indicated by (') 0' () done di
on whether rt IS
let er It ts Heh
high -ot , 'r~nmg
-pitched or low-p itched : or it may be
given greater length in certain positions. T hese are (a) when
they are followed by a t'oiud con sonant; (b) when they are in tlnstressed. ~
an open syll able at the end of the word . (Note th at these arc • \V~lCn a syllable has main .stress,.it carries on e of th e rising
th e only vowel sounds wh ich can occur at the end of a '....ord in a or fa llmg tones that character-ize th e intonatio n tunes described
stressed syllable.) on pp. 41 2-41 ,'). ~Vhen we quote monosyllabic word s in isolation
we .generally give them main st ress an d say th em with a
T hus the vowel in: :alh ng tOIlC. when \\:e quote words of two or more syllables
bee [bi t] and brad [bi:d j is longer than the vowel in beat [bi: ~ : . 1I1 the same way, we gl\'C mam stress (generally with a falling
car [kai], card [kurd] is longer than the vowel in rart [kan].
SII :II [sot]. s!wrd [50:d] ts longer than that ill sought (so:t]. : 'fhe [ :l .~s here.u si gn of extra lenl;: th.
bow [bau]. bOlad [b uud] is longer than that in bOllt [baut]. . - I n R. \m gdon 5 The GTOlmdu.'ork of E nglish Sire.. where t he sub' t
play [plei], pl'J)!cd [pleid] i~ longer than that in plate [pki (
IS fully tr ea ted . th e t er m 'Kineti c stress' i. used fo; main st ress
the " terms
J"d
1 f 'Full h Static
h' .stress' and 'Pa rti a l .Stattc
.. ~ stress'v
., .~ ,
a rt us<:ures_
_.; an
I'e~ rve Y or t e rgn-pnched and t he low·pitche<l ' -arieties of secon '
I The ,"'Owd ra j may abo be leng-then'l<! in the 'ro~ech of m an" stress. ~v ar)
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T ilt Pronunciation of English

tone) to one of the syllables. The main stress is Oil the
first syllable in : 'orange, 'custom, 'picture, 'yellow. It is Oll
t he second syll able in : in'tend, for'get: ex'plain, a'gain. ST RESS I~ CO>1~ECTED SPEECI-I
When a syllable has secondary stress, it does not carry a (SE~ TEKC E STHE SS)
rising or a fa lling tone (except wh en it forms part of certain
com plex t ones) but it is said on a level pitch , which may be Ir connected speech, words arc not treate d as separate
hig h or low depending on its place in the intonation tune th at uni ts thcv form themselves into intonation groups. I n each
is being used. The Io'Jowing words have a main stress, a inton rtion group generally only one syllable, belonging to the
secondary stress, and one or more unstressed syllables: word to which the speaker is giving most prominence, will
have main stress ; the other words wi ll have their normal main
'civili'zatio n , ex'ami'nation , 'photo,graph , 'budgerigar .
s tresses weakened to secondary stres ses or will be completely
The principles governing the incidence of st ress in English
unstressed. The words which are frequently uns tressed in
words are rather com plex . The following points. however,
spcech ! are the ar ticles, t he personal, possessive and relative
ma y be of help:
proncuns, the parts of the verb "be" , auxiliary verbs immedi-
G) I n words of Germa nic origin, the ma in stress is generally ately prec eding their main verbs, some con junct ions and
on the root. The prefixes bc-, for o, a-, are unstressed. Thus: some prepositions (except when final). So we say:
be 'gin, be'low, tor'get . for'lom, a'stcep , a'cross. a'skcw. 'Wh at are yo u 'th inki ng a,bout?
CD In words of Latin or Greek origin enlling in -sion, -tion, He should have 'fi nished it 'earlier.
-iai, -ictal), -ian, -ture, the main stress is generally on the He 'asked for his 'hat and 'coat.
sylla ble preceding the se f'ndings , If this brings the mai n
st ress later th an the second syllable a secondary stress is
placed on one of the fi rst t wo syllables, Thus: 'vision , pre-
'cision , 'civ ili'zation , po'si tion. ' bene 'ficial, i 'niti al, e'Iectric(al),
1RHYT H"1
There is a strong tendency in English speech to make the
his'toric(al), ' photo'graphic, phy'sician, mu'sician. ad'vcntnre, stressed syllables occur at appro ximately regular interval s of
en'rapture, ex'ami'nation . time. Thus the three sentences in each of the following groups,
(i)Two-s yllable words which may serve as nouns or as verbs t hough differing from each other in number of syllab les, t ake
offe'n h ave the mai n stress on the first syllable whe n nouns, approximately the same time to say, because they ha ve the "
and on t he second when verbs, e.g. sa me number of stressed syllables:
Noun: 'produce, 'record, 'export, 'conduct . J, I 'saw t he 'car 'last 'night.
Verb: pro'duce. re 'cord , ex'port, con'ouct. I in'spcct cd the 'car 'yest erday 'evening.
I should ha ve in'spcctcd the 'vehicle 'yesterday 'en ning.
Some two-syllable words have both syllables stressed (til e
second wit h main stress, the first with high secondary stress), 2. ' Please ' pass 'that 'book
Whe n one of these syllables occurs ne xt t o a nother stressed ' Kindly 'give me 'that 'book.
syllable, it frequently loses its stress. Thus we say (in isolation): 'Kindly pre'scot him with the 'oth er ' book ,
'un'known ' prin'ccss, 'fif'feen ; but (in context) : ' Princess ':lbny of the se wo rds undergo chan ges i n t heir sou nds when un_
'Margaret , the 'young prin'cess, the 'unknown 'sol dier, stressed. For t he 'w""k Ior ma ' sec D . Jone~, E"gluh P ro"o,,,,,u lg
'two-fi f teen , Dictionnry, "nll II , E. Palm.'r, A Gramm,, ' oj Sp"kcli L"C!i,h, sect ions
' 5 fi.
TIl<: P ronu nciation Qj English 4 13
Th is characteristic of English may be compa red to musical As will be seen from the examples, stressed syllables which
rhythm as represented by bar-lines. There may be any number precede the syllable with ma in stress (i.e. that on which the fall
",. of notes in a bar of music, but the accented notes (t he first occurs) will be h igh-pitched at the beginning of the sentence,
in each bar) \\;11 fa ll at regular inte rvals of time. gradually descendmg as the main stress is approached. Un-
s t~ syllables are generall y said on a low tone if at the
I r XTOXAT IOX \ beginning of .the sentence, and otherwise on the same pitch
There is a close association , as we have seen, between stress as t he preced ing stressed syl lable; syllables following the main
and intonation I_the rise and fall in the pitch of the voice st ress are low-p!tched. Th e Falling Tune is used for: (A)
when speak ing. I n English, certain patterns or tunes of in- commands; (B) SImple sta tements of fact ; (C) quest ions intro-
tonat ion tend to be associated with different t ypes of sentence duced by a "quest ion-word " (i.e. When ? Where ? Why?
or utterance. The int onat ion may also indic ate the speaker 's \\-llat ? \ Vl lich ? How? Who(m)? \\lJose?) In st atements and
aUitu de t o wha t he is saying (e.g. degree of excitement , commands it often suggests abruptness and finality .
interest, sur prise) or t o his listener (o.g apology, symp athy,
impatience), { Ni si" !! Tl/1te I
We can dist inguish three basic intonation tunes:2
! FaiJi"g Time! - ..
, ... 1- '\ j- •
-
-{A) 'Give it to me. 'Come 'here. 'Please comt' 'here im'rnediately.
., • •
- .I
-{O) ',\ s I had 'just .started . ,. 'On t he .whole . , .
5]· - ' - , · · 1.
-(B) 'No, He 'wen ~ a'way 'yesterday. He's
.' .
' remedying it.
• • • •
.I
\ 1- ' . \ 1- \
'\\llen you ar,fl ve .
_ ..
•
..(C) 'Why? '\,,"h3t do you 'want? 'How 'are you? - .. - • 1- . ./ I- • • ./
-{E) . " ,if I re,member . . , ,on the .whcle. . " ,when you ar,rive.
•
'\\llen did you 'co~ e here?
• Fl;Ir fuller t rea t ment of intona.tion see: R. Kingdon , .... , Gro"" d:rc.1I
of E.., li d. / .. tortati",,: ..nd fOI rractlce 5<'ntencn, \ \'. S. Allen, Ii!"ir.:
E .., l id, Spud, lnd R . Ki n gdon, E .., l i •• / .. "", ~:i,", P,.. : ,iu.
• Th e t ... o horizo r.tal lines represent t hc upper and lo.. er li m it~ of t !':e
speak.illJ voice, A line is used for a s tressed sylla ble, a d ot fur an u n·
•
- •
-{F) ' Hs ve you 'finished? 'Can you 'fix it for me?

• •
'1-' .J
Itreucd sy U6ble. 'Is it 'true?

---- .
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Th e Prrm rmciation 0'J1 ElIgl i sh 4r5
I n this tune, th e syllable wit h main stress-c-indicutcd hy t he A varianon .o f t his tune is used t o give spec ia l prominen
sign (.) or (')- will, if it is t he last syllable of t he sentence or to one word with the implication of cont rast with some othce
group , begin o n a low pitch and rise shar ply. If it is not t he word ., Then th e .fa ll may be replaced by a rise-Iall. If t:;
last syllable, it will be said on a low pi tch , and the rise will prom.ment word IS at end of t he sentence, t he result ing rise.
be spread over the following syllables . Stressed and unst res..ed fall-rise may occur on one word or even on one svllable: it is
syll ables preceding t he mai n stress are treated as in the Fallmg t hen shown by the sign (~. • ,
Tune. TIle Rising Tunc is used for: (D) subo rdi nate c1au ~ c s
and phrases preceding the ma in clause and {omling an ill -
tonation group separ at e from it; (E) similar clau.e s and pllra.-;es /'. - -,- -- - - - - . - .
following the main ctcusc: (F) questions that r-an be answer... ,1 ..(J ) "'I don 't ,want it. It 'isn 't t he "money t ha t's im,portant .
by 'Yes' or 'No'. I n statements t he tunc freq uent ly suggests
incompleteness. I n qu estions the rise is usually carried to a
h igher poin t th an ill statemen ts.
Fa/li'lg-Risi'lg T Ime
.---/.. . ./ ,. - --,. :1. - -"'\.,.
..(1\:) 1 'd idn't ....mean ,that. It 's 'not "'difficult . It 's ' not ""hard.
•
E XEHCISES
-(G) ' Very ,well. 1 'c a n' t come to-morrow. ' ~ot "now.
I .\ \l lich t ype of English pronunciation do you t hink it
1:1 best for you t o learn? Give reasons.
II I n each of the following grou ps of words one has a
different .,,"owel (or dipht hong) sound Ircm t he two
~H ) 'Sit .dcwn . 'Corne ,1lere , please. 'wait for "me. others. Pick ~)Ut this word and show t he d itlerence by
uSing phonetic symbols:
(I ) bread, neck, snake. (2) live, reave, keep , (3) have
·\-·1·\ • men. bad, (of) luck. come, put. (5) a ll. coa l, Jaw. (6) good:
food , root. (7) cart, bath, bag. (8} cow, 110, low, (9) hear,
clear, bear. (to) cau ght, w hat, short .
•
-(I ) I'm 'so .sorry. I 'beg your .p ardon. " Sorry ,

III wrue .the folJowi,ng passage, crossing out t he let ter 'r '
I n t his t une one wo rd ma y ta ke t he fall, an d a later one t he each time that it is noll'ronoullced as a consona nt erl
rise , or t he fall -ri se may be concent ra ted 0;1 one word if it is t bc It occurred to me that I had never seen a pa ir c t men
last word of t he sent ence ; in t his la t ter case It is shown bv th e more fi tted for t heir chosen work. T hey were loyal to
sign (~ . T his t une is used: (G) for hesitan t ;;tatelllc nl ~ or e.ach o ther, and if th ey brought oJ! a success Ior lhe
t hose containing an implica t ion , or where tile Falling Tune College, t hey would each attribut e it 10 t he other. llut
most men considered that C. was t he dominating spin to
would give t he impression of abruptness; (H) for polite I Ie hatl a strea k of fierceness, and t he nrill t y which
req uest s; (I) for a pologies attracts respec t _ a mI resent ment-from o ther men

416 A Comprchm sit,c E nglish Grammar
IV S ay in which o f the following words t he vowel (or
diphthong} so und w il l be le ng t he ned Ill' the co nso na n t
w h i~ h follows it : ClIA l'T EK T lI lHT Y
\Vheat, big:, seed. cloud , clothe>! , rise, shoot .
.\ BRIEF HISTORY OF THE Ei\ GLISH
\' (a) Mark th e main stress (a nd , where appropriate, LANGUAGE
secondary stress) in the following word s:
oper a t ive, geographer, biograph~ca1..~iYilization, begi.n - When the Romans came to Britain , first under Julius Caesar
flin g, incli n'a t io n , d evelop. eligibility. sympa th etic. in 55 B.C. and later under Claudius in A.O.42, they foun d a race
iii) Th e follo wing wonts can be stressed eit her o n ~he of Celtic people, the Britons, in occupation. These Britons
[lIs t or on t he se cond syllable. Show how the resulting resisted the Romans fiercely on the shores of south-east
pa irs d iffer in meaning and pronunciation :
refuse, frequ e n t , present, rebel , object. England but they were finally conquered and driven back.
The Romans 'were no t the first invaders of t he cou ntry . The
VI (til ),{ark t he main s tresses in the following sentences . Brit ons themselves had come as invaders and they had been
(Il) Name. or show , t he I ~ to nat ion Tu nes t ha t would preceded by others, but until the coming of the Romans no
normally be used in s peaking them , written record of these influxes had been made. Gradually the
( I) Can you remember the name of the ma nager? invader occupied the greater part of the count ry, but soon he
(2) But whercs th e mOlley that I left on t~l<~ table? came up against the obstacle that had no doubt hel d up earlier
(3) Don't be afraid . Come ov er here and SIt do~·n . invaders and was to hold up later ones-the mountains of
( 4 \ I don't thin k you 'll man age to Gut It With t hai
. , Wares and Scotland. Among t he mountains the Britons took
knife. W hy don'f you borrow mille, , refuge and here the invader was forced to come to a stop.
(5) Alt ho ugh r should have liked to see her, It was During the ne xt {our hundred years, though England be-
im po~slbl e for me to go th ere. , . came a Roman colony, Wales and N.W, Sco tland remained
(6) Th e big. brown book ,,'ith the leather b md m!i was
wr itten bv a ter m er Prime Minister.
largely un con quered. The Romans made their magnificent
(7) What I can never und erstand is w h ~ h e comes here roads into Wales (Watling Street we nt from London t o
a t all. . • Anglesey). they built camps at Caernarvon (Segon tium) and
(8) He ca ll certainly swim well, but he can' t ride a at Cacrteon, and great walls to keep back t he Scots. But
bin-cl eo d I· .
outside the camps and beyond the \\'all, the R om an influence
(9) Wouldn 't you like some more 01 these c lClOUS was hard ly felt , the old Celtic language was spoken and Latin
chocolates? never became a spoken language th ere as it d id in England , lit
(!OJ Get ou t of my sight and never dare to come near any rate in the larger towns.
my house ac:ain! I n .\ .0 . 4IO the Romans left Britain ; t heir soldiers were
needed to defend Rome it self against the Goths. It was then
that t he Angles and Saxons and Jutes came and seized th e
un defended Britain . And they came t o st ay. Once more the
Britons of England were driven t o the mountains of Wales and
Scot land , W. Ireland and the Isle of Man , to Cornwall or
Brittany.
I THE CELTIC EL EM EN T]
Tile language spoken by t hose Briton s has developed into

Welsh, spoken by the people of W ales ; Gaelic, spo ken in
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4l S
A Brief History of Ih,: F:1/;1i5h L.lIlg'j,lge .P9
parts of t he Hig hlands of Scotland: Erse. spoccn in I rela nd :
and Breton , spoken in Britta ny in France Tb-rc i~ still some from Schleswig the Saxons from Holstein . t he [utr-s from
Ma nx spoken in the Isle of Man , bu t I t \s dying ou t; and there Jutland . T11c lan'tl1ilge t hey al l s poke belonged to till' t .cnnanic
u sed to be a Cornish language, but this di...1 out In the eigh- speech family, This in t urn was separated Into th ree main
tceu th cent ury. \\"elsh and E rsc. Laclic l Irctc n and ~l a ll x . families: c.\ST cnmA"IC, wh ich died (ou t wah Goth ic a ho llt the
t hough t hey come from t he same a ncestor , are not of course l"ig-i.Ih eentury! "CIRrI! CEIi'l.-\X1C:, wl.i::h <1,'\'P.!op,,,1 into
t he sam e language. but a Welshman would probably be under- Swedish, Xcrwcgian , Danish and Icrlnndic ; 'l!1l1 Wb l "E li-
stood (with d ifficu lt y) by a Bret on, and a Manxman might )!t\ X IC, from which a re descended Dutch, Flemish. Friesian
make something of a speech in Gaehc or Ersc. But if an anti English. nut t il,' Germanic 1:,n~af: l'S al e m("lcl y one
E nglishman heard a speech in any of th ese languages he would branch of another great family, the Indo-European, wInch
not understand a single word of It fo r the Englis:l that h e comprises most of the langu a ges of Europe and I nd ia . Th e
speaks comes, not from the Britons who withstood the Romans. paren t I ndo-E uro pe a n language began several thousands of
but from t he An gles who made Bri tain 'Angle-la nd': and years II C. , probabl y in South Europ..~ near t he .\ sia h border.
E nglish t ook prac tica lly not hing from the old Celtic language. It sprcarl \\"e~t into E urope and East into i ndia, splitting .. ltd
The words au, brock (= a badger] , ~a"" ock ( = a loaf of moc1ifying into various Iorms as it spread and carne into
home-made bread) and bin (=- a manger) are probably contact wi th othe r Jallgn agt's of different origin ,\ 5 a H'Sl,1t of
s ur vivals of Brit ish words. and there have been uuportat ions t ht'sc division, there ;\H' tw o main brour~ of la nguages ill the
into English at a la ter da te; tram Welsh: dnlld. fia.wd . E://ll . I ndo-E urope a n family; there is tilt, western gwu p, cont.uu-
bard; from Scotch Gaelic : cairn. clar., p laid . !i'hisk)': and from Illg Germanic, Ccit ic , Creek . Latin , and there IS th e Easl.!rn
I rish : brogue, shamroch, galore. . group ("olltaming Hulto-Slnvonic , Indo-Iranian. Albanian and
Bu t somet hing "f Celtic has been fossilized in numerou s Armenia n . The chart on page ,12 r will show t llt~ m odern
place names . Ten of our rivers still have the beautiful name 01 de scen dants of Indo-European and their rulation slup to cnch
At'on , from t he Celtic word for rl!'n; and Esk, Ex. Usk, OIlSt . other.
AiTe are all Irc m the word l OT 'water', The J)OIl and t he DOll1le T he_language that these invaders of England spoke was a
(like t he Vallubel) are from another old Celtic word fOI u ater wes t u ennamc member of the I ndo-European languages. We
StOlt " ~ Tees, T rent, lI'y e and Wry are :1.11 C el ~c names. The generally term it 'Anglo-Sax on'. TIle Jutes settl ed in Kent ,
Celtic dIm (= a protec ted place) can hi: SC":1 in DWldee . DlIl,bar Southern Hampshire and the Isle of Wight ; the Saxon s in the
a nd in t he old name for Edin burgh Dlm cd in ; K ill ( = a rest of Southern England south ol t he T hames: t he Angles ill
ch urch) in K ildare, K ilkenny : --<(mi lle (cwm) (=z a hollow) ir: the l.md nmth flf till' Thames. E ach {,f t Il<' t hlt ·(, t ribe-, sp"k..
IIfracombe. Combe Ma rt in: caer ('"" a cil~tle) in Ctl!'rlcn... a dincren t Ic nu of their common language, nnd so HI England
Carl isle, Cardiff; and -llan (= holy) in L!,.w~c Icn L!.:md t!J r) (' Brit ain ' ha.j now become ' E nglal nnd', ' the land of the .\n;;lc-s')
The na mes London , DCT.'fT, Y ork , Gtas u> are lll.hh, and ~ th ree d ifferent dialects de veloped-c-or rather four ;li alf'C t~, for
t ill" first pa t t of Dorchester, (." /olfcecter , .\[ '.v·, -~('~ , . tc very "'0011 tw o roa ns grew u p m t he Xcrth , one spoken no rt h
Salisbury, to which has been added tilt' old l: n,! rsh < or t he Humber [Xorthurnb ria rn, the o t he r sou th, f t he Humber
(from th e La t in (astra = 3. ca mp or ·/.lI<T;h =:'l for t (:\lerciall). The dialect of t he Saxons W~ calhx! Wes t Sax(on ,
t h a. t of the Jutes w a ~ calle,,} KL,r;ti;oh . .-\t f\ r ~t It was t he
X orthumbrian with its centre at York tha t l!t·, 'e1opt;'d the
' THE '-\" G'-O-S.~ .'\() " ELl ~1F' .•, hi gi llst st.tndard of o: u:tu re It \\' ~ In ~orthumhlia in the
The sto ry of Enghsh in England , therefore, l oegins in : !"Ie ill~: eighth cen tury that Caro mon. t he tirst gre-at English poet ,
half of t he fifth century when t he ill\'3.dcIS can~e, tile .-\nbl<
1 II,,: th " (;vt bi,' u f Ih\l e, m"',1 1~; 1,~1 ""LI ,11.•.,1 1500 Pr.'d ,(', d l ~'
, G~.m" .. l.>vn~.". t he only wr;t;n,ll> tli"l \, e h,n'" , f G,tl"" ;Il" f",~"" ",.. uf.l !ran<foltl''''
of t h e BillIe m "lc I,,' II; ll(ol' t'lfi h s \ fJ .ll!-~d
A Brie] I l istory of tht Ellglisli Lallg'''lge 421
wr ote h is poetry, and it was into Xor thu mbrian that the
Venerable Bede translated the gospel of St. J ohn . Then for a
t ime under Alf red the Great (R.,S-<)O I), who lind his capit al in
Winchester and who encouraged learning in h is king dom ami also
was himself a great writer. West Saxon became pre-eminent .
It remained pre-emi ne nt u ntil E dward the Confessor held his
cou rt not in \Vinchester but in westm tn st ce. T hen Lcndcn
became the capi tal of the country; and from ;\Iercian , the
dialect spoken in Lond on - and at Oxford and Camb ridge-
came the st andard English that we speak tod ay. But t he
language of England in the time of Alfred be ars little resem-
blance t o t he langu age of tod ay .
An glo-Saxon or Old Engtish! was an inflected language, but
no t so highl y inflected as Greek. La tin or Gothic. Thu s there
were five cases of nouns (Sominative, Voca tive, Accu sative,
Genitivc, Dative ), 'strong ' and 'weak ' declensions for ad -
ject ives (each with five cases); there was a Iull conj uga tion of
ve rbs-c-complcte with Subj unc tive- and there was a sys tem
of grammatical gender. So in Old English htlPld wa s feminine,
f ot (= foot ) was m asculine, hut /uafod (= head ) was neu ter;
Ii- if ( = wi fe) was neuter, but l..-((mall n [e-e womun] was
masc uli ne ; (he;: (= day) was masculine but nih! (= n igh t)
was femin ine.
Most of that has changed. Tn m odern English , as you have
seen, grammatical s ender of nouns has completely d isappeared,
adjectives no longer 'agree' wi th their nouns in numbe r, ease
and gender , nouns have only two cases, verbs very few terms,
and the subjunctive h as practically disappeared . Most of these
changes were caused, or at an)' rate hastened, by the two ot her
invasions of England . •
I T il E D ASISII EL BIE:q l
T he firs t of these was by the 'Xo rth men ' or Danes . Towards
the dose of the eigh t h centu ry th ey a ppeared. fi rst as raiders,
t he n as conq ue rors and settle rs. F or a time they were held at
bay by Alfred and t he count ry was d ivided, the no rthern hall
or ' Danelaw' being ruled by t he Danes, the southe rn hal f by
1 T he h istory of Englhh it di\'idtd into th r~ l'«l il)n ~: Old EtlgliJ1I,
from the eadiest "ritten documen ts t o t he end of I he !OC\"en lh cen lu ry;
J,f iJdl , E ftgl .. 1I, ..eventl, century t o I~OO: .Hodo.. £"I:IiJII, t ~O<) to
prC"'>Cnt da r.

A Brief History of the English Language 423
Normans. We generally date the Norman-French period in
E nglish history from the invasion by \\'illiam the Conqueror
in 1066, but Norman influence had appeared before then. The
Saxon King Etll elred the Unready (reigned 978-1016) had
married a No rman princess, and his son Edward the Confessor
(r0 42-1066), who reigned after him, had been brought lip in
France, with the result t ha t a number of French words had
come into the language before \Villia rn the Conqueror became
K ing of England .
T he Normans were descended from t he same fierce warrior
race of 'Norsemen' as had harried Englan d a century before
t he coming of the Conqueror. I n 912 Rollo the Rover was given
Norm and y by the F rench King Ch arles the Simple. \ ....ith
amazing vigour t he Normans became one of t he most highly
organized states in t he world . They adopted French as t heir
language, embraced Christ ia nit y and became renowned for
their lea rn ing, their mi litary prowess and their organizing
ability. Arter defeating the English king, Harold, at Hast ings
in 1066 , William t he Conqueror began t o organize England on
the Norman pattern , Many F renchmen came to England
bringing the rich learning and developed c iviliza ti on of
Nor m andy, and putting England in to t he full stream of
Europea n culture and thought. The Norm ans ruled with a ha rd
hand, and the defeated Saxons suffered oppression and in -
dignities. F or t he ne xt three centuries a ll the Kings of England
spoke French: all t he power in Court and castle and Church
was in the hands of t he Normans, and the Nor m ans organized
from above t he lives and activities of the conun on people. The
language they spoke wus French and t hey ne ver d reamed of
doing t heir organizing in any language except French o r Latin.
For about t hree hundred yea rs t wo langu ages were spoken
side by side in England. The 'official ' langnage was French ;
E ngl ish was spoken only by the 'common' people.
rai se Hober t of Gloucester. writing about 1300, says:
trom 1m
blossom bloom. 'S o, E ngla nd came into Norrnundv's hand; awl t he
Normans spoke F rench just as tlll;y did a t homo.', an d ha d
t heir ch ild re n taught in the sa me man ner so t hat people of
ran k in th is c ou nt ry who ca me of t heir blood all stic k to th e
Sa Hl I' lang \1 age; fo r if a m a ll knows no French people will
t hmk lit t le of him. But t he lower classes still st ick to
E nglish as t he ir own la nguage , I im agine t here is no count ry

A n ' i'l l h s/()r)' tJf'J

lit" FI! ~!;'1' I '
~ " , - , .-11'1 'IIII"<! 4'5
the world ~ hat doesn't keep its .o\:'n lang uage except
III E
.. llfi"Ish WI!l show t hat approxim t ,I, , " <> ~
England. But r t lS well known th at It is the b~~t 1hing r-, III It arc of F rench or J. /"- '~(:} 50 po r cent. of the words
know bot h languages, for the more a man knows the lnor c adopted between I"50 a"~lIHl on!;"ln; and half of the"" were
he is worth .' trcll wnnollS French -eren~l'~t 1;00; .,\e'l?rtlwlcss, despire this
The langu age of Saxon times was being ch a nged, but it was Anglo- S:lXOll for thou , " .' Englr.h fl.::mam:; fu nda nH: nta l1\·
., v g I l IS casv Cll OU O"!J to m k '
in no da nger of dying out; and the changes we re all to the OIl ordinnrv sllbJ'ects withour .. ' . _ ", a c H~ll!l'Ill"CS
good . L a , In
. . - , • llslllg a smg c word of Pre ,
ongtn. It is practi call ' im ) 0 ' .ible t ' . rene I or
Ulti mately Norman and Saxon united to form one nation sentence
,.
wit hour
.
tFinS
"
"~ " .'~vn \\"I0 1"(~,SIs. e ro mak e even a short
but it had taken m ore than t hree cen tu ries. The tu rn ing poin t , . J he borrowlIlgs t hrow <In in t eresfin r- light 0 11 the <."'.;,',1
was per/la ps marked in 1362 wh en fer the firs t ti me E dwal·U II I ustory of the t imes, " ... ~ '--"- ,
opened Parliament in English. At tile same time the Statute of
Plea ding enacted th at proceedings in law courts should lJC in ' In it [the E nglish Jall" ua W' ) . . .
or still showi ng the si n:' f - as It II- ere, the re l ies fossilized
English bec ause 'French has become m uch unk nown in th is the \\"11 0 1(> Of F'ngl lsh ~i"~ 0 the freshness of th e assimila tum
realm'. In 1415 the English ambassa dors who represr:nted and sociai .,; - . . cry. external an d internal , politicai
H enry V coul d not speak F renc h , and the papN s t hey ha.l to
sign we re written in Latin . H enry himself said , accor ding to If a ll other Willers of know] .d .t .
Shakespeare, as he tried to woo Kat he rine: 'It is as easy for lost , we could [dm ost rc -con t ecge ,I .out th e Normans were
me, Kate, t o conquer the Kin gdom as to speak so much more t
Ion 0 f the Jallgua&"c of t oda "s _rue . times. fro m 'til
\ \' t 1e ..
un exammn., '
French.' tha t the Norm . , }- : c should kn ow, for example

• ans\\ eret lC ru lm" Tace for al .t 11 , '
W hen fina lly E nglish emerged as th e lalH.;u age of England, p\ pr essing government C I ci"'" rnos a t 'i e words
it had been greatly modi fie d by the vicissitudes t h rongll which French origin I t is t ru,ll:f lit It~g ~~;i!n!1 InCllt itself) are of
it had gone. The gr adual droppi ng of inflect ion al enllings and words ki ll{; nIH! qf{ct:~, Call !o~~ Ie. o~ m;j I1 S l~:ft thr- Sa xon
the general gramm atical simplification wh ich , we no ticed . had lhrone, CrOWIl , roy al, stafe, ' COtlnl~l~d~::~ieb~:~,:l1Iep e . sOt.:relgl~ .
begun in the time of the Danes, had gone on nnd had been d li k e. count, challcellor mtn i.I . ' . ' 11, il r I lI m e l1o,
greatl y accelerated by thc collision with F rench a nd by the fact ' words ,arc .aJI .vor
..... m
. an, '" s or , COlwell and m any other su ch
. ·0 ton nrc such wo rd ,
that English had for th ree cen turies been almos t entirely a COlirteous I t P I 'tc . ," . - u t S ;lS IO I/O/I r, "lory
sp okm language , no longer restrained and kept from change by "b-orJ~ e~p~~~~;lg °t;I~' ~~~~~'t~;~:' ~~O~!~i,~';';~: ~'~~, cn,:<'l," etc.:
litera ry models. The changes were st rikin g a nd re volutionary, ( oth again !\or ma . J) F ., - re m emc nr
The language had now got rid of grammat ica l g<:~ ndc'r-a feat (i n U{e '!\-ol:~ a n st;.~ ,,'7t( sd· _'r~r:1 their ac tivity in bui ldin g-
that so far as we can t ell no other language in th e wo rld has palt/ce, castle lou'! ; c - . an ,Ire. ltcl"tllfe ~amc arch, pillar,
ach iev ed. Case endings of nouns had been red uced to one, the feW/" pn' t: ttl , te., from their Interes t 111 warfare We c ot :
Geniti ve or Possessive: preposit ions had taken th e pla ce of
inflectional endings. Plural form s, though not mack cntircly
d'/',ger,',::~rcZ, /~n~;~~7;',rt;~~~'t ;~/Itlt~t ,:a~~~\.c~f~:il~ ene~Jl)':
were g reat law zivcrs a d tl I I . ' . • orm a ns
reg ular, had been made much fewer , verb forms had been w ~rds . t·' -"! , ".n 101I!!",1 a1i.'itselfisSrandina\1a n ui c
simplified, a nd the whole langu age had been m ade much mer e p risoll J~IS '": Judge, Jury, court, cause, crime , traitor aS~lze
c ri . ' ax, m O Il ~Y, rent, p,op:,t)', inj",y arc all o f ' Fre nd;
of If:~l~S~~~i the t1l]rte~nt.h century t h ere was a certain amoun t
flexi bl e and expressive.
All t his was m ore or less the accidental or in direct result of
the N orm an Conq uest. What was its mo re direct effert ? There E ngJ"sl b ~n of the SCrlptllrCS and of sermons {rom Lat in into
is no doub t t hat it s greatest imp act was Oil t he \'oca.bu l~ry, oft en] e~si~~ t ~~~~~tl~l~at· ;,n n:aking these transj ~tions it was
The la nguage emcrged Wi th its esstntia l st ructu re stdl (,cr·
m anic. Bu t a n exam ina tion of th e vocabula ry 01 modern
tb a n ro llu nt ro und for t~e ~~~o~~~'~~~i~.~;~~~~I~~~ ~:r~:C~IU~~:;
, Th ~ EJlglis;' La"g"~g( . C. L. Wrenn (:"Ilcthucn ).
--
426 A Comp rehensive English Cmmma r A Britl H istory vi the E IIghs!; Lung't'j"e ,
wes
as eo n,
0 lire u nknowe' JI So W h . . " 4~7
of French words connected with religion came into the la n.,
guage: religim , service, saVlt)ffr, pr&phd , sai nt , sacn fict, mirarle, wor~s, bo th derh·N:J [t ~m t he s:m:~toce~sl~nally two English
preach, PlllY. a.t differen t times, and , as a resu lt h e.r:-c, .....ord. bu t bo n'owed
no ns and usu ally sligh tly di n e t :l\ mg fh fIcrent ptolluncia_
The names of nearly all articles of lu xury and pleasure arc as 'doublets'. Exarnples arc ' r~~r1 r~l~ ;\l \lng~ Th ey are known
Norman : the simpler things are English . There was the Xorma n gua rtmue'" cattle ~~h''',I · 'a' Ch ' C "tls
L e I , !!Ullrdlrl n;t L:" lrrnnt)'
castle and city; hut tQU"~ and hamlet, home and house are English. " "' , ~ e '
French words th at ca rr ". carl ' .'
The Norm an had his relation s, ancestors and JesCW dlt1lts; but fully anglicized bo th in accent } ~n to thc Jp.nl;Uagc became
th e English words are fathtr and PllQthn, sister, brother, SOli and import a. tions sa' h ' an pronUnCI:ltlOn. The lat('r
dallghter . The Norman had pleasure, comf ort, ease, delight; the t o aLhievc this ~o~~~t~' ~~lxteentl~ celftury onwards. fa iled
Englishman h ad happiness and glaJ,ltSs and work. The names feat ure of Old EngJi~h and orfJorasoll lIlt.o th e languaSC'. :\
o f great t hings of Nature, if not of art. are E nglish : the SlIt! . was tha t in word s of ~lore tb 1(' er~alllc gro up generaIiy,
tile ,noon, the stars, u inds, morning and n 'm ing , t he p hJflgh. the first syllable A- d '" loan onhe syllable the accent is on
the spade, wheat, oats. grass; the Xorman had f ret it and jiou:trs, ....
borrowiug, from French su } " " c lave t at ace t t i .
. en ua IOn In early
art, beauty, design . ornament. Courage, tta scm , capf'lill.- '~'~::s ~'l:[~e. naJJjr~, hOl: our'!l!t·otlr.
The lowly English worker was a sJu)fmaka , shep Ju:rd, miller, Irlfatle, " lInage have not ve t ac .' d I ~a mpa,g'l . C?'I':OlSSt1t r.
fis herma'l, smith or b.lker; the men who came more in contact word" like table, cnrlir ,;'ot l q iJIr: t us accent uation As aill,
with t he rulers we re tailors, barbas. fa i'l/as , carpenters, The 'Ellglb h ' tha t it gives 'u s ~i~~~cc<'h bt'k1d{ are~? co mple tely
Normans used chairs, fablrs andfllrnitll re: t he Englishman had that the y h ave Hot al ways be as tee . 0 su r p n s~ to re3.Jize
only the humble stooJ . The N orman ate t he b ig dinner, [ca st, a~1/aJdelfr. soulfid~ valet, chef w e d~nn~a;ll~,~e ';·l~~~~i<'e\l.ut \~lth
supper , at which food could be boiled , f ried, roasted; the E ng- \1. 0 1' garage IS In a h alf-way I ' '\. l~g. te
lishman h ad t he simpler breakfast. The whole situation is given whet he r it cucht to 1>, pror s a~~:.. ,e are no t quite SUI-e
-l I . 0 10UnC('\1 ["ara ·- 1 r...;)' '_J
in a "'ery inte resting passage in Scott's I vanhoe, where Wa rnha \I. let 1('1', like ' r1 tr ia"c or mrlrrirlge it h <:>, !',)a ," ~~.,) . or
points out t o Gu rth that t he names of almost a ll thc animals as 'ga rid3]. Com p":e agai n the wo'r~s ~~s(':~·t~ ~r~~~fhcl7.atlO~
while t hey are alive are E nglish, but when the)' arc- prepared cno. 'e, chapt!, cll,:,isl" chillmey CII tries (,\-here tl Ing: ~J~I<Ct·
for food they are Norm an . In oth er words, t he 1400r Sax on had pronounced [tm with the later o~es ,iltf etta er, re C I ,.;
a ll the work and trou ble of looking after them wh ile th ey were chiluff.cltr, " lalli/elier, Charlotte where th~ 'cl'P. . .or'j'je},::.tnJ:,,'rtlc .
alive; but when there was the pleasu re of eating them . the tlle 'g pro cd ' 1-] - '. . ts . ;:'1J1ll artv
Englishman's cow, bull or ox became F rench buf; his shup and ok! borro\~~~~\hai( J~:l~'~ ~~::g~. af e..Jllld/::e. da tes these .i~
lam b became F rench mutton, his sw me or pig became p ork or p ronounced ; ~ . . ". ' ng ICl7.t' whereas the 'g'
h,uon: hi s c~ if tu rned t o veal, and the dur (which he woul d be Ih.1t th('~ ar~,);n~;~ ~~Ig~t ~~~Nlgf\: . :~~~otagf, crnmlllfi n;;e showS'
hanged for killing) went t o Xc rman tables as u nison. i ll slfit· J , ~ . rrov llI..". Or compare the vowel s
T he close relationship bo th for peace and war th at E ngland all~l b"ill~~ICOI;~,:':t~;Hl i~~;:r. aud NI, ill<'; .iuty a:11! ddm t: /;,,·,tldy
and France have always had from Norman t imes u nt il the III almost cvcryccnturj- since X Ol'man ti mes French words
present has resulted in a cons tant influx of French words into
the language. In the t hirteen th century the Universit y of • ,<ed, t = < lI(hof)1 • h'..
•
--- h <'••• .,
• " . .. 'we _ ll n k Jl<" I; .
Paris, t ile most renowned of its time, attracted E n g li ~h . S"oJ../ ",d " li e IJvl<'~. The re W."l-" '" .
C!la ll<. l·r \ l im e. at 111'lJ m l ' • n a n r.e f) . •, ha ll 3" " ~·e.Hs old Ul
scho lars and inciden tally led to the founding of O:dord . It IS ~i m plr l . Lomlpll . C) '''''Ir Strat/. 'n!.le _H.,w (now Ul II~...1 T it.", '
interesting t o note th at at that time t he pronunciat ion uf the I The {lrs t l<'oT<l of e..cl . . . X
French of Paris was differl'lIt from "\ n... l o- ~orlll a n FrcII< h. F re nch . ' ;>aIr IS . OIma ::·Frelll h , I he sec<lrd i , hl('r
(Cha ucer 's Prioress, it WIll be remem1J.crl'd . spok e rrellch • Th e first of Ndl p"i' "f w r Is . I I
1" 1,, oue . " '':In Car y '<J rr"" jn ., : th e ~('co ,,,! :l
'ufte r til e scole of Stratford -atte·Rowe. F or Frcn ssh of Paris
i
428 A COf1lprehensit'e Ellglish Grammar
have en tered the language. In the sixteenth we took , among S' • A Bricf H islory Of the Enelish Lallg rwge
many others: pilot, rtnde=-ti(}U s, t'olley , t'ase, moustache , machine; .mee Xcrman times no 0 1 . ·12 9
in t he seventeenth : repri mand, baUd, burlesque, chllmpagne, to Impose all alien tongue ;nl~~ Jnvad('r has co me to England
nai've, muslin, soup , croup, quart: in t he eigh teenth: eml~ri, Words has never ceased to flow :~.country, But the str eam of
gllillotin e, corps, espionage, depot , b'lreall, canteen, rouge,
rissole, brllnette, picnic, police; in the ni neteenth : barrage,
chassis , parqlld , baton, rosette, profile, suede, cretmlne, restaura nt,
me1ll4, Chaf.jfellr, fian cee, prestige, dibacle; and in th is century
w c cont inue with garage, camollflage, hangar, rw lte,
B otll l atin and, t o a lesser .,.
An interesting effect of the French , particularly the Norman , porta.ll t ~colltri butors, thou h of~:",ree, ~reek have been im,
element h as been to give t he language a sort of bili ngual
Greek,,, ords h ave Come in f.- h n Lati n , and even oftenf" r
o ther la ngu age Som L . rene f orm or via Frf'nch or
quali t y , with tw o w ords, one of Sa-xon origin and one of
French origin , to express rough ly the same mean ing . T hus we t f t he Angl~s ; nd S~x~~n~f~~ls ~~er~ taken in to the lall;a~~
and. e.g. U'lJte , CliP bllltu che e le;;C peoples came to E ll _
havefoe and enemy;1friendship and amity: f rudcm and liberty ; 1II11e, plllm . .:\ few c~e in d .ese, SIlk . copper, slteet , poml~
unlikely and improbable; homt:ly and d01lusticattd; happiness and
fel icity ; f atherly and paternal; motherh()Od and maternity : bold were lear~led by the Englishu~ng the Roman OCcupation and
and cOllrageous: love and charity, and a host of others , This towns, chiefly place names Ii rom HOIna~lled Brit ons of tlle
dualit y h as been turned t o gr eat use, for in prac tically no case C?mlng of Christian culturek~/"'ISIJ' {Latin , C4slra), With the
are there an y complete synonyms.t Qui te often t here is a SIxth a ~d seventh centurif'S nom { ome and Ireland in the
difference of meaning, almost always t here is a differe nce of
associ ation or emotional atmosphere; and the Saxon w ord has
~;~:'ct~ ~':te(~~~ns~p~~~f;'Sk~:~~_u~nO~~t~~:~~c~:~~~
generall y the deeper em otional con tent; it is nea rer the nation 's of these are not commonly u~ e Norm an Conq uest, but many
heart. B raJherly kn'e is deeper than fraternal ailection; love is .In _the ~fiddJe English peri~i
~ I ...ntltic terms were taken . a nU~ber of technical or
st ron ger than charity: help ex presses deeper need th an aid; a
hearty welcollle is warmer th an a cordial reception; mdex , sim ile, P'1I4peT, eqllival~~ 1IV~I~ a w'de~ applicat ion , I!.g,
. There is just one oth er rather inte resting. charac te ristic ot A g reat tl~ carne with th~ (gltf:.IJ~te, di ocese, t?leranu .
Old E nglish t hat largely d ied ou t wi th t he coming of t he fIfteenth and Sixteen th centun ~~e\ l\ al of Learmng in the
Norman s: that is its power and ingenu ity in making com- vocabula.ry became potentlalr';Si: 'o~ a. ,time 'the whole Latin
pounds fr om its native words, T hus Old E nglish had such mar Schools ' were schools wh~r . ngh~J I , The E nglish 'Gram.
words (replaced by the French word in brackets] as:fore-eldersa ~ammar, was taugllt. Nor was ~/~lt; ': gramma-, not E nglish
(ancestors); fa i r-Mod (beau ty]: uanlwpe (despair); eanh·tilth 'carne a med illm of internat ' n) a wnt~e n langu age. It
(agriculture); gold-hoard (treasure); book-hoard (library ); star- ~h.olars, and in the sch ools t~~nal ~ommUlllcati.on between
'l Jllle their teacher Was w·tJ . 00) s spoke Latm_ a t leas t
craft (astronomy); learning-k night (disciple); ltech-craft (medi-
cine); and t he t itle of a moral treatise of abou t 1340 was T he
L
~\'r0tc SOllie of their Look~ i:l n ,earsh?t. B':IC"on and :S-ewton
rh o~ Browlle wrote rna ' a ~An , WfJt~rs IJkc :\fil t on and Sir
AYNlbite of / nwit (The 'again bi te ', i.e. 'remorse', of 'c onscience'). E~ghsh ; books to expound E~llllr;ent but highly Latini1.ed
l Th e firs t wonl.in eac h pair ;" Saxon, t he second F rench . L lTln , and the E nglish Ian S', s~. grammar were wri tten in
• A , )'nOD)'m is re.a11)· .. word that has the same mea..ning as a nother. pattern of t at in granunar *li~g~l \\ as d l$!Ortcd to lit into t he
It is proba.bl)' true to u)' that no tw o wo rds in Eng lish h ave ua.ctly t~en ha \-c lasted, but ma~;' 0 f ~h the words th at were adopted
the same mea ning Or t he 5OI.me emcncnat co nno la l w n in " II conte xts six teenth cen turv- ip",·, em have, for examots in the
The te rm ' sy nonr m ' is often u~ for a word "ilb .. ~,..Iy Ihe same /ellS I -J ' "e",0 foc us
. '. comp ex, PNldulllm ' in t!
arcn lb . .
.' , f a, a /1111, "'m ill/ IIII I
mean ing as a nother one.
I Th e exa m ples a re g iven in mod ern spelling. IIlIbl , IIl/llIlallom extra ,.,', .le el.g ItC('nth cen tu ry n/leler,,'
. ,. , omm a t'la d'fi 't . . ,
cen tury. ego, OpIlS, rc(crendl'''' '' .,1' e C1 : III t he nineteenth
J' , an liS .

430 A Comprthmsil;l t:'lglish Gr.lmmar

we have mentioned t hat many Lat in words cam e t hrough
French. I n the same way most Greek words came through
Lat in into French and English , Most of the m were learned,
t echnica l or scien tific words. At the ti me ot the Revi val u[
Lear ning many of the new ideas or branches of learning tba r
the Renaissance brought were expressed by Greek words:
arithnutic. gecmutry, astronomy, grammar, logic, , ilrtor;' , pD.-try ,
comedy , Jialogtu, prologue. Of the more general t erms th at
English had gained by the fifteen th century w ere: B ible,
academy. alom , ty rant, th,afTt . In t he sixteenth century carne:
altha bet, dram a, chorus, theory ; the seventeenth century con-
tributed orchestra. 11IIISlIIlll , hyphCll . clin ic. Since then science ,
medicine, ph ysics, chemistry and other sciences and arts have
gone to Greek for their nom enclat ure, coining from Greek
words that t he Greeks never knew: dy na mo and pS)'fh ology ,
zoology and td ephl»le, photograph. bicycle, aeroplune , flitrogfll,
cosmetic and atltis!p tic.
In ad dition th ere are a gr eat number of words formed from
Greek prefixes t acked on to words of English or other languages
like anti (= against): an ti-British , IInt ipodes; hyper (= beyond ):
hyper-cri tica l. n)'perbole; arch (= ch ief): a rchbishop; dia
(= th rough ): diameter. diagonal; Jumi (= half): Jumisphere;
homo (_ same): homogenelou s; homonym; m ono ( = sin gle]:
monopl ane, monocle. monot onous; p,m ( = all): pcmtoffillne,
p a'l theist: poly (= many): p oly syllabl e. p oIYb..ot: pro (= be-
fore): p rophet. prologue; pmldo (= false): pSClld'Jnrm ; sy"-
sy m (= with): sympathy. S)'1Jthe:sis; ule (= at a d ist ance):
td q:;raph ; tri (= three): tr ipod , tricy cle. F rom suffixes . ltkr:
-i sm, we s et Bclshevu-», nsetarian ism; from -clcgy , socio!og)'.
radiology and numerous others,
B OR R Qw t S G5 FH Q)I O Til E R L.... SGl·AG LS

From almos t even' country in t he world words h ave come
int o th is language. italy , for 50 long- the centre of European
culture, has given words t o our vccabularv of m usic an d
archi tec ture and poetry: pi,mo, p iccolo. S ~P'IIII O , fi""!~ , sri"
sonata, opera; pll!tfte, cameo, f rI:SCO, lIIi'liala re, studio, lIl odt!.
t·ista; balco'ly . corridor, pa rapd . sIIlClO; sonnet , S[IIII:, I , canto
Rut t here have been morc commonplace wor ds. t oe from
Italy: alerm, brigand ,florin. pilgrim (a ll before 15001. !lw ! I, 1!.I,
i,,/1II(I:ZII. muslin, dud. milliner 31ll11ll01lkry.
!
-
432 A Comprehensive English Gr/olmmar

differen t meaning from the oth ers. Almost any group of
synonyms in the langu age would illust rate t his; but t o take
one at random, here are thirty-seven 'synonyms' for t he TN DEX
general idea of 'thief': robber. burglar, h014se-breaker, pick-pocket, I\' ord. d iscuned are t -
cut.purse. shop-lifter. pilfertr. stealer, fi lcher, pllm dt rt r. pillager, O bl i ~a (j'J" _,. " " In 'la/ its; Ihe " ~ n,u ~f ....,.
despoiler, higll1ra)'man, f ootpad, bTigalld, bandit. marauder. J ''-'' U
, ~ ~" ,e el pt '
C~ I·l r Als. .-q","
v.~ u'"
o f "- !lich i. dc~Jt
r<,"«"_,~ ".
••·. . "'IJl~nd•• F UI 'm l v
." " ,, \ Un . •......n.
>._ .. , . .'
are In
depredator, purloiner, peculator. SlN·' ldltr, embezzler. defra uder.
gangster, pirate, blfCCa tl((r , sharpe r. harpy . cracksman , crook,
poacher. kidnlJpper. abductor. plagiflrist, riler. thug. uelshtr.
Th is borro wing has made English a rich langu age with a
vocabulary of al ready about half a million words, and growing
daily. It is this wealth of nea r-synonyms which gives to
English its power to express exact ly the most subtl e shades of
meani ng.
E XERCI SES
I N ame in histori cal o rde r t he languages t h a t have left
the deepest mark on English. and ill ustrate by exam ples
in w hat sections of the English voc abulary t hei r in.
f1uence can be m os t clear ly seen.
II H o w caD you s how by e xa m ples that during o ne im -
portant period of h istory t here ....ere two languages in
simultaneous use in England by two di ffere nt soc ia l
classes?
•
I n \\lI a t o t he r la ngu ag es have most ir.f1 \1 e nced E nlo:lish in
the following fields of h uman activity:
Go vernment, relig io n , law, music, medicine?
Quote severat examples of these infl ue nces for each of
the above. o
I V Describe t he effect o n t he English la ngu a ge of t he fac t

that E nglish was. for a long period in t he ~I idd : e Ages.
a lmO$t exclusively a spo/" .. la ng uage.
V Co m pa re a nd con tras t, so Iar as m ay be po'Ssible . the
develo pm e n t of the Eng lish la ngu age with t hat o f j-our
0"'"'11. noting especially any sec tions o f vocabulary in
w hich y our o.... n language and English ha ve been subjec t
to the same influe nces.
VI Express your opinion fo r or against the idea tha t E nglish
occu pies a unique position among langu ages in r es pec t
of t he contribut ions made t o it by o th er la ngu ages and
\ its conseque nt r ichness o f voca bu la ry .

0"

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LONGMA.N GROL'r LIMITED

Ch.2pter {j) - [T HE AR TICL ES r

S ITlON S A ND • D VE R BI AI• •-\ RTl C I. F. S' 2i7

Chapter (fj}- l VERBS (3) THE SPECIAL F Il\IT ES

Tuts grammar has been prepared with three objec tives in

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:\Iost of t he earhe r /{Tammarians, particularly those of the

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.. .-t COlllprdU"lSlt'l Eugllsh (;", m lll ll r

I com pelled t o repea t t he names too frequent ly, e.g.

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Thr H ITls of Spach

\MjI , you, tllem , who, that, hi",ul . somtont.

6 A Compreh," ISiu E"gli5h (.,"'dm UUl T

I I . Joh n looked a t ~ Iary . but Mary was look inl:

said somet hin g t o h is fa t her. wh ich t he la tter d id

YIU.'WIbt.r ( Vln1 " S / tA yt _ W4.I ,"'Ut) " ~

Xouns or pronouns t hat are in t he su bject are in¢ he !WSil s A, -

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A C(Jmp,d/(1lSit·( E'lglish G1(ltllma,

The boy hit. T he dog bit. . d ubt a bout t he ac t ion

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T Ir ,' Simpl,- Selllol( ,' 13

14 A Comprehensivt English Gram ma r

~~~7 gr::w you so your nether lip?' (;ha~espcar~, Othtllo) •

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T Ilt Sim/,I,' S,·lIf,'/I,·,. 1-;

that dog? stole a ll t he Jewels. .

,8 .-l COlllp, dl (ffSit, ~ E uglull G,,,mnu'

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I'LCR.\L 1'0 { . F SO ME GAME billiards, cards, bOll'ls, dom inoes,

M1SCEL LA ~ E O (J S OT HE R W ORDS' 11IIs, riches, ~.I1!'_~S scales (for

~~ A Ccmlp , rltt,u ill' Erlg/ish Grammar .vOU'IS: (2) Number 39

/ccoJCXI15! - (1) hues. •

f"; r" ,, ,;d S) -. (1) land (usually enclosed) round a house.

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and similarly. . I E .LlIPTIC... L U SE O F Til E GE~ ITIV" l

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A Compuhe" siflt Exglisll Gralt/lIlar

field, e- reo~ cndred sheep were in the

nor after the nouns ~ or tiUe. ego

children). He gained the rank of Col I H .

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....( 7)o-Before a noun ih apposit ion when the th ing or person I,

hungry that h , ate three N nclwich t l at - - mOllth fu l. T he A rticles

' T HE D EF IS ITE ARTIC I,F. J • • e-Simil a rlj- with no uns in a pposition:

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- - Prince Philip is - - Duke of Edinburgh . (20) ~

VI Supply articles where you t hi nk t hey a re required:

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