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TERM PAPER

FLUID MECHANICS

TOPIC: DIFFERENT AERODYNAMIC PROFILES AND

THEIR APPLICATIONS

Submitted to:- Submitted by:-

Mr. PIYUSH SIR Hazrat Belal
SEC-RB4912
ROLL NO-A05
REG.NO. 10901869
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ABSTRACT:

When objects move through air, forces are generated by the relative motion between the air
and the surfaces of the object. Aerodynamics is the study of these forces, generated by the
motion of air. The behavior of air in motion can be described in general terms using physical
theories at various levels, going from the dynamics of huge masses of

air such as hurricanes, down to the tiniest scales of atomic motion. . Basic knowledge of the
aerodynamic principles is highly required before getting involved in building and/or flying
model aircraft. A model aircraft that is hanging still in air during strong winds may be subject
to the same aerodynamic forces as a model aircraft that is flying fast during calm weather.
Aerodynamics principles are applicable to birds, insects that can fly,helicopters,aeroplanes
etc.,In this paper we have discussed about various forces that are acting on air craft.

ACKNOWLEDGMENT

I, Hazrat Belal, a student of LOVELY PROFESSIONAL UNIVERSITY in my

acknowledgement thank all the people who have helped me in making this term paper a
success
My first and foremost acknowledgement goes to our subject teacher Mr.Piyush sir for the
assistance and guidance that she provided throughout the session. I am ever grateful to him
for that. I owe him a lot for the successful completion of the term paper.
I am also thankful to many of my fellow college mates for their active support and valuable
inputs and the help that they provided. I am ever thankful to all of them.
I am thankful too much thankful to the library of the college which acted as a database of
knowledge and information for me .The internet and the various educational sites visited by
me also deserve a lot of appreciation and thank for the help they provided in completing this
term paper. I thank you one and all.
Thank you.
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Aerodynamics
Aerodynamics – the word comes from two greek words: aerios, which means, concerning the
air, and dynamis, which means force. Aerodynamics is the study of forces and the resulting
motion of objects through the air. Aerodynamics is the science and study of the physical laws
of the behavior of objects in an air flow and the forces that are produced by air flows or we
can also say that it is the branch that is concerned with the moving air, particularly when air
collides with the moving bodies or objects. This is the branch, by studying which, we get to
know the nature of the moving body in the presence of air, we get to know the role, played by
air on the body. We can calculate all the forces, moments, and various other physical
quantities, on the body, which enables us to reach the higher levels of precision. The various
typical properties that come under this branch are, velocity, pressure, density and
temperature.

Airfoil Sections

Rotary-wing airfoils operate under diverse conditions, because their speeds are a combination
of blade rotation and forward movement of the helicopter. Factors affecting the magnitude of
rotor blade lift and drag require knowledge of blade section geometry. Blades are designed
with specific geometry that adapts them to the varying conditions of flight. The blade may be
built with a twist, so an airfoil section near the root has a larger pitch angle than a section
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Aerodynamic profiles and their applications

1. Air Planes:

An airfoil is a structure designed to obtain reaction upon its surface from the air through
which it moves or that moves past such a structure. Air acts in various ways when submitted
to different pressures and velocities. Basically the lift is the result of the fluid flow, or we can
say, air.

This is a typical airfoil section. There is a difference in the curvatures of the upper and lower
surfaces of the airfoil. The camber of the upper surface is more pronounced than that of the
lower surface, which is somewhat flat in most instances. The two extremities of the airfoil
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profile also differ in appearance. The end which faces forward in flight is called the leading
edge, and is rounded; while the other end, the trailing edge, is quite narrow and tapered. A
reference line often used in discussing the airfoil is the chord line, a straight line drawn
through the profile connecting the extremities of the leading and trailing edges. The distance
from this chord line to the upper and lower surfaces of the wing denotes the magnitude of the
upper and lower camber at any point. Another reference line, drawn from the leading edge to
the trailing edge, is the “mean camber line.” This mean line is equidistant at all points from
the upper and lower contours. The construction of the wing, so as to provide actions greater
than its weight, is done by shaping the wing so that advantage can be taken of the air’s
response to certain physical laws, and thus develop two actions from the air mass, a positive
pressure lifting action from the air mass below the wing, and a negative pressure lifting action
from lowered pressure above the wing. The fact that most lift is the result of the airflow’s
downwash from above the wing, must be thoroughly understood in order to continue further
in the study of flight. It is neither accurate nor does it serve a useful purpose, however, to
assign specific values to the percentage of lift generated by the upper surface of an airfoil
versus that generated by the lower surface. These are not constant values and will vary, not
only with flight conditions, but with different wing designs.

Momentum effects of airflow

In a wind tunnel or in flight, an airfoil is simply a streamlined object inserted into a moving
stream of air. If the airfoil profile were in the shape of a teardrop, the speed and the pressure
changes of the air passing over the top and bottom would be the same on both sides. But if the
teardrop shaped airfoil were cut in half lengthwise, a form resembling the basic airfoil (wing)
section would result. If the airfoil were then inclined so the airflow strikes it at an angle
(angle of attack), the air molecules moving over the upper surface would be forced to move
faster than would the molecules moving along the bottom of the airfoil, since the upper
molecules must travel a greater distance due to the curvature of the upper surface. This
increased velocity reduces the pressure above the airfoil.

Bernoulli’s principle of pressure by itself does not explain the distribution of pressure over
the upper surface of the airfoil. A discussion of the influence of momentum of the air as it
flows in various curved paths near the airfoil will be presented.
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Momentum influences airflow over an airfoil.

Momentum is the resistance a moving body offers to having its direction or amount of motion
changed. When a body is forced to move in a circular path, it offers resistance in the direction
away from the center of the curved path. This is “centrifugal force.” While the particles of air
move in the curved path AB, centrifugal force tends to throw them in the direction of the
arrows between A and B and hence, causes the air to exert more than normal pressure on the
leading edge of the airfoil. But after the air particles pass B (the point of reversal of the
curvature of the path) the centrifugal force tends to throw them in the direction of the arrows
between B and C (causing reduced pressure on the airfoil). This effect is held until the
particles reach C, the second point of reversal of curvature of the airflow. Again the
centrifugal force is reversed and the particles may even tend to give slightly more than
normal pressure on the trailing edge of the airfoil, as indicated by the short arrows between C
and D.

Therefore, the air pressure on the upper surface of the airfoil is distributed so that the pressure
is much greater on the leading edge than the surrounding atmospheric pressure, causing
strong resistance to forward motion; but the air pressure is less than surrounding atmospheric
pressure over a large portion of the top surface (B to C).

Fluid flow or airflow then, is the basis for flight in airplanes, and is a product of the velocity
of the airplane. The velocity of the airplane is very important to the pilot since it affects the
lift and drag forces of the airplane. The pilot uses the velocity (airspeed) to fly at a minimum
glide angle, at maximum endurance, and for a number of other flight maneuvers. Airspeed is
the velocity of the airplane relative to the air mass through which it is flying.
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2. Wind turbines:

The shape of the aerodynamic profile is decisive for blade performance. Even minor
alterations in the shape of the profile can greatly alter the power curve and noise level.
Therefore a blade designer does not merely sit down and outline the shape when designing a
new blade.

The shape must be chosen with great care on the basis of past experience. For this reason
blade profiles were previously chosen from a widely used catalogue of airfoil profiles
developed in wind tunnel research by NACA (The United States National Advisory
Committee for Aeronautics) around the time of the Second World War.

The NACA 44 series profiles were used on older Bonus wind turbines (up to and including
the 95 kW models).

This profile was developed during the 1930s, and has good all-round properties, giving a
good power curve and a good stall. The blade is tolerant of minor surface imperfections, such
as dirt on the blade profile surface.

The LM blades used on newer Bonus wind turbines (from the 150 kW models) use the
NACA 63 profiles developed during the 1940s. These have slightly different properties than
the NACA 44 series. The power curve is better in the low and medium wind speed ranges,
but drops under operation at higher wind speeds.

Likewise this profile is more sensitive with regard to surface dirt.

This is not so important in Denmark, but in certain climate zones with little rain, accumulated
dirt, grime and insect deposits may impair and reduce performance for longer periods.

The LM 19 blades, specifically developed for wind turbines, used on the Bonus 500 kW, have
completely new aerodynamic profiles and are therefore not found in the NACA catalogue.

These blades were developed in a joint LM and Bonus research project some years ago, and
further developed and wind tunnel tested by FFA (The Aerodynamic Research Institute of
The Swedish Ministry of Defence).
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3. Car profile:

Airplane wing design matured by the middle of the twentieth century and it was
only natural that race-car designers borrowed successful airplane wing profiles to use on
their vehicles. This approach, however, was not entirely successful due to the inherent
differences between these two applications. A race-car lifting surface design is different
from a typical airplane wing design for the following reasons:

1. Race-car (front) wings operate very close to the ground, resulting in a significant increase
in downforce. This increase is a manifestation of a phenomenon known as the wing-in-ground
effect, which, interestingly, is favorable for the performance of both ordinary airfoils creating
lift and inverted airfoils creating downforce. Of course, the effect does not come freely
because a similar increase in drag is measured. Since many race cars use front wings mounted
close to the ground, this principle is widely utilized in race-car design.

2. In most forms of motor racing a large rear wing is used. In the case of open-wheel race cars
such as Indy cars these wings have very small aspect ratio (span/chord ratio), contrary to the
much higher aspect ratio of airplane wings. The first result of the smaller aspect ratio was a
significantly higher drag, but with the fringe benefit of delaying wing stall (the sudden drop
of lift). This penalty could be reduced by adding very large end plates, seen on most race cars,
which indeed improve the lift-to-drag ratio. A second problem resulted from basing early
designs on existing high-lift airfoil shapes, borrowed from airplanes having several elements
(flaps and slots). But as noted, these airfoils were developed for airplanes having very wide
wings (high aspect ratio), and therefore their performance was not optimized for race-car
application. Recently, quite different, custom-designed airfoil shapes have been used to
address this problem.
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3. The third major difference between aircraft and race-car wings is the strong interaction
between the lifting surface and the other body components. In this case the wing height (h)
was varied up to a height where the interaction is minimal. Clearly, the combined downforce
increases as the wing approaches the vehicle's rear deck. At a very close proximity the flow
separates between the rear deck and the wing and the downforce is reduced. The horizontal
positioning (such as fore-aft) of the wing also has a strong effect on the vehicle's
aerodynamics (usually downforce increases as the wing is shifted backward), but racing
regulations state that the wing trailing edge cannot extend behind the vehicle body (from top
view). The very large change in the downforce of this prototype car is due to the increased
underbody diffuser flow, but the effect remains clear with sedan or even open-wheel race cars
as well.

Forces acting on a moving air craft:

Air enters the diffuser and the kinetic energy is converted into pressure
Then it enters into the compressor where pressure is compressed upto 3to 4 bar
• This compressed air enters the combustion chamber where fuel is added and combustion
takes place.
• These hot gases enter into the turbine where partial expansion takes place.
• The exhaust gases from the turbine expand in the nozzle and a high velocity force is
produced which is
known as DRAG.
• According to Newton’s third law there must be force in opposite direction. this force is
nothing but
THRUST which is responsible for the forward motion of helicopter.
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CONCLUSIONS:

• Air foil is designed to produce the most lift and least drag with in normal speed ranges.
• The air speed, that produces the lowest total drag, is the best air speed for maximum
endurance, best rate of
climb and minimum rate of decent in automation.
• By upsetting the vertical balance of forces, helicopters can climb or descend vertically
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References:

1. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aerodynamics

2. http://selair.selkirk.bc.ca/Training/Aerodynamics/index.html

3. http://www.free-online-private-pilot-ground-school.com/aerodynamics.html

4. http://www.recumbents.com/car_aerodynamics/

5. www.grc.nasa.gov/WWW/K-12/airplane/bga.html

6. www.windmission.dk/workshop/BonusTUrbine.pdf

7. www.scitopics.com/SHAPE_OPTIMIZATION_OF_AERODYNAMIC_PROFILES
.html\