Running head:INSTAGRAM, IMAGE-EDITING BEHAVIOR,AND COLLEGE FEMALES 1

Time Spent on Instagram and Image Editing Behavior in College-Aged Women

Ryan Dotter

James Madison University

INSTAGRAM, IMAGE-EDITING BEHAVIOR, AND COLLEGE FEMALES 2

Abstract

This study’s aim is to examine the relationship between Instagram intensity and image

editing behavior. Previous research on social media and editing behavior have lacked

generalizability to many social media platforms such as Instagram. The goal of this study is to

fill literature gaps in the extent of image-editing use and Instagram. It is anticipated that 1,200

participants will respond which is 10% of the targeted 12,000 people. In order to be included in

the study, participants must be college-aged (18-23) females who use Instagram. The participants

will be selected through a non-random purposive design to ensure that the targeted criteria are

met. This study is a cross-sectional survey study and will be conducted by using an online

questionnaire sent to the participant’s email. The questions on the questionnaire will ask the

degree of time and energy the participant spends on Instagram; these questions are modeled after

Lowe-Calverley and Grieve’s measure of Facebook Intensity (2018). The participants will then

be asked questions about their editing application usage with the measure Image-Editing

Behavior from Lowe-Calverley and Grieve (2018). There are 14 questions total, including three

demographic questions at the beginning of the questionnaire. Limitations for this study include

maintaining the validity and reliability of the variable Instagram Intensity as it is a new measure

modeled from an older one. It is expected that there will be a low response rate which is also a

limitation for the study. Additionally, it the non-random sample design for the study will limit

the generalizability of the results.

INSTAGRAM, IMAGE-EDITING BEHAVIOR, AND COLLEGE FEMALES 3

Introduction

Instagram use has been increasing since 2015 when 55% of individuals (age 18-29)

reported using Instagram in the United States (De Vries, Moller, Wieringa, Eigenraam &

Hamelink, 2018). Within the 55% of users, 59% said they visited Instagram daily. The growing

numbers of users and time spent on Instagram raises concerns of the possible negative

consequences on well-being among the impacted population. In addition, the phenomenon of

photo editing is becoming a common practice among users which again raises concern over how

it impacts individuals and their self-esteem (Kiefner-Burmeister & Musher-Eizenman, 2018).

Studies show that adolescents make up the majority of Instagram users (Kircaburun & Griffiths,

2018) which puts them at a higher risk of experiencing the negative impacts of photo editing on

social media (Worsley, Mansfield & Corcoran, 2017). Even more concerning is that research

shows that women in this age group experience more pressure to edit their photos as a result

from peer pressure and thin-ideals online (Sheldon, 2010).

Understanding and addressing women's’ motivations behind altering their images can

help mitigate the negative effects it has on their well-being. The thin-ideal messages that social

media perpetuates are outside the scope of one’s control, but what can be controlled is the

education women receive about the unrealistic nature of thin-ideals and further emphasize that

photo altering is not a healthy solution to body dissatisfaction. College aged women are more

likely to practice photo editing as they are the group that is exposed to edited images in the

media the most (Kiefner-Burmeister & Musher-Eizenman, 2018). In addition, one study found

that women typically have lower self - esteem then men and feel more pressure from family and

friends to obtain the thin-ideal presented across all media platforms (Kleemans et al., 2016).
INSTAGRAM, IMAGE-EDITING BEHAVIOR, AND COLLEGE FEMALES 4

These studies show the alarming impact social media platforms like Instagram can have on a

woman’s intention to edit photos. This study will investigate the relationship between the

intensity in which college-aged women use Instagram and the likelihood that they will edit their

photos.

First, a review of literature will summarize current research concerning social media its

impact on overall well-being in individuals in order to give context to the challenges social

media presents for college-aged women. Next, studies outlining Instagram intensity will be

discussed and lastly the image-editing behavior of women will be reviewed. Following the

literature review, the rationale for this study will be stated drawing on previous research findings

and propose this study which will aims to examine the relationship between Instagram intensity

and photo enhancing behaviors in college-aged women. Lastly the research question will be

stated.

Literature Review

Social Media and well-being

Current research has found social media to have a significant negative impact on an

individual’s mental well-being (Worsley et al., 2017; Coulthard & Ogden, 2018; Weinstein &

Selman, 2014). Worlsely et al. (2017) and Coulthard & Ogden (2018) both found that

adolescents are at a higher risk of experiencing negative impacts on wellbeing from using social

media sites. Research conducted by Coulthard and Ogden (2017) evaluates the impact on

individual wellbeing after posting selfies to social media and receiving positive feedback in the

form of likes or no feedback. They examined the self-esteem, perceived attractiveness, and mood

of the individuals and the results showed that attractiveness was the only variable that was

significantly negatively impacted by posting selfies. Individuals became less satisfied with their
INSTAGRAM, IMAGE-EDITING BEHAVIOR, AND COLLEGE FEMALES 5

overall appearances directly after taking and viewing the photos and their face satisfaction only

increased when their photos received positive feedback in the form of likes (Coulthard & Ogden,

2018). In addition, Worsley et al. (2017) found that adolescents are prone to higher levels of

anxiety and the results link this to problematic social use. Worsley et al. (2017) defines

problematic use of social media as overusing the sites or using them to create a sense of

belongingness which is problematic if these needs are not met. These studies show significant

evidence of the detrimental impacts social media can have on an individual’s psychological well-

being

An individuals’ anxiety and the stress from social media interactions are also linked to

problematic social media use in adolescents. Similar to Worsley et al. (2017), Weinstein and

Selman (2014) identified problematic social media use by focusing on the digital stressors that

were caused by social networking sites. The results from Weinstein and Selman (2014) showed

that there is stress from cyberbullying (type 1 stressors) and a more pronounced stress from

trying to form and maintain lasting and meaningful relationships (type 2 stressors). Similarly,

Worsley et al. (2017) found that individuals who already struggle with anxiety are at a higher

risk to being negatively impacted by problematic social media use than individuals who do not

struggle with high levels of attachment anxiety (Worsley et al., 2017). Both studies found that

the pressure and stress of trying to maintain relationships and create belongingness through

social media is problematic behavior leading to damaging effects on the mental health of

adolescents. These studies show the susceptibility of adolescents when connecting over social

media sites and how anxiety and stress play a significant role in their well-being.

Additionally, there is research that has found that social media may actually have a

positive impact on an individual’s psychological health. Positive feedback and messages

INSTAGRAM, IMAGE-EDITING BEHAVIOR, AND COLLEGE FEMALES 6

received over social media have led to higher self-esteem and continued use of social media as a

platform for supportive messages (Kim, 2014; Valkenburg, Koutamanis & Vossen, 2017).

Research conducted by Kim (2014) shows Facebook use is a strong indicator for social support

reception especially among adolescents. This suggests that younger Facebook users are

increasingly using Facebook as a platform for sharing positive messages. The study conducted

by Valkenburg et al., (2017) also found that there was a positive correlation between self-esteem

and social networking usage. Results showed the more self-esteem an individual possessed, the

more likely they used social networking sites (Valkenburg et al., 2017). However, the results

from Kim’s study also showed that the social support received from social media did not

improve an individual’s overall life satisfaction (Kim, 2014). Therefore, sharing positive

messages on social media does not directly correlate to an increase in an individuals’ wellbeing.

As social media becomes more and more popular among adolescents, it is important to

understand the extent to which these sites can impact their overall well-being. Decreased

satisfaction with one’s attractiveness (Coulthard & Ogden, 2018) and digital stressors (Weinstein

and Selman, 2014) are both negative consequences of social media use. In addition, research

shows the effects of social media are worsened in individuals who suffer from attachment

anxiety (Worsley et al., 2017). Practicing healthy social media use is becoming more important

as the consequences of problematic social media use become more harmful.

Instagram Intensity

Individuals are increasingly dedicating more time and energy to Instagram and research

shows that personality traits are linked to addictive behaviors online. Instagram Intensity is

adapted from previous research by Lowe-Calverley and Grieve (2018) which measured

Facebook Intensity. In the study by Lowe-Calverley and Grieve (2018) Facebook Intensity is
INSTAGRAM, IMAGE-EDITING BEHAVIOR, AND COLLEGE FEMALES 7

defined as the extent of emotional connectedness the user has to the platform in addition to the

integration of Facebook into their lives. This study will adapt the definition of Facebook

Intensity to instead look at Instagram Intensity. Research conducted by Kircaburun and Griffiths

(2018) provides critical insight on the role Instagram has in the lives of college students. The

study found that an individual’s personality is very influential in whether they practice addictive

behaviors on Instagram. Results show that both introverted and extroverted individuals have an

equal chance of being addicted to Instagram though in different ways. While extroverts use

Instagram to develop social connections through ‘liking' and commenting, introverts typically

use the platform to make up for their lack of social relationships in reality (Kircaburun &

Griffiths, 2018). Similar findings were revealed in the study conducted by Andreassen et al.

(2013). Anreassen et al. (2013) found that extroversion was strongly associated with addiction to

Facebook, suggesting that extroverts use social media to express and fulfill their social needs. In

addition, they found that understanding personality traits help to determine the likeliness of

online addiction in individuals. Similarly, Kircaburun and Griffiths (2018) concluded from their

research that there is a strong relationship between personality traits and addiction to Instagram.

Self-identity and belongingness were also found as predictors of media addiction in

individuals. Pelling and White (2009) examined college ages individuals and the extent of which

addictive behaviors on social media can be predicted. An individual who identifies strongly as a

user of social media was more likely to spend an excessive amount of time on social media. In

addition, individuals who have a strong desire to be connected with others were more likely

practice addictive behaviors on social media (Pelling & White, 2009). This study is in line with

the findings from Kircaburun and Griffiths (2018) as both studies credit a desire for belonging as
INSTAGRAM, IMAGE-EDITING BEHAVIOR, AND COLLEGE FEMALES 8

a predictor of addiction to social media. These results help to understand the aspects of an

individual that encourages addictive behavior on social media sites such as Instagram.

When looking at the behaviors of women on social media, it is apparent that women who

are more likely to be negatively impacted by the unrealistic societal standards presented Current

research suggests that the more a woman is exposed to media containing thin-ideals, the more

likely that woman will internalize the ideal for herself (Vonderen & Kinnally 2012). In addition,

body dissatisfaction among women was influenced most by peer comparisons and self-esteem

levels. In line with these findings, a separate study also found that individuals who tend to

compare themselves socially are more likely to experience more negative effects after viewing

positive Instagram posts from strangers (De Vries et al., 2018). Similarly, Vonderen and

Kinnally (2012) found that women who hold similar attitudes found in the media are more likely

to be impacted by the messages the media conveys. Therefore, research suggests that social

media intensity plays a significant role in body dissatisfaction among women.

Image editing behavior in college women

Image editing behavior is defined by Lowe-Calverly and Grieve (2018) as a user’s use of

editing applications to edit or alter photos before posting them to social media. Women aged 14-

22 are more likely to be exposed to edited images and thus more likely to alter their images

before posting. Kiefner-Burmeister & Musher-Eizenman (2018) study the impact age has on

women being able to detect an edited or retouched image. They found that high school and

college aged groups were more successful in identifying edited images as opposed to the third

graders. This suggests that women ages 15-22 are more likely to be exposed to edited images on

social media and thus are more likely to identify them as altered. In addition, the high school and

college aged women were better able to define and describe the process of photo editing whereas
INSTAGRAM, IMAGE-EDITING BEHAVIOR, AND COLLEGE FEMALES 9

the 3rd graders were unable to provide sufficient definitions. Results also showed that college

women are more likely than any other age group to internalize the thin-ideal body image after

viewing posts with that attitude. Therefore women are more likely to edit their photos before

posting due to the high exposure and increased frequency of edited images on Instagram feeds

(Kiefner-Burmeister & Musher-Eizenman, 2018) In addition to these findings, results from

Kleemans, Daalmans, Carbaat and Anshutz (2016) showed exposure to edited images (body

reshaping) had a strong relationship to decreased body image in women aged 14-18. The

researchers noted that Instagram is becoming a prominent platform for edited and re-touched

photos which increases the likelihood of exposure for women who use Instagram. The women

that viewed the edited images in the study reported significantly lower body-image when

compared to women who viewed the original, unedited photos (Kleemans et al., 2016). These

studies show the alarming pressure high school and college aged women feel to edit their photos

due to the abundance of edited images on social media that showcase the thin-ideal.

Studies show that there are many factors contribute to an individual’s actions on social

media such as posting an edited image. Narcissism, Facebook intensity and positive views on

editing from friends were key predictors of an individual’s intention to post edited selfies on

social media (Lowe-Calverley & Grieve, 2018). Narcissism was the most noteworthy predictor

of posting edited images to Facebook; the more narcissistic an individual was, the more likely

they were to post an altered image. Lowe-Calverley and Grieve (2018) also found that the more

time an individual spent on Facebook, the more likely they were to edit their selfies before

posting. In another study conducted by Lowe-Calverley and Grieve (2018) the results show that

before participants post an image, they consider the quality of the photo; including the filter

placed on the image and whether it fits in with the other edited images in their profile.
INSTAGRAM, IMAGE-EDITING BEHAVIOR, AND COLLEGE FEMALES 10

Studies comparing men and women and their responses to negative attitudes presented in

the media reveal that women experience a greater negative impact and thus more motivation to

edit their images. Women reported that online family and peer pressure influenced their overall

self - esteem and inclination to alter themselves digitally (Sheldon, 2010). Similarly, Lowe-

Calverley and Grieve (2018) found that the opinions of family and friends regarding editing

behavior influenced an individual’s likelihood of posting an edited image on

Facebook. Likewise, Sheldon (2010) found that the women who critically compared themselves

to models in the media where more likely to also be experiencing higher pressure from family

and friends to conform to societal standards online. These studies examine the relationships

between media, peer and family pressure and low body-esteem and show how they collectively

impact the editing actions of individuals (especially women) online. Further research must be

conducted to examine the extent to which these factors have on the actions of women on social

media.

Rationale

The growing influence of social media in the lives of adolescents is undeniable and the

repercussions of unhealthy use of these sites is becoming harder to avoid. Most noticeable are the

impact social media has had on college-aged women (Sheldon, 2010). Since social media was

created there has been enhanced photos, but the accessibility and ease of photo editing provided

by various applications has made editing photos commonplace on platforms such as Instagram

(Lowe-Calverley & Grieve, 2018). Kiefner-Burmeister and Musher-Eizenman (2018) study

shows that college-aged women are the most aware of photo editing opportunities and thus are

the most likely to utilize them.

INSTAGRAM, IMAGE-EDITING BEHAVIOR, AND COLLEGE FEMALES 11

Current research establishes the relationship between social media and adolescents’ self-

esteem and body dissatisfaction. There is plenty of existing research that outlines the impact

social media can have on the mental and physical health of an individual. This research provides

a strong starting point for further research to be conducted by providing enough evidence to

suspect that social media has many consequences. There is also sufficient research on how an

individuals’ self-esteem is a predictor of whether or not he/she will edit photos (Lowe-Calverley

& Grieve, 2018). Yet this research is limited to Facebook and the results may not translate when

looking at Instagram. In addition, research has identified women as being more susceptible to

internalizing the attitudes presented in the media when compared to men (Kiefner-Burmeister &

Musher-Eizenman, 2018; Kleemans, et al., 2016). Again, this research fails to incorporate

Instagram as a media source which, if added, may alter the results. Research also states that

college-aged individuals have the most exposure to edited photos on social media (Valkenburg et

al., 2017) and experience the highest levels of anxiety compared to other age groups (Worsley et

al., 2017). These studies fail to include Instagram as a platform for edited photos and as a

possible anxiety-inducing source. Women who experience higher levels of anxiety due to

Instagram may feel a bigger need to edit their photos but there is not enough research currently

to support this claim.

There currently exists a gap in research concerning how women are using Instagram

more intensely and how this impacts their self-presentation on media (and the decision to edit or

not to edit). Addiction to social media has been positively linked to personality traits (Kircaburun

and Griffiths 2018), which adds another level of complexity to this study. There may be more to

social media addiction than personality, there could possibly be gender differences as well.

Understanding the factors that go into intense Instagram usage is important to understanding
INSTAGRAM, IMAGE-EDITING BEHAVIOR, AND COLLEGE FEMALES 12

online behavior and decisions. It is reasonable to believe that gender may play a role in

Instagram intensity because previous research shows that there is a difference among genders

when choosing to edit and post photos. Therefore, the research question addresses the missing

research for Instagram Intensity and its relation to image-editing behavior in women who are

more vulnerable to social comparisons.

Facebook has been the most researched social media platform, yet research also shows

that individuals act differently on various social networking sites (Valkenburg et al., 2017).

Therefore, the results suggesting that Facebook intensity predicts one’s likelihood of editing and

posting photos may differ slightly when applied to Instagram (Lowe-Calverley & Grieve, 2018).

The content on Instagram is more visually focused than the content on Facebook therefore the

results may differ from Facebook to Instagram. The purpose of this study is to fill the gaps in

literature concerning Instagram intensity in college-aged women and identify the motivation to

post edited selfies to Instagram. Based off of previous research, it is reasonable to propose a

study addressing the relationship between Instagram intensity and image-editing behavior.

RQ: Is there a relationship between Instagram intensity and extent of image editing among

undergraduate females in a university setting?

Participants

The target sample for this study consists of female Instagram users at a mid-sized mid-

Atlantic college. These participants will be contacted using a non-random purposive sample

design. Students who meet the criteria of college-aged (18-23) females and Instagram users will

be targeted for the purposes of this study. Participants will be recruited through a bulk email
INSTAGRAM, IMAGE-EDITING BEHAVIOR, AND COLLEGE FEMALES 13

including the link to the survey and sent to all members who meet the criteria. The email will

include a basic description of the study to inform participants of the criteria. There are roughly

12,000 undergraduate females, and it is expected that 10% will respond to the survey therefore

the expected number of participants is 1,200.

Procedures

The survey will have a cross-sectional design because all of the data will be collected at

one time. The survey is focused on the time and energy a user dedicates to Instagram how this

may be related to the participant’s image-editing behavior. The data will be self-reported in that

participants have time to think about their answers in relation to their behaviors, emotions and

demographics.

The setting of the data collection will be an online questionnaire which will be accessed

through a link sent in an email. Participants will click on the link after reading the study

description. In order to start and complete the survey, participants must first read the research

and consent form and after signing it to show that they have given informed consent and agree to

the terms of the study. The consent form will discuss their rights as participants in the study,

their privacy and how it will be maintained by anonymous responses, and the treatment they can

expect (honesty and fairness) during the study. In addition, participants will be informed about

the confidentiality of their responses, which will only be used for research purposes. After the

form is read and signed, participants will be directed to the questionnaire which is expected to

take 20 minutes to complete.

In order to ensure that all participants meet the criteria for the study there will be two

questions at the beginning regarding the participants gender and Instagram use. The first question

will ask if the participant identifies as female, the second asking if they have an Instagram
INSTAGRAM, IMAGE-EDITING BEHAVIOR, AND COLLEGE FEMALES 14

account. The participants will only be directed to the survey if they answer “yes” to both of these

questions. After being directed to the questionnaire participants will answer three demographic

based questions. Participants will then answer questions based on the independent variable,

Instagram intensity and the dependent variable, image-editing behavior. The participants will

then be thanked for their participation and the questionnaire will be closed. The format of the

study is made to be easily understood by participants which is intended to keep the results

consistent.

Materials

In order to conduct this survey, there must first be a material to measure participants’

qualification for the survey. If participants are qualified, there will be a follow up material

measuring the demographics of the participant (Appendix A). After the user meets these criteria,

the independent and dependent variables can be analyzed.

The independent variable is Instagram intensity which for the purposes of this research is

defined as the extent of time and emotional energy users spend on Instagram. The material for

measuring Instagram intensity is from an existing measure found in Lowe-Calverly and Grieve’s

research originally from Ellison, Steinfeld, & Lampe (2007). The measure was initially used to

measure Facebook intensity, but I will be modifying it to Instagram intensity. Therefore, every

time the measure said “Facebook”, I changed it to say “Instagram”. Similarly, every time it

mentioned “friends” I changed it to “followers” to fit the language of Instagram. The measure

has eight questions total, the first two questions are self-reported and the last six are interval and

based on a five-point Likert-scale, 1 being strongly disagree and 5 being strongly agree

(Appendix B). The first two questions are self-reported and are used to measure the user’s

engagement on Instagram by looking at the number of followers a user has in addition to the
INSTAGRAM, IMAGE-EDITING BEHAVIOR, AND COLLEGE FEMALES 15

amount of time they spend on Instagram every day. An example from this section of the

measure; “In the past week, on average, approximately how many minutes per day have you

spent on Instagram?”. The options for answering ranged from less than ten minutes to more than

three hours a day. The series of questions following are attitude-based Likert-scale questions

measuring the emotional connection the user has with Instagram and the extent of integration

into the user’s daily life. The questions look at attitudes by asking questions like, “I feel I am part

of the Instagram community” or “I am proud to tell people I’m on Instagram”.

This measure has been used in previous research findings and has been reliable in those

studies. In a study conducted by Lowe-Calverley and Grieve (2018), the Cronbach’s alpha

coefficient for the Facebook Intensity scale was 0.85 proving it reliable for survey use. In

addition, the Cronbach’s alpha from the original study in which this measure was first used was

0.83 (Ellison, N., Steinfeld, C., & Lampe, C, 2007). By using an already tested measure, the

reliability of the measure is higher, yet by modifying the measure to fit the language of this

study, the reliability may be threatened. In addition, the measure was tested for predictive

validity and was positive for predicting the intentions of participants to post an edited image.

This aligns with previous research in which past behaviors have been significant indicators of

future intentions.

The dependent variable for this survey is image editing and the extent that it is used

among Instagram users. The measure for this variable is from a previous measure in research

conducted by Lowe-Calverley and Grieve (2018). This material measures image editing

behavior among social media users. This measure includes three dichotomous (yes / no)

questions which look into the participants current use of image editing applications. The items

are “Do you use the filters and editing capabilities built into your phone to edit images before
INSTAGRAM, IMAGE-EDITING BEHAVIOR, AND COLLEGE FEMALES 16

taking them to a social media platform to upload?”, “Do you use additional apps (e.g.

VSCOcam) to edit images before taking them to a social media platform to upload?”, and “Do

you use professional editing software (e.g. photoshop) to edit images before taking them to a

social media platform to upload?”(Appendix C).

In the study conducted by Lowe-Calverley and Grieve (2018) this measure for the

dependent variable was reliable. The measure was tested for predictive validity and was

positive, similar to the independent variable. The results from this measure predicted that the

past behavior (image-editing) guides the participants future intentions (posting edited photos);

which is a variable relationship that has been previously linked.

Limitations

While studies conducted using a survey design are subject to limitations such as threats to

generalizability, reliability and internal and external validity threats, the goal is to restrict these

limitations as much as possible. Although due to the design of this study, certain threats such as

external validity are unavoidable because of the chosen sample type.

Typical with any survey research, the response rate is expected to be significantly lower

than full participation. The online format of the questionnaire also poses a threat to the response

rate because the participants are not held accountable, compared to an in-person survey. This

format makes it easier for participants to overlook or delete the bulk email containing the

questionnaire or leave it incomplete. This will decrease the item response rate leaving many

questionnaires incomplete and exempt them from the results. In addition, there will be no

incentive for participants which may also result in a lower response rate. To help mitigate these

limitations all students who are undergraduate females will be sent the email in hopes that more

recipients of the email, the more responses. Yet the participants who chose to respond may all
INSTAGRAM, IMAGE-EDITING BEHAVIOR, AND COLLEGE FEMALES 17

have a similar characteristic (outside of the criteria) which enticed them to do so. This is a

possible threat to the study’s generalizability. The participants’ answers are anonymous

therefore they may feel more inclined to respond and be more honest with their responses which

may help to increase the response rate. Because the sample is non-random, external validity will

be threatened, reducing the generalizability of the results. Furthermore, if the ideal sample size

is not met due to the online setting of the survey then there will not be sufficient results to

represent the specific population.

The materials used to measure the independent and dependent variables have both been

established as reliable measures from previous studies. The independent variable was tested for

reliability and the results showed high reliability (Lowe-Calverley & Grieve, 2018). However,

the independent variable measure had been modified to this survey and thus the reliability may

be jeopardized. The independent variable was tested for validity and the results showed the

predictive validity of the measure; therefore, the validity of the independent variable is not a

limitation. By using measures that have already been used, the internal validity of this study is

not threatened. If the altered measure for the independent shows to be as reliable as the original

measure (Ellison, N., et al 2007), there is a greater chance that study will support the

relationship between Instagram Intensity and image editing behavior. The dependent variable

reliability is high according to previous research conducted by Lowe-Calverley and Grieve

(2018), therefore reliability is not a limitation for the dependent variable. The dependent

variable was tested for validity and the results suggested predictive validity therefore the

validity of the dependent variable is not a limitation.

INSTAGRAM, IMAGE-EDITING BEHAVIOR, AND COLLEGE FEMALES 18

Appendices

Appendix A - Demographic Questions

1. How old are you? _____

2. What year are you in college?

Freshman Sophomore Junior Senior 5th year

3. What is your ethnicity?

Asian/ Pacific Islander Black / African American Hispanic/Latino

Native American/ American Indian White Other

Appendix B - Instagram Intensity

1. About how many total Instagram followers do you have at JMU or elsewhere?

0=10 or less, 1=11-50, 2=51-100, 3=101-150, 4=151-200, 5=201-250, 6=251-

300, 7=301-400, 8=more than 400

2. In the past week, on average, approximately how many minutes per day have you spent on

Instagram?

0=less than 10, 1=10-30, 2=31-60, 3=1-2 hours, 4=2-3 hours, 5=more than 3 hours

1 = strongly disagree, 2= disagree, 3= neutral/unsure, 4= agree 5 = strongly agree

12345 3. Instagram is part of my everyday activity

12345 4. I am proud to tell people I’m on Instagram

12345 5. Instagram has become part of my daily routine

12345 6. I feel out of touch when I haven’t logged onto Instagram for a while

12345 7. I feel I am part of the Instagram community

INSTAGRAM, IMAGE-EDITING BEHAVIOR, AND COLLEGE FEMALES 19

12345 8. I would be sorry if Instagram shut down

Appendix C- Image editing behavior

Yes / No Do you use the filters and editing capabilities built into your phone to edit images

before taking them to a social media platform to upload?

Yes / No Do you use additional apps (e.g. VSCOcam) to edit images before taking them to

a social media platform to upload?’

Yes / No Do you use professional editing software (e.g. photoshop) to edit images before

taking them to a social media platform to upload?

INSTAGRAM, IMAGE-EDITING BEHAVIOR, AND COLLEGE FEMALES 20

References

Andreassen, C., Griffiths, M., Gjertsen, S., Krossbakken, E., Kvam, S. & Pallesen, S. (2013).

The relationships between behavioral addictions and the five-factor model of personality.

Journal of Behavioral Addictions, 2(2), 90-99. doi: 10.1556/JBA.2.2013.003

Coulthard, N. & Ogden, J. (2018). The impact of posting selfies and gaining feedback (‘likes’)

on the psychological wellbeing of 16-25-year old’s: An experimental study. Journal of

Psychosocial Research on Cyberspace, 12(2), 12-24. doi: 10.5817/CP2018-2-4

De Vries, D., Möller, M., Wieringa, M., Eigenraam, A. & Hamelink, K. (2018). Social

comparison as the thief of joy: Emotional consequences of viewing strangers’ Instagram

posts. Media Psychology, 21(2), 222-245. doi:10.1080/15213269.2016.1267647

Ellison, N., Steinfeld, C., & Lampe, C (2007). The benefits of Facebook “friends:”

Social capital and college students’ use of online social network sites. Journal of

Computer- Mediated Communication12(4), 1143–1168, retrieved from:

https://doi.org/10.1111/j. 1083-6101.2007.00367.x
INSTAGRAM, IMAGE-EDITING BEHAVIOR, AND COLLEGE FEMALES 21

Haferkamp, N. & Krämer, N. (2011). Social comparison 2.0: Examining the effects of online

profiles on social networking sites. Cyber Psychology, 14(5), 309-314. doi: 10.1089/

cyber.2010.0120

Harrison, K. & Hefner, V. (2014). Virtually perfect: Image retouching and adolescent body

image. Media Psychology, 17, 134-153. doi: 10/1080/15213269.2013.770354

Kiefner-Burmeister, A. & Musher-Eizenman, D. (2018). The benefits and trajectory of digital

editing-based media literacy among girls. Mass Communication and Society, 21(5),

631-656. doi: 10.1080/15205436.2018.1465097

Kircaburun, K. & Griffiths, M. (2018). Instagram addiction and the big five personality: The

mediating role of self-liking. Journal of Behavioral Addictions, 7(1), 158-170 doi:

10.1556/2006.7.2018.15

Kleemans, M., Daalmans, S., Carbaat, I., & Anshutz, D. (2016). Picture perfect: the direct effect

of manipulated Instagram photos on body image in adolescent girls. Media Psychology,

21(1), 93-110. Retrieved from: https://doi.org/10.1080/15213269.2016.1257392

Kim, H. (2014). Enacted social support on social media and subjective well-being. International

Journal of Communication 8, 2201-2221. Retrieved from https://eds.a.ebscohost.com/

INSTAGRAM, IMAGE-EDITING BEHAVIOR, AND COLLEGE FEMALES 22

Lowe-Calverley, E. & Grieve, R. (2018). Self-ie love: Predictors of image editing intentions on

Facebook. Telematics and Informatics, 35(1), 186-194. doi: 10.1016/j.tele.2017.10.011

Lowe-Calverley, E. & Grieve, R. (2018). Thumbs up: A thematic analysis of image-based

posting and liking behavior on social media. Telematics and Informatics, 35(7), 1900-

1913. doi: 10.1016/j.tele.2018.06.003

Pelling, E. & White, K. (2009). The theory of planned behavior applied to young people’s use of

social networking web sites. CyberPsychology & Behavior, 12(6), 755-759. doi: 10.1089/

cpb.2009.0109

Sheldon, P. (2012). Pressure to be perfect: Influences on college students’ body esteem. Southern

Communication Journal, 75(3), 277-298. doi: 10.1080/10417940903026543

Weinstein, E. & Selman, R. (2016). Digital stress: Adolescents’ personal accounts. New Media

& Society, 18(3), 391-409. doi: 10.1177/1461444814543989

Worsley, J., Mansfield, R., & Corcoran, R. (2018). Attachment anxiety and problematic social

media use: The mediating role of well-being. Cyber Psychology, 21(9), 563-568. doi:

10.1089/cyber.2017.0555
INSTAGRAM, IMAGE-EDITING BEHAVIOR, AND COLLEGE FEMALES 23

Valkenburg, P., Koutamanis, M. & Vossen, H. (2017). The concurrent and longitudinal

relationships between adolescents’ use of social network sites and their social self-

esteem. Computers in Human Behavior, 76, 35-41. doi: 10.1016/j.chb.2017.07.008

Vonderen, K., & Kinnally, W. (2012). Media effects on body image: Examining media exposure

in the broader context of internal and other factors. American Communication Journal,

14(2), 41-57. Retrieved from:

https://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&AuthType=cookie,ip,cpid,athens,sh

ib&custid=s8863137&db=ufh&AN=76474211&site=ehost-

live&scope=site&custid=s8863137