MM DARISSALAM
1. Angkatan ‘71
Teknik Geologi UGM
(8 years + 3 months)
2. Oil Industry
1. 24+ years in 7 oil coy’s.)
2. 7 years Petroleum Consultant
3. Terakhir
PSC Tropik Energi
References & Sources of Presentation Materials
Note : Due to the rush preparation of these presentation slides, the sources and
references are not noted yet.
PRESENTATION OUTLINE
I. INTRODUCTION
II. WELLSITE GEOLOGY
III. LOG INTERPRETATION
IV. WELL TESTING
V. PETROLEUM RESERVOIR
ENGINEERING
VI. CORRELATIONS & MAPPING
VII. RESERVES ESTIMATION
VIII. RESERVOIR SIMULATION
IX. PLAN OF DEVELOPMENT
X. RESERVOIR MANAGEMENT &
PROJECT ECONOMIC
I. INTRODUCTION
1. COURSE OBJECTIVE
3. PETROLEUM GEOLOGY
a. SOURCE ROCKS & MATURATION
b. HYDROCARBON MIGRATION
c. CAP ROCKS / SEALS
d. STRUCTURE / TRAP
e. RESERVOIR ROCKS & FLUID
4. DRILLING
COURSE OBJECTIVE
• To introduce participants the general
petroleum industrial processes and
especially during oil/gas field
development phase
• To provide participants the basic of
petroleum development/production
geology as entry provisions into
upstream petroleum industry
• Sharing knowledge and “silaturachmi”
PETROLEUM INDUSTRY SECTORS
DEVELOPMENT Offshore
&
Oil Field Platform
Pipeline
Consumers
Local Railroad Tank Cars
Tank Truck Distributor
Mobil
Mobil
Industrial
Customers
24803
DOWNSTREAM TRANSPORTATION
Refining Petroleum Fuel Gas
•LOW RISK Gasoline
Residual Products–
Liquid Crude Oil Asphalt,
Heavy Fuel Oil 24803
G&G STUDY G&GR STUDY
DEV. DRILLING, WORKOVER
SEISMIC SURVEY
PRODUCING, EOR etc.
DRILLINGS AD’L SEISMIC
PLAN OF DEVELOPMENT MARKETING
TIME
SECONDARY
DEVELOPMENT RECOVERY ABANDONMENT
EXPLORATION
CONVENTIONAL
PRODUCTION
Development
Development &
& Operation
Operation Geoscientists
Geoscientists
Exploration
Exploration
Geoscientists
Geoscientists
Geophysicists
Geophysicists
TIME
EXPLORATION
DEVELOPMENT GEOLOGIST
•Reservoir Characterization
•Reserves Estimation
Geologists & Reservoir Engineer •Reservoir Optimization
Petroleum Development Geology
¾ Development Geology = Production Geology = Reservoir
Geology
¾ Hybrid discipline: geology on the field and reservoir scale.
¾ Principal Responsibilities of The Development Geologist
(DG):
Estimation of Volumetric Reserves
Justifying drilling & workover options to improve recovery
Plan and acquisition geological data while drilling & production
Providing a framework for maximum financial return for his
company
¾ DG requires good knowledge of many disciplines :
Structural Geology.
Stratigraphy and sedimentology.
Reservoir engineering.
Drilling methods and engineering.
Petrophysics.
Laboratory for rock and fluid
Seismology.
Petroleum Economics and management.
What is a petroleum exploration &
development geologists?
EXPLORATION GEOLOGIST DEVELOPMENT GEOLOGIST
Drilling Reservoir
Engineering
Geoscience Engineering
Geophysical Processing
responsibility of the DG in
PREDEVELOPMENT EVALUATION
DG is responsible for:
– Initiating development
well recommendations
– Decide what reservoir
geological data should
be collected and prepare
the geological prognosis
– Monitoring these wells
during drilling
– Adjusting development
plans as wells are drilled
responsibility of the DG in
WELL SURVEILLANCE
• Generally handled by the reservoir engineer (RE)
• However, when performance is not as expected or when
remedial work is required (workover, stimulation &
optimization) the DG inputs geological constraint.
FIELD STUDIES
One of the most important
roles of the DG :
• Re-evaluation of old fields
and recognition of new
opportunities in these
fields.
• This role will become
increasingly important in
the future as reserves
decrease.
• Improved oil recovery as
well as enhance oil
recovery.
CONCLUSION
• Development geology is not only a
rewarding, but a lucrative field for the
small and independent operator.
• In the future, this field (which
requires skills in many oil/gas fields)
will become more important as
reserves decline.
• The bottom line in all petroleum
exploitation is financial and
economic evaluations require input
from many disciplines: the DG must
have these skills.
• The most important ability is
RESERVES ESTIMATION and
RESERVOIR OPTIMIZATION.
a. SOURCE ROCKS & MATURATION
b. HYDROCARBON MIGRATION
c. CAP ROCKS / SEALS
d. STRUCTURE / TRAP
e. RESERVOIR ROCKS
Petroleum System Processes
• Generation - Burial of source rock to temperature and
pressure regime sufficient to convert organic matter into
hydrocarbon
• Migration - Movement of hydrocarbon out of the source
rock toward and into a trap
• Accumulation - A volume of hydrocarbon migrating into
a trap faster than the trap leaks resulting in an
accumulation
• Preservation - Hydrocarbon remains in reservoir and is
not altered by biodegradation or “water-washing”
• Timing - Trap forms before and during hydrocarbon
migrating
Petroleum System Processes
Gas
Cap
Oil
Entrapment
Accumulation Water Seal Rock
Reservoir
Rock
Migration
120° F
Source
Rock 350° F
Generation
2480
SOURCE ROCKS
• Hydrocarbon originates from
minute organisms in seas and
lakes. When they die, they sink to
the bottom where they form
organic-rich "muds" in fine
sediments (usually become gray–
black shale).
• These "muds" are in a reducing
environment or "kitchen", which
strips oxygen from the sediments
leaving hydrogen and carbon.
• The sediments are compacted to
form organic-rich rocks with very
low permeability.
• The hydrocarbon can migrate
very slowly to nearby porous
rocks, displacing the original
formation water.
The principal zone of oil formation
during the thermal generation of
petroleum hydrocarbons
– Secondary migration - along the porous rock to the trap. This occurs
by buoyancy, capillary pressure and hydrodynamics through a
continuous water-filled pore system. It can take place over large
distances.
CAP ROCK
• A reservoir needs a cap rock.
• Unconformity
traps are
generated where
an erosional break
in the stratigraphic
succession is
followed by
impermeable
strata.
SALT DOME TRAP
• Salt Dome traps are caused when "plastic" salt is forced upwards.
• The salt dome pierces through layers and compresses rocks
above. This results in the formation of various traps:
• In domes created by formations pushed up by the salt.
• Along the flanks and below the overhang in porous rock abutting
on the impermeable salt itself.
STRATIGRAPHIC TRAPS
Stratigraphic
traps are traps
created by the
limits of the
reservoir rock
itself, without
any structural
control.
PETROLEUM RESERVOIR ROCKS
DEFINITION
Channel porosity:
• Similar to fracture porosity
but larger.
Vuggy porosity:
• Created by the dissolution
of fragments, but
unconnected.
CARBONATE POROSITY
• K = permeability, in Darcies.
• L = length of the section of rock, in centimetres.
• Q = flow rate in centimetres / sec.
• P1, P2 = pressures in bars.
• A = surface area, in cm2.
• µ = viscocity in centipoise.
PERMEABILITY AND ROCKS
In formations with large grains, the permeability is
high and the flow rate larger.
PERMEABILITY AND ROCKS
• In a rock with small grains the permeability is less
and the flow lower.
Horizontal Permeability
K
K V
≤ 1
V
≤ 1
Vertical Permeability
K H
K h
subsurface.
Cement
☯ To collect the Production
Casing
subsurface geological
and reservoir Tubing
TYPE OF RIG :
• Onshore drilling rigs
• Semi-submersible rigs
• Jack-up units
PRODUCING
SAND
1. Openhole Completion
PRODUCTION
STRING
Openhole completion
CASING
merupakan penyelesaian
sumur dimana casing
dipasang hanya sampai di CEMENT
atas zona produktif
(interest zone). Jadi sumur
diproduksi dengan kondisi PACKER
PRODUCING LAYER
LINER HANGER
2. Perforated Liner Completion
CASING SHOE
Metode penyelesaian sumur dengan
melakukan pemasangan liner dan OIL SAND
disemen pada zona produktif yang
kemudian dilaksanakan pelobangan
(perforated) pada zona-zona yang SLOTTED LINER
paling produktif
LINER SHOE
3. Perforated Casing Completion PRODUCTION
STRING
PRODUCING LAYER
dan disemen kemudian
dilakukan perforasi OIL SAND
(pelubangan) pada
PERFORATION
daerah-daerah produksi
di lubang sumur
CASING SHOE
PRODUCING WELL
COMPLETION
GEOLOGIST
•MUD LOGGING DRLG ENG.
•MWD & LOGGING •CHEMICAL & CEMENTING
•WIRELINE LOGGING •DIRECTIONAL
•CORING •WELL COMPLETION
•WELL TESTING
TOOL PUSHER
•DRILLING
•RIG MAINTENANCE
WELLSITE GEOLOGIST
GENERAL DUTIES & RESPONSIBILITIES
1. Supervision of “Formation Evaluation”
contractors (Mud Logging Geologists,
MWD Logging Engineers, Wireline
Logging Engineers, Coring and Well
Testing Personnel)
2. Logistics concerning the formation
evaluation contractors and their
equipment
3. All safety aspects for the well and
personnel during these evaluation
operations
4. Quality control of all evaluation results
and logs prior to accepting the data or
logs from those contractors
5. Providing relevant correlation and well
data to those contractors during their
operations
6. Checking all reports and logs from the
evaluation contractors prior to sending
them to oil company offices
WELLSITE GEOLOGIST
GENERAL DUTIES & RESPONSIBILITIES
7. Monitoring and supervising the
collecting, processing and dispatching
of formation evaluation samples
8. Safe-guarding the collection, storage
and transmission of information and
reports at the wellsite
9. Wellsite interpretation of the formation
evaluation data
10. Checking and occasionally approving
and signing of service reports and
invoices of the formation evaluation
contractors
11. Keeping the drilling superintendent
and operations geologist fully
informed of all formation evaluation
operations
WELL PROGNOSIS AND
PROSPECT DESCRIPTION
Mud-Logging Unit
• Cuttings Æ Geochemistry, Lithology, Correlation, Density, Calcimetry,
Hydrocarbons, Shale Factor (C.E.C.), Hole Stability, Bit Condition
• Hydrocarbons Æ Total gas, Chromatograph, Gas Ratios, Connection
gases, Trip gases, Oil shows
• Gases Æ CO2, H2S
• Engineering Æ Dxc, Torque, Drill Rate, Formation Pressures
RIGSITE INFORMATION SOURCES USES
Others
• Coring Æ Biostratigraphy, Reservoir analysis,
Porosity, Permeability
WELLSITE GEOLOGIST RESPONSIBILITIES
IN WIRELINE LOGGING OPERATION
• MUDLOGGING GEOLOGIST Æ
– CUTTING & CORE DESCRIPTION, HYDROCARBON SHOW,
POROSITY ETC.
• SAMPLE CATCHER Æ
– COLLECT AND PREPARE SAMPLE FOR MUDLOGGING
GEOLOGIST
MUDLOGGING UNIT
TYPE OF SAMPLE
• DRY SAMPLE
– obtained from the washed samples collected from the 80-mesh
sieve. A heat source is used for drying purposes.
– Several precautions when drying samples are:
• DO NOT oven dry oil-based mud samples
• Do not over-dry samples, because they will burn (the burning can be
mistaken for oil staining)
• Clay samples should not be oven dried - only air dried
• WET SAMPLE
– collected at the shale shaker. Normally the drilling fluid is not
rinsed off.
• GEOCHEMICAL SAMPLE
– These samples require special treatment.
– A bacteriocide (i.e. Zepharin Chloride) is necessary to prevent the
growth of bacteria which can form additional gas. The samples are
normally sealed at the wellsite, and shipped separately.
CUTTINGS DESCRIPTION
Each lithology should be accurately described, and
that observations recorded in the following order:
a. Rock Type g. Sorting
b. Classification h. Luster
c. Color i. Cementation/Matrix
SAMPLE:
MUD LOGGING
SAMPLE:
MUD LOGGING
Mud-logging Geologist Corner
WIRELINE LOG
1. WHAT IS WELL LOGGING:
1. WELL LOG IS A CONTINUOUS RECORD OF MEASUREMENT MADE IN
BORE HOLE RESPOND TO VARIATION IN SOME PHYSICAL
PROPERTIES OF ROCKS THROUGH WHICH THE BORE HOLE IS
DRILLED.
2. TRADITIONALLY LOGS ARE DISPLAY ON GIRDED PAPERS SHOWN IN
FIGURE.
3. NOW A DAYS THE LOG MAY BE TAKEN AS FILMS, IMAGES, AND IN
DIGITAL FORMAT.
2. WIRELINE LOGGING IS PERFORMED WITH A SONDE LOWERED INTO THE
BOREHOLE OR WELL
3. 2 TYPES OF WIRELINE LOGGING :
1. OPEN HOLE LOGGING
2. CASED HOLE LOGGING
4. INTERPRETATION METHODS
1. QUALITATIVE
2. QUANTITATIVE
1. MANUAL
2. COMPUTERIZED
LOG INTERPRETATION
IS A PROCESS OF USING WELL LOGS TO
LITHOLOGY EVALUATE THE CHARACTERISTIC OF
FORMATION :
TOP SAND
– PRODUCTIVITY TEST :
• RFT, MDT, DST, PRODUCTION TESTS
1. SP Æ SPONTANEOUS
POTENTIAL LOG
RHOZ 2. GR Æ GAMMA RAY LOG
3. ELECTRICAL LOG Æ
INDUCTION, LATERAL,
SPHERICAL FOCCUSS, MICRO
LATERAL ETC
AIT 4. NEUTRON LOG Æ CNL, SNP
5. DENSITY LOG Æ LDT
6. SONIC LOG Æ BHC
NPHI 7. OTHERS : FMI (DIPMETER &
SP IMAGING), NMRI (Nuclear
Magnetic Resonance Immaging,
GR DT TEMPERATURE LOG, CALLIPER
LOG, ETC.
SP
SP results from electric
currents flowing in the
drilling mud.
There are three sources of
the currents, two
electrochemical and one
electrokinetic.
¾ Membrane potential -
largest.
¾ Liquid - junction potential.
¾ Streaming potential -
smallest.
SP LOG READING
• The SSP is the
quantity to be
determined.
• It is the deflection
seen on the SP from
the Shale Base Line
(zero point) to the
Sand Line (max.
deflection)
SP USES
• Differentiate potentially porous and
permeable reservoir rocks from
impermeable clays.
• Define bed boundaries, top &
bottom of the layer.
• For geological correlation
• Give an indication of shaliness
(maximum deflection is clean;
minimum is shale).
• Indicate vertical grain size
distribution
• Determine Rw (formation water
resistivity) in both salt and fresh
muds. R mfe
SSP = − k log
R we
SP DEFLECTIONS
SP scale
- +
CORRESPOND TO
Rmf & Rw VALUES
SHALE BASE LINE
SP Borehole
Effects
• POROSITY &
LITHOLOGY Æ
with density log
• HYROCARBON
INDICATION Æ
The tool measures
hydrogen index
DENSITY
• The Density Tools use a chemical gamma ray source
and two or three gamma ray detectors.
• The number of gamma rays returning to the detector
depends on the number of electrons present, the
electron density, ρe.
• The electron density can be related
to the bulk density of the minerals
by a simple equation.
• ρe = ρ( 2Z/A )
Where Z is the number of
electrons per atom and A is
the atomic weight.
DENSITY
Uses
• The density tool is extremely
useful as it has high accuracy
and exhibits small borehole
effects.
• Major uses include:
– Porosity.
– Lithology (in combination
with the neutron tool).
• Mechanical properties (in
combination with the sonic
tool).
• Acoustic properties (in
combination with the sonic
tool).
• Gas identification (in
combination with the neutron
tool).
Density Porosity
ρ b = ρ f φ + ρ ma (1 − φ )
ρ − ρ
φ = ma b
ρ ma − ρ f
• There are two inputs into the porosity equation: the matrix
density and the fluid density.
• The fluid density is that of the mud filtrate.
¾ The sonic tools create an
acoustic signal and measure SONIC TOOL
how long it takes to pass
through a rock.
¾ By simply measuring this time
we get an indication of the
formation properties.
¾ The amplitude of the signal
will also give information
about the formation.
SONIC -BHC
• A simple tool that uses a pair of transmitters and four receivers
to compensate for caves and sonde tilt.
• The normal spacing between the transmitters and receivers is
3' - 5'.
• It produces a compressional slowness by measuring the first
arrival transit times.
• Used for:
– Correlation.
– Porosity.
– Lithology.
– Seismic tie in /
time-to-depth
conversion.
ARRAY SONIC
• Multi-spacing digital tool.
• Used for:
– Porosity.
– Lithology.
– Seismic tie in /
time-to-depth conversion.
– Mechanical properties (from shear and compressional).
– Fracture identification (from shear and Stoneley).
– Permeability (from Stoneley).
Porosity 1
Δ t log = φ Δ t f + (1 − φ )Δ t ma
Δ t − Δ t
φ =
log ma
Δ t f − Δ t ma
Porosity 2
1
=
(1 − φ 2
)+ φ
Δ t c Δ t ma Δ t f
Δ t log
OVERPRESSURED ZONE
Lithology & Porosity
Determination
© Schlumberger 1999
Lithology Tools
• Most tools react to lithology - usually in conjunction
with the porosity.
• Major lithology tools are:
– Neutron - reacts to fluid and matrix.
– Density - reacts to matrix and fluid.
– Sonic - reacts to a mixture of matrix and fluid, complicated
by seeing only primary porosity.
– NGT - identifies shale types and special minerals.
– Geochemical logging, identifies 10 elements; K, U, Th, Al, Si,
Ca, S, Fe, Gd, Ti
– From these the exact mineralogy can be computed.
Crossplot Solution
Porosity and
Lithology
Determination
from
Litho-Density* Log
and CNL*
(Compensated Neutron
Log)
Schlumberger Chart
• The plot is a straight line from the matrix point to the 100% porosity,
water point. It is scaled in porosity.
2.48
Porosity 13 %
75% sand & 25% limestone
12
ELECTRICAL
RESISTIVITY LOGS
Resistivity Theory
• The resistivity of a substance is a measure of its ability
to impede the flow of electrical current.
• Resistivity is the key to hydrocarbon saturation
determination.
• Porosity gives the volume of fluids but does not
indicate which fluid is occupying that pore space.
Smov = Sxo - Sw
NORMAL Tools
• The voltage measured at M is proportional to the
formation resistivity.
• This electrode configuration is the Normal tool.
• The distance between the A and M electrodes.
• The spacing determines the depth of investigation
and hence the resistivity being read.
NORMAL and LATERAL Tools
• The Lateral device used
the same principle.
• The difference is in
electrode configuration
and spacing.
LATEROLOG LIMITS :
•Cannot be used in oil-based muds.
•Cannot be used in air-filled holes.
•Poor when Rxo > Rt.
MSFL Principle
• Uses:
– Rxo measurement in
water-based muds.
– Correction for deep
resistivity tools.
– Sxo determination.
• Limits:
– Rugose hole.
– Oil-based mud.
• This tool uses a set of 5 electrodes – Heavy or thick mud
which focus the signal into the
invaded zone just beyond the mud cake.
cake.
INDUCTION LOGS
© Schlumberger 1999
Induction Logs
Induction Principle
Uses
IL Uses and Limits
• Measures Rt Æ saturation
• Hydrocarbon content
indications & fluid contacts
• Bed definition, lithology,
shalliness
• Correlation
• Abnormal pressure
• Ideal in fresh or oil-based
environments.
• Ideal for low resistivity
measurements and when Rxo >
Rt.
examples 3
• The AIT logs (2' vertical resolution) read correctly in this zone giving a hydrocarbon profile.
• The DIL logs are ambiguous as the SFL (electrical log) longer reading shallow because Rxo
is less than Rt
Saturation
• The saturation of a formation represents the amount of a given
fluid present in the pore space.
• The porosity logs react to the pore space.
• The resistivity logs react to the fluids in the pore space.
• The combination of the two measurements gives the saturation
Sw = S w irr + Sw "free"
oil
Matrix
Resistivity Theory
• Current can only pass through the water in the
formation, hence the resistivity depends on:
– Resistivity of the formation water.
– Amount of water present.
– Pore structure.
Basics 1
R
F = 0
R w
Substituting for F:
a Rw
=
n
S w
φ m
Rt
Saturation Equation
a Rw
=
n
S w
φ m
Rt
• Increasing Rt for the same porosity will have the same effect.
Invaded Zone
• Observations suggest:
≈ S
1
S xo
5
w
• Hence: 5
⎛ R R ⎞ 8
S = ⎜ xo t
⎟
⎝ R ⎠
w
mf R w
Archie parameters
• Rw = resistivity of connate water.
• m = "cementation factor", set to 2 in the simple case.
• n = "saturation exponent", set to 2 in the simple case.
• a = constant, set to 1 in the simple case.
R w = φ 2
R t
• Procedure is to:
• Compute an Rwa (Rw apparent) using this
relationship.
• Read the lowest value over a porous zone which
• This is the method employed by all computer based
interpretation systems.
Rw from resistivity
• In a water zone Sw = 1, thus the alternative
saturation equation becomes:
© Schlumberger 1999
Shales
Matrix Shale Porosity
Porosity Porosity
Shale
Matrix Matrix
Matrix Matrix
Shale and Logs
• Shales have properties that have
important influences on log
readings:
• They have porosity.
• The porosity is filled with salted
water.
• They are often radioactive.
• Resistivity logs exhibit shales as
low resistivity zones.
GR − GR
=
log min
V
− GR
cl
GR max min
SP − SP
=
log min
V
− SP
cl
SP max min
Shale Volume
Shale and Saturation
• The Archie equation has to be changed to
take account of the shale effect.
• The shale looks like low resistivity so
another term is added to the equations.
• The result is an equation which will can be
used to compute water saturation in shaly
sands.
• All these equations return to Archies
equation if there is no shale present.
Saturation Equations
•Indonesia Equation 1 1
S w = ⎛ V cl ⎞ *
⎜⎜ 1 −
⎝ 2
⎟⎟
⎠ φ R
V cl
R
+ R
e t
cl w
•Nigeria Equation
⎛
2
φ ⎞
1 .4 m
1 V 2
= ⎜ cl
+ e
⎟ S n
⎝ ⎠
w
R t R cl aR w
•Waxman-Smits Equation 1 S 2
BQ S
= *
w
+ v
*
w
R t F R w F
C =
φ t
m
S n
wt ⎡
C +
S wb
(C − C
⎤
)⎥
t
a ⎢⎣ w
S wt
wb w
⎦
EXAMPLE : PROCESSED LOG
POROSITY & SATURATION
CALCULATION RESULTS
OPEN HOLE LOG
PROCESSED LOG
VOLUME
FLUID
ANALYSIS
SATURATION
DUAL WATER MODEL DEFINITIONS
hydrocarbon φ hy
effective
porosity
far
total water φ wf φe = φ wf+ φ hy
porosity
φt bound
φ wb
fluids water
Vcl
unit dry Vdcl wet clay
volume clay
solids
clean
matrix
Clean to Shale
φt
SAND Matrix Far Water
φt
Matrix
φt
Matrix Dry Colloid
φt
SHALE Dry Colloid Bound water
Well Test Objectives
1. Identify and Obtain reservoir fluids; oil, gas
& water
2. Determine basic reservoir parametes;
productivity (PI), permeability(k), skin (S),
initial Resv. Pressure (P*) & Resv. Temp.
3. Well potential & deliverability (gas well) : It
may be mandatory to proof field
commerciality
4. Boundary & irregular conditions Reservoir
(GOC, OWC & Reservoir Limit)
WELL TESTING METHODS
• HOLE CONDITION:
– OPEN HOLE
– CASED HOLE
Subsea Safety
Equipment
Downhole Test
Equipment & Tool
DST & TCP
DOWNHOLE TESTING EQUIPMENT
Open-Hole Sampling Equipment
RDT & RCI are equivalent with RFT/MDT
Formation Test Tool (FTT) sample
chambers hold 420cc to 3 gallons of
reservoir fluid depending on make and
model.
Open hole samples aid production and
facility designs and are sometimes used
for PVT studies.
Baker RCI®
Halliburton RDT®
1ST GENERATION
RFT
REPEATED FORMATION TESTER
- unlimited pressure survey
- 1 to 2 fluid sampling
2ND GENERATION
MDT
MODULAR FORMATION DINAMIC
TESTER
- unlimited pressure survey
- many fluid sampling (unlimited?)
- able to identify fluid type
- able to replace(pump out)
unrequired fluid sample
SCHLUMBERGER
DOWNHOLE TESTING
EQUIPMENT
RFT / MDT
Mud pressure
Reservoir pressure
Build-up pressure
Oil
Gra
W
die
at
er
nt 0
G
ra
.36
di
en
7
t0
psi
.4
depth
33
/ft
ps
i/f
t
oil OWC
water
RFT depth
pressure
Performing Well Test
with DST
• Clean up (flow)
• Shut-in
• Main flow (one period or
flow-after-flow, flowing
test with 4 to 5 different
choke size)
• Main Build –up (shut-in)
Selective Layer Testing
26” 20 ft @ 500’
17 1/2”
9 5/8” @ 15500’
12 1/4”
Layer A
Layer B
8 1/2” 7” @ 17690’
Example :
TEST STRING
DST & TCP
[ [psia]
psia]
Example : Pressure Testing Result
K = 375 mD
4050
4050
Pressure, psia S = 21 P = 4200 psia
Build up period
rates
40
40 60
60 80
80 100
100 120
120
3500
IPR plot
1500
Provide the reservoir rock parameter for testing analysis such as lithology, porosity
and permeability if any (from log, or qualitative)
Stop the testing when unsafe operation Testing Engineer (TE) decision
in Perforation Job
1. Define the perforation intervals at
porous zone & hydrocarbon zone
(pay zone.
2. Evaluate and prepare the perforation
design such as gun type, size, SPF
(shot per ft), Spacing (angle between
two shots), charge/explosive type;
penetration deep and entrance hole.
3. Perforation environment (fluid type
in the hole); using mud or brine
water or special completion fluid,
under/over balance.
4. Witness the gun loading, correlation,
shooting result (whether all charges
exploded or not) Æ “SAFETY FIRST”
THE RESERVOIR
PETROLEUM
RESERVOIR
• ROCK PROPERTIES
• FLUID PROPERTIES
• PRESSURE
• RESERVOIR DRIVE
ROCK PROPERTIES
Rocks are described by three properties:
– Porosity - quantity of pore space
– Permeability - ability of a formation to flow
– Matrix - major constituent of the rock
q
A
Direction of flow
qμ L L = length
k= •
A ( p1 − p 2 ) q = flow rate
p1, p2 = pressures
k = permeability A = area perpendicular to flow
(measured in darcies)
μ = viscosity
k/μ =
kh/μ =
DARCY’S LAW:
RADIAL FLOW
rw. r
2πkh( P − Pw )
q=
μ ln r / rw
h = height of the cylinder (zone)
P = pressure at r
Pw = pressure at the wellbore
PERMEABILITY – POROSITY
CROSSPLOT
Limestone A1 Sandstone A1
100 1000
Permeability (md)
100
10
10
1
1
0.1
0.1
0.01 0.01
2 6 10 14 2 6 10 14 18
Porosity (%)
CALCULATING RELATIVE
PERMEABILITIES
k
• Oil k ro = eo
k
k
• Water k rw = ew
k
k eg
• Gas k rg =
k
Relative Permeability Curve
IRREDUCIBLE WATER SATURATION
• In a formation the minimum saturation induced by
displacement is where the wetting phase becomes
discontinuous.
• In normal water-wet rocks, this is the irreducible water
saturation, Swirr.
• Large grained rocks have a low irreducible water
saturation compared to small-grained formations
because the
capillary
pressure is
smaller.
TRANSITION ZONE
• The phenomenon of capillary pressure gives rise to the
transition zone in a reservoir between the water zone and the
oil zone.
• The rock can be thought of as a bundle of capillary tubes.
• The length of the zone depends on the pore size and the
density difference between the two fluids.
Relative
• Take a core 100% water-
saturated. (A)
• Force oil into the core Permeability
until irreducible water
saturation is attained
(Swirr). (A-> C -> D)
• Reverse the process:
force water into the core
until the residual
saturation is attained. (B)
• During the process,
measure the relative
permeabilities to water
and oil.
FLUID SATURATIONS
• Basic concepts of hydrocarbon accumulation
– Initially, pore space filled 100% with water
– Hydrocarbons migrate up dip into traps
– Hydrocarbons distributed by capillary forces and gravity
– Connate water saturation remains in hydrocarbon zone
• Definitions
Sw = water saturation
So = oil saturation
Sg = gas saturation
Sh = hydrocarbon saturation = So + Sg
• Saturations are expressed as percentages or fractions, e.g.
– Water saturation of 75% in a reservoir with porosity of 20%
contains water equivalent to 15% of its volume.
SATURATION
φ (1-Sw)
φ Hydrocarbon
φ Sw Water
1−φ Matrix
RESERVOIR PRESSURE
• Hydrocarbon C1 C2 C3 C4 C5 C6+
• Tar/bitumen 1.0
• The 'C' numbers indicated the number of carbon atoms in the molecular chain.
HYDROCARBON STRUCTURE
• The major
constituent of
hydrocarbons is
paraffin.
HYDROCARBON CLASSIFICATION
• Hydrocarbons are also defined by their weight and the Gas/Oil ratio. The
table gives some typical values:
• Tar/bitumen 0 <10
HYDROCARBON GAS
• Natural gas is mostly (60-80%) methane,
CH4. Some heavier gases make up the rest.
• Gas can contain impurities such as
Hydrogen Sulphide, H2S and Carbon
Dioxide, CO2.
• Gases are classified by their specific
gravity which is defined as:
• "The ratio of the density of the gas to that
of air at the same temperature and
pressure".
FLUID PHASES
• A fluid phase is a physically distinct state, e.g.: gas or
oil.
THE FIVE
Pressure path Critical
1 point
in reservoir
Pressure path 2
in reservoir
RESERVOIR
Dewpoint line
0
Critical Volatile oil
80 9
60 0
point
7
Pressure, psia
Pressure
50
Black Oil
% Liquid
40
lin
nt
90
30
oi
% Liquid
FLUIDS
ep
e 80
lin
bl
int
ub
790
20
po
B
le 60
bb
Bu
50
10
40
33
30
5
20
10
Separator Separator
t li ne
poin
Dew
Temperature, °F Temperature
Pressure path
in reservoir Pressure path
Pressure path
in reservoir in reservoir
1
Retrograde gas 1 1
2
e
in
tl
in
po
e
lin
w
line
De
Pressure
int
Pressure
Wet gas
Pressure
po
nt
poi
Dry gas
w
Critical
De
e
Dew
lin
point
t
in
% Liquid
300
po
% Liquid
le
20
Critical % Liquid
bb
15 point
30 e int
Bu
2
lin epo
30 2
1
l
bb
25
1
Bu
50
25
5 Separator Separator
1
Separator 0
GOR
GOR
GOR
GOR
GOR
No
liquid
° API
° API
° API
° API
° API
No
liquid
1. Water drive.
2. Gas cap drive.
3. Gas solution drive
Water Invasion
• Water invading an oil zone, moves
close to the grain surface, pushing
the oil out of its way in a piston-
like fashion.
Oil Zone
Water Water
Cross Section
• Water moves up to fill the "space"
vacated by the oil as it is produced.
Bottom Water Drive
Oil producing well
Oil Zone
Water
Cross Section
• Water moves up to fill the "space"
vacated by the oil as it is produced.
Water Drive 2
Gas
Gas
Oil
Gas
Oil Point C
Point B
Oil
Point A
Solution-
gas drive
4
Gas/oil ratio, MSCF/STB
Gas-cap drive
3
1
Water drive
0
0 20 40 60 80 100
gas injection
• To demonstrate reservoir
properties in a plan view
projection with objectives to
promote optimal field
development.
• The maps will be used for
well placement, reserves
calculation, reservoir
performance monitoring.
• Mapping is part of reservoir
characterization, therefore
the results of which very
depend on the expert’s
working knowledge in
applied geologic models
WELL PLACEMENT
• TOP/SURFACE MAPS :
– Structure Map
– Fault Map
– Unconformity Map Carried out by DG
• THICKNESS MAPS :
– Isopachous Map Æ Gross & Net
• OTHERS & COMBINED MAPS :
– Isoporosity Map - Isopermeability Map
– Pressure Map - Saturation Map
– Productivity Map - Shale Map
– Net to Gross Sand Map - Etc.
MAPPING
CONCEPTUAL WORKFLOW
DATA PROCESSING
PROCESING PRODUCTS
• DEPOSITIONAL ENVIRONMENT
• VERTICAL ZONATIONS
– TOP & BOTTOM
– FLOW UNIT
DIPMETER USES :
•Structural dip & fault determinations.
•Facies, type of sands & it’s trends
interpretations (micro resistivity
•Fracture identification
•Sedimentary structure can be
identified with processed Dipmeter or
FMI (formation imaging)
FMI Æ fulbore formation micro imager
RAB Æ resistivity at the bit
SEISMIC FOR RESERVOIR GEOLOGY
• Aid in :
– Reservoir facies mapping Æ reservoir distribution : lithology,
isopach etc Æ 3D
– Reservoir properties mapping Æ porosity
– Locating / define fluid contacts
– Monitoring fluid fronts Æ 4D
– Sructure & stratigraphic interpretations
• Seismic methods :
– 2D Seismic
– 3D seismic
– VSP
– Well to well seismic
– Time-lapse seismic monitoring etc.
EXPLOSIVE
LAPISAN BATUAN
EXAMPLE
VSP
VSP
(Vertical Seismic Profiling)
1
Schematic Reservoir Layering Profile
in a Carbonate Reservoir
Flow unit
Baffles/barriers
3250
3250 3250 3200 3250
3300 3250
3200
3250
3350 3350
• BASED ON :
– PRODUCTION TESTINGS Æ the most
reliable methods
– LOGS (electrical logs combined with FDC &
CNL)
– PRESSURE SURVEY Æ pressure gradient
from RFT
– SEISMIC Æ hydrocarbon indications
Fluid Contact Determination
with fluid gradient from RFT
Oil
Gra
W
die
at
er
nt 0
G
ra
.36
di
en
7
t0
psi
.4
depth
33
/ft
ps
i/f
t
oil OWC
water
RFT depth
pressure
CORRELATIONS
• “Reservoir Correlation” is part of pre-mapping works
of reservoir to locate and trace the lateral
distribution, continuity, geometry of reservoirs and
it’s flow unit.
• Correlation should be carried out based all the
available data, a sedimentological and stratigraphic
model of the reservoirs.
• Some pre-correlation works notes:
– Wireline log will be the basic data and will be calibrated and
integrated with other data analysis results such as core
analysis especially.
– Vertical profile analysis of well data should be carried out
previously to establish the facies, sequences and
sedimentary environment.
– Zonation of lithology and flow unit, and also marker
inentifications should be geologically sound.
– Define the zone top & bottom, zone thickness (gross & net)
etc.
Tips for Correlation
A
WELL #123 LATIHAN
WELL #456
B
OIL OWC
A
D OIL
C
WELL #123 LATIHAN
WELL #456
B
OIL OWC
A
D OIL
C
WELL #123 LATIHAN
WELL #456
B
OIL OWC
A
D OIL
C
Tip for Reservoir Mapping
• Prepare a good base-map based on coordinates of
wells and seismic shot points (line & BM).
• Plot the data accurately then start contouring from
the highest positions for structure and refer to
seismic maps.
• Stucture contour should be stop whenever
cross/meet the fault plane. Consider the fault
throws and missing/repetition sections for the next
blocks contouring.
• For isopach maps initiate with facies map
construction then followed with isopach contouring.
• Understand the contouring principles such as no
crossing contour etc.
’
00
-1 2
’
0 00
-1 00 ’
-11
’
0’
00
- 1 0’
00
-12
0
-11
’
’
00
00
00 ’
1
-1 2
0’ -1
’
0
00
’
-13
0
0’
00 -1 00’
0
00
0’
1
-1
20
-1 1
-1
-1 0 0 ’
-1
2
-1
’
1 00
-1
0’
00
-1
0’
- 1 20
’
20
’
30
0’ ’
30
0’ ’
10 ’ 20’
20 10’
’ ’
20
’
10 20
’
10
0’ 0’
PLAN VIEW
-1700’
-1600’
-1500’
’
-1400
0’
-130
-1000’
-1100’
-1200’
-1300’
-1400’
-1500’
-1700’
- 16 00’
-15 000’
- 14 0’
- 1 00’
- 123 00’
- 1 00’
- 101 00’
00’
- 17
NET PAY MAP CONSTRUCTION
STRUCTURE MAP
1000
1010
1020
1030
1040
0m
ISOPACHOUS MAP
5m
10 m
15 m
15 m
Contour unit in meter
10 m
Contour interval 5 m
5m
0m
NET PAY MAP CONSTRUCTION
0m
NET PAY MAP
5m
1050
1040 10 m
1030
1020
1010
15 m
15
10
5 Contour unit in meter
10 m 0
Contour interval 5 m
5m
0m
FAULT MAP
w n
d o
Y
FORMIT
UNCON
B
AS
an
a nd B d
S Sa
A
nd
a nd
S
B
STRUCTURE MAP OF A SAND
ISOPACHOUS MAP OF A SAND
NET PAY MAP OF A SAND
STRUCTURE MAP OF B SAND
ISOPACHOUS MAP of B SAND
NET PAY MAP OF B SAND
NET OIL
NET GAS
FAULT ANALYSIS
SEALING OR NON SEALING
• Can be based on :
– Log analysis
– Well test data
– Pressure build-up analysis
– Interference test
– Production data
– Using radioactive tracer
– Core & Rock Cutting
– Correlation & Sratigraphic analysis
ALLAN DIAGRAM
C
A
D
B
E
C
F
D
E
Allan Diagram for non-sealing fault
UP BLOCK
UP BLOCK
OIL
OIL OIL
DOWN BLOCK
DOWN BLOCK
OIL
Common Oil Water Contacts
WATER
WATER
NET PAY MAP CONSTRUCTION
0m
NET PAY MAP
5m
1050
1040 10 m
1030
1020
1010
15 m
15
10
5 Contour unit in meter
10 m 0
Contour interval 5 m
5m
0m
• The most important role of a DG is to:
5m
10 m
15 m
10 m
5m
0m
NET PAY MAP
Rock Volume Calculations
2 methods :
1. PYRAMID
2. TRAPEZOIDS
A : area, m2 or acre
h : isopach/contour interval, m or ft
n : contour number (0 Æ n)
t : avg. thickness above the top of max. thickness
FVF
Formation Volume Factor
RF
Recovery Factor
• Limitation:
– The degree of the accuracy is depend on the
reliability of the production data.
DECLINE
CURVE
EQUATIONS
Production Plots
1. A plot of log(q) vs t is
Q Linear if decline is exponential
Q Concave upward if decline is hyperbolic (n>0) or harmonic
2. A plot of q vs Np is
Q Linear if decline is exponential
Q Concave upward if decline is hyperbolic(n>0) or harmonic
3. A plot of log(q) vs Np is
Q Linear if decline is harmonic
Q Concave downward if decline is hyperbolic (n<1) or exponential
Q Concave upward if decline is hyperbolic with n>1.
4. A plot of 1/q vs t is
Q Linear if decline is harmonic
Q Concave downward if decline is hyperbolic (n<1) or exponential
Q Concave upward if decline is hyperbolic with n>1.
Example. Exponential decline
Example. Exponential decline
10000
.
Rate, stb/d
-0.0524 t
q = 6049.1e
1000
100
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
6000
q = -0.4301Np + 5768.7
5000
q stb/d
4000
Reserves
3000
2000
q abondonment
1000
0
0 2000 4000 6000 8000 10000 12000 14000
35
10000
25
6000 20
15
4000
10
2000
5
0 0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16
Time (years)
Example. Hyperbolic decline
Hyperbolic Decline curve
10000
9000
8000
7000
q STB/D
6000
5000
4000
3000
2000
1000
0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350
days
MATERIAL BALANCE
of a Petroleum Reservoir
(Mostly carried out by Reservoir Engineer)
z General Concept of Material Balance.
Rock data
Fluid data Reserves