Specifying Control Valves

Engineering Encyclopedia
Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards
Specifying Control Valves

For Severe Service Applications
Note: The source of the technical material in this volume is the Professional
Engineering Development Program (PEDP) of Engineering Services.
Warning: The material contained in this document was developed for Saudi
Aramco and is intended for the exclusive use of Saudi Aramco’s
employees. Any material contained in this document which is not
already in the public domain may not be copied, reproduced, sold, given,
or disclosed to third parties, or otherwise used in whole, or in part,
without the written permission of the Vice President, Engineering
Services, Saudi Aramco.
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Engineering Encyclopedia Instrumentation
for Severe Service Applications
Contents Pages
SELECTING CONTROL VALVE MATERIALS FOR CORROSIVE

FLUID APPLICATIONS.....................................................................................1
Corrosion And Its Consequences..............................................................1

Basic Corrosion Mechanisms........................................................1
Common Forms Of Corrosion.......................................................2
Quantifying Corrosion Intensity..................................................36
Consequences Of Corrosion........................................................36
Corrosive Service Flags And Typical Corrosive Applications ...............37
Flags For Corrosive Fluid Applications ......................................37
Common Corrosive Fluid Applications.......................................38
Critical Control Valve Specification Considerations ..............................41
Selection Of Appropriate Valve Types .......................................41
Material Considerations ..............................................................42
Importance Of Specifying Specific Material Grades ..................48
Significance Of An Accurate Fluid Description..........................48
Significance Of Providing Accurate Service Conditions ............53
Resources For Control Valve Selection..................................................53
SAES-L-008................................................................................53
Vendor’s Corrosion Guidelines...................................................53
SELECTING CONTROL VALVES FOR EROSIVE FLUID

APPLICATIONS................................................................................................55
Erosion And Its Consequences ...............................................................55

Common Forms Of Erosion ........................................................55
Quantifying Erosion Intensity .....................................................55
Consequences Of Erosion ...........................................................57

Erosive Service Flags And Typical Erosive Fluid Applications.............58

Flags For Erosive Fluid Applications..........................................58
Common Erosive Fluid Applications ..........................................61
Critical Control Valve Specification Considerations ..............................62
Control Valve Styles ...................................................................62
Materials Selection Considerations .............................................80
Sizing Issues................................................................................71
Information Sources................................................................................97
SELECTING CONTROL VALVE OPTIONS FOR HIGH-

TEMPERATURE FLUID APPLICATIONS .....................................................98
High Temperature Applications And Their Consequences.....................98

Categories Of High Temperature Applications ...........................98
Common Applications.................................................................98
Consequences Of High Temperature Fluids On
Incompatible Components.........................................................100
Consequences Of Thermal Cycling Applications .......................79
High Temperature Service Flags ..........................................................107
Saudi Aramco Definition Of High Temperature .......................107
Thermal Cycling Flags ..............................................................107
Critical Control Valve Specification Considerations ............................108
Valve Design Considerations ....................................................108
Material Temperature Ratings...................................................109
Extended Bonnets For Packing Protection................................120
Achieving Tight Shutoff At Elevated Temperatures .................121
SELECTING AND SIZING CONTROL VALVES FOR CAVITATING

FLUID APPLICATIONS.................................................................................123
Cavitation And Its Consequences .........................................................123

The Cavitation Phenomenon .....................................................123

Cavitation Versus Other Flowstream Phenomenon...................124
Common Forms Of Cavitation ..................................................125
Consequences Of Cavitation .....................................................127
Predicting The Potential For Cavitation................................................130
Saudi Aramco And Manufacturer’s System Cavitation
Indices .......................................................................................130
Subjective Factors For Analyzing The Potential For
Cavitation Damage....................................................................133
Cavitation Service Flags And Typical Cavitating Applications ...........143
Flags For Cavitating Fluid Applications ...................................143
Specific Applications ................................................................143
Anti-Cavitation Valve Technology.......................................................144
General Anti-Cavitation Valve And Trim Design
Strategies ...................................................................................144
Specific Anti-Cavitation Valve And Trim Designs...................147
Custom Valves ..........................................................................156
Control Valve Selection Considerations ...............................................159
Performance Objective: Cavitation Damage Control
Versus Cavitation Prevention....................................................159
Manufacturers Control Valve Selection Procedures .................159
Valve Performance Contingency Requirements .......................161
Sensitivity To Accurate Data ....................................................161
Importance Of Defining Worst Case Cavitating
Conditions .................................................................................164
Cavitation In Combination With Other Severe Conditions.......164
Anti-Cavitation Trim And Flashing Applications .....................164
Non-Valve Methods Of Reducing The Potential For
Cavitation ..................................................................................165
ISA System Indices From ISA-dRP75.23.................................167

SELECTING AND SIZING CONTROL VALVES FOR FLASHING

FLUID APPLICATIONS.................................................................................172
Flashing And Its Consequences............................................................172

Review Of Flashing Phenomenon.............................................172
Common Forms Of Flashing.....................................................174
Quantifying Flashing.................................................................178
Consequences Of Flashing ........................................................179
Flashing Service Flags And Typical Flashing Applications .................179
Flags For Flashing Fluid Applications ......................................179
Typical Flashing Fluid Applications .........................................179
Critical Control Valve Selection Considerations ..................................180
Basic Control Valve Selection Criteria .....................................180
Erosion Resistant Control Valve Types.....................................180
Materials Of Construction .........................................................183
System Design Considerations..................................................183
Valve Sizing Procedures ...........................................................184
Flashing In Combination With Particle Erosion Or
Corrosion...................................................................................185
Importance Of Accurate Data....................................................185
SELECTING AND SIZING CONTROL VALVES TO ATTENUATE

AERODYNAMIC CONTROL VALVE NOISE..............................................186
Sources Of Control Valve Noise...........................................................186

Types Of Control Valve Noise..................................................186
Mechanics Of Aerodynamic Noise Generation And
Transmission .............................................................................189
Quantifying Noise Intensity..................................................................190
Measurement Parameters ..........................................................190
Measurement Units And Scales ................................................190

Measurement Techniques..........................................................193
Consequences Of Control Valve Noise.....................................198
Flags For Excessive Noise And Common Noise Applications.............201
SPL> 90 dBA For A Standard Valve ........................................201
Outlet Velocity Greater Than 0.3 Mach ....................................202
P1/P2 > 5 For Dry Gas And Superheated Steam Services ........202
SPL > Limits That Are Established By Saudi Aramco
Engineering Standards ..............................................................202
Specific Applications ................................................................202
Predicting Control Valve Noise ............................................................202
Introduction...............................................................................202
Influences On Noise Generation And Transmission .................203
Noise Prediction Equations .......................................................204
Control Valve Options For Attenuating Control Valve Noise ..............209
Source Treatments Vs. Path Treatments ...................................209
Valve Style Versus Noise Attenuation ......................................210
Body Options For Globe And Angle Valves.............................210
Noise Abatement Trim Design Strategies .................................210
Commonly Available Noise Abatement Valve Options............215
Characterizing Noise Abatement Trim......................................219
Common Selection Problems And Specification Errors.......................220
Absence Of Industry Standards For Noise Prediction
Equations...................................................................................220
Specifier's Failure To Identify Worst Case Service
Conditions .................................................................................221
WORK AID 1: FLUID COMPATIBILITY INFORMATION THAT IS

USED TO SELECT CONTROL VALVES FOR CORROSIVE FLUID
APPLICATIONS..............................................................................................222
Work Aid 1A: NACE Compliant Materials Of Construction ...............222

Work Aid 1B: Recommended Materials Of Construction For

Seawater And Brine Services ...............................................................237
Work Aid 1C: Valve And Material Selection Guidelines For

Amine (DGA) Letdown Applications...................................................242
WORK AID 2: HIERARCHICAL LISTINGS OF EROSION

RESISTANT VALVE STYLES AND CONSTRUCTION
MATERIALS ...................................................................................................243
Work Aid 2A: Hierarchy Of Erosion Resistant Valve Styles That

Is Used To Select Control Valves For Erosive Fluid Applications.......243
Work Aid 2B: Hierarchies Of Erosion Resistant Body And Trim

Materials That Are Used To Select Control Valves For Erosive
Fluid Applications ................................................................................257
Hierarchy Of Erosion Resistant Body Materials .......................257
Hierarchy Of Erosion Resistant Trim Materials ........................260
WORK AID 3: PROCEDURES THAT ARE USED TO SELECT

CONTROL VALVE OPTIONS FOR HIGH TEMPERATURE FLUID
APPLICATIONS..............................................................................................269
Body And Bonnet Material Selection .......................................269
Trim Material Selection.............................................................269
Gasket Material Selection .........................................................269
Packing Material Selection........................................................269
Bonnet Type Selection ..............................................................269
Thermal Cycling Considerations...............................................269
WORK AID 4: PROCEDURES THAT ARE USED TO SELECT AND

SIZE CONTROL VALVES FOR CAVITATING FLUID
APPLICATIONS..............................................................................................245
Work Aid 4A: Procedures That Are Used To Perform Basic

Selection And Sizing With The Use Of Control Component’s
Inc. Sizing Software..............................................................................245
Preliminary Entries....................................................................245

Entering Fluid Properties And Service Conditions ...................245

Design Information ...................................................................245
Change Menu ............................................................................245
Calculation Results....................................................................271
Work Aid 4B: Procedures That Are Used To Perform Basic
Selection And Sizing With The Use Of Valtek’s Sizing Software .......271
Project Identification .................................................................247
Valve Selection .........................................................................247
Valve Sizing ..............................................................................247
Work Aid 4C: Procedures That Are Used To Perform Basic
Selection And Sizing With The Use Of Fisher Control’s Sizing
Program ................................................................................................273
Setting Options..........................................................................273
Data Entry And Sizing Calculations..........................................273
WORK AID 5: GUIDELINES FOR VALVE STYLE AND

MATERIAL SELECTION AND PROCEDURES THAT ARE USED
TO SIZE CONTROL VALVES FOR FLASHING FLUID
APPLICATIONS..............................................................................................251
Work Aid 5A: Procedures That Are Used To Size Control

Valves For Flashing Fluid Applications ...............................................251
Work Aid 5B: Guidelines For Valve Style And Material

Selection That Are Used To Select Control Valves For Flashing
Fluid Applications ................................................................................251
Valve Style Selection Guidelines ..............................................251
Body and Trim Material Selection Guidelines ..........................251
WORK AID 6: PROCEDURES THAT ARE USED TO SELECT AND

SIZE CONTROL VALVES TO ATTENUATE AERODYNAMIC
CONTROL VALVE NOISE ............................................................................253

Work Aid 6A: Procedures That Are Used To Select And Size
Noise Attenuating Control Valves With The Fisher Sizing
Program ................................................................................................253
Setting Options..........................................................................253
Data Entry And Sizing Calculations..........................................253
Work Aid 6B: Procedures That Are Used To Select And Size
Noise Attenuating Control Valves With Control Components
Sizing Software.....................................................................................255
Entering Fluid Properties And Service Conditions ...................255
Design Information ...................................................................255
Change Menu ............................................................................283
Calculation Results....................................................................283
GLOSSARY.....................................................................................................284
ADDENDUM...................................................................................................289

Selecting Control Valve Materials For Corrosive Fluid Applications
Corrosion And Its Consequences
Basic Corrosion Mechanisms

Electrochemical Action - Most forms of corrosion can be viewed as an electrochemical
reaction. The basic mechanics of the electrochemical reaction are illustrated in Figure 1.
Use Word 6.0c or later to
view Macintosh picture.
Figure 1
Basic Corrosion Process
When zinc is placed in dilute hydrochloric acid as shown in the above Figure, a
vigorous reaction occurs; hydrogen gas is evolved and the zinc dissolves,
forming a solution of zinc chloride; i.e.:
Zn + 2 H+ → Zn+2 + H2
Deterioration (corrosion) of the zinc occurs at the area where the electrons
leave the metal. This area is referred to as theanode and it is where damage
is observed. The area to which the electrons migrate is thecathode. The
cathode is a protected area and it is not subject to corrosion damage.
In some corrosion reactions, the oxidation reaction occurs uniformly on the

surface of the affected metal. In other cases, the corrosive reactions occur only
at specific areas. The differences in the location of the electrochemical reaction
Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards 1

provide a basis for categorizing the various forms of corrosion that will be
discussed throughout this section.
Passivation - When sufficient oxygen is available, some metals develop a

protective oxide film or passive layer. The passive layer often adds
considerably to the corrosion-resistance of the metal. Passivation requires the
presence of oxidizing agents. The effectiveness of the passive layer depends
upon the oxidizing power of the solution as shown in Figure 2. When the initial
solution oxidizing power is low, the rate of corrosion increases as a direct
function of the solution oxidizing power. At some point, the metal undergoes a
transition from the active to the passive region. At this point, a dramatic
reduction in the corrosion rate is observed. Further increases in the solution
oxidizing power ultimately cause the material to lose its corrosion-resistance.
Many of the alloys that are used in control valve assemblies achieve their
corrosion resistance from the phenomenon of passivation.
Figure 2
Passivation As A Function Of Solution Oxidizing Power
Common Forms Of Corrosion
Uniform attack , also known as general corrosion, occurs when the metal is
uniformly dissolved by the environment. Refer to Figure 3. As a result of

uniform attack, the metal becomes thinner and thinner and eventually fails.
During this type of corrosion, the corrosion product may form a protective layer
on the metal surface; e.g., rust on iron or the passive layer that forms on some
stainless steels. The protective layer may slow corrosion, or, the corrosion
product may also be attacked (dissolved) by the corrosive media. Uniform
attack can be prevented through the selection of corrosion resistant materials,
through the use of protective coatings, or by adding corrosion inhibitors to the
process fluid. Uniform attack, or general corrosion, is not of great concern from
a technical viewpoint because fluid/material compatibility issues can be
established by immersing a particular metal specimen in a particular fluid and
measuring the material loss. The results of such tests are well documented
and can be used to develop material/environment compatibility guidelines.
Other, more localized forms of corrosion that will be discussed in this section
present a greater challenge to the valve specifier.
Figure 3
General Corrosion
Pitting Corrosion - Pitting is an extremely localized attack that results in holes in

the metal as shown in Figure 4. Pitting is often difficult to detect because of the
small size of the pits, and because the pits are often covered with corrosion
products. Pitting is generally associated with the presence of chlorides in the
flow stream. Carbon steels are not generally subject to pitting; however, the
conditions that lead to pitting do generally result in unacceptable levels of

general corrosion of carbon and alloy steels. Ironically, many stainless steels
that are selected for their general corrosion resistance are particularly
susceptible to pitting. To improve stainless steel’s resistance to pitting,
increasing amounts of chromium, nickel, and/or molybdenum are included in
the stainless steel; e.g., the 300 series stainless steels. In these alloys, the
chromium and/or molybdenum combine with oxygen at the material surface to
form a tough, adherent oxide layer that is resistant to attack in many
environments. The passive layer may be damaged or removed by extremely
high velocity flows or by direct chemical attack. A damaged protective oxide
layer may reform (repassivate) if sufficient oxygen is available. If the film does
not immediately reform (repassivate), pitting may occur. The initial attack is
followed by penetration of the corrosive fluid into the metal.
Figure 4
Pitting Corrosion
Crevice Corrosion is similar to pitting corrosion but it is observed in areas where

access to oxygen is restricted; e.g., in crevices, at gasket surfaces, and under
deposits or biological organisms. Refer to Figure 5. When access to oxygen is
restricted, the passive layer is either nonexistent or weak. Because reduced
flow rates limit the available oxygen, low flow rates can also promote crevice
corrosion. Reduced flow rates also increase the potential for scaling and
fouling which results in oxygen-restricted areas where repassivation cannot
occur. Crevice corrosion is likely to occur in any application where pitting is

anticipated; however, crevice corrosion is likely to begin earlier and to produce

more dramatic damage than pitting corrosion.
Figure 5
Crevice Corrosion
Erosion-Corrosion - The passive layer can be damaged by high velocity flows or

by the impingement of erosive particles on material surfaces. If the passive
layer becomes eroded, the base material is exposed directly to the
environment and the rate of corrosion may increase. Refer to Figure 6. To
produce a tougher, more adherent passive layer that can resist erosion,
materials that include increased amounts of chromium and molybdenum are
specified. It is generally acknowledged that molybdenum is more influential
than chromium in increasing erosion-corrosion resistance. Another solution to
erosion-corrosion is to select materials that do not depend upon the passive
layer for corrosion protection; for example, the Monels (N04400 and N05500)
and Hastelloy B2 (N10665) do not include chromium and do not depend upon
the passive oxide layer for corrosion resistance.

Figure 6
Erosion Corrosion
Intergranular Corrosion is a form of corrosion in which the material along the

grain boundaries of the metal is removed. Refer to Figure 7. Intergranular
corrosion begins with a phenomena known as sensitization. Sensitization is a
process in which exposure to high temperature causes corrosion resistant
alloys to precipitate out of the material matrix, leaving a zone at the grain
boundary that is not protected from corrosion attack. For example, in some
stainless steels (primarily the 300 series) that have been subjected to high
heat from welding, chromium carbides may precipitate at the grain boundaries
thus depleting the chromium from the immediately adjacent material. In a
corrosive environment, the area of the grain boundary that has been depleted
of chromium is susceptible to attack by the corrosive atmosphere. The
corrosion that results is known as intergranular corrosion.

Figure 7
Intergranular Corrosion
Galvanic Corrosion - When two dissimilar metals are immersed in a conductive

solution, an electron flow may be established between the two. The standard
carbon-zinc battery that is shown in Figure 8 is a familiar example of electron
flow between two dissimilar metals. If electron flow is established, galvanic
corrosion of the less corrosion-resistant material (the anode) will occur.

Figure 8
Carbon Zinc Battery As An Example Of Electron Flow Between Two Metals
As a general rule of thumb, the potential for galvanic corrosion increases as

the separation between the two metals on agalvanic series increases. A
galvanic series is a list of metals that is ordered according to the relative
magnitude of the electrical potential that each produces when paired with a
reference electrode. Refer to Figure 9. The metals near the top of the list are
considered “noble”, or cathodic (less likely to give up electrons and therefore
less susceptible to corrosion). The metals at the bottom of the list are
considered to be active or anodic (they are more likely to give up electrons and
therefore more susceptible to corrosion). Electron flow can be established
between two metals either through direct contact or through an electrolyte (a
conductive medium). The process fluid can serve as an electrolyte. When a
circuit is completed between two metals that are close together in the galvanic
series, the potential for corrosion is small or non-existent. As the separation of
two paired metals on the chart increases, the potential for electron flow and
corrosion increases dramatically.

Platinum
Gold
Graphite
Titanium
Silver
Chlorimet 3
Hastelloy C
316 stainless
steel
(passi
ve)
304 stainless
steel
(passi
ve)
Inconel
Nickel
Monel
Bronzes
Copper
Brasses
Hastelloy B
Inconel (active)
Nickel (active)
Tin
Lead
316 stainless
steel
(active
)

304 stainless
steel
(active
)
Cadmium
Aluminum
Zinc
Magnesium
Figure 9
Galvanic Series Of Common Materials In Seawater
Figure 10

Zinc Washers As Sacrificial Elements To Protect Stainless Steel Valve

Stems
SCC , or stress corrosion cracking, occurs when certain alloys are exposed to
specific environments and the affected component is subjected to tensile
stress. Tensile stress is present in virtually all components. Tensile stress may
be the result of process pressure that is exerted on a valve component,
misalignment of piping, thermal expansion, and from the residual stress of cold
work, welding, or heat treatments. Examples of alloy-environment pairs that
are susceptible to SCC are listed in Figure 11. The concentration of the
environment, the operating temperature, and the operating pressures impact
the extent of SCC. In sulfide stress cracking (SSC), the corrosive action is
most intense at ambient temperatures because at low temperatures the
diffusion process is slowed, and, at elevated temperatures the diffusion rate is
so fast that a critical concentration is never reached. Withchloride stress
cracking, which is commonly encountered in deep, sour wells and in seawater
and brine applications, SCC occurs at temperatures above 130 degrees F. The
steps that are taken to prevent sulfide stress cracking are embodied in a
guideline titled NACE MR0175 that will be discussed later.
Envir Allo

Chlorid 300

Hydrog Hard
Hydrog Hard

Sodiu Steel

Ammo Cop
Figure 11
Mechanics Of Stress Corrosion Cracking
The susceptibility of a material to SCC is related to its hardness level.

Hardness is a physical property that relates the resistance of a material to
penetration or indentation. In metals, hardness is usually measured in the
laboratory by loading an indenter into a material and measuring either the
depth or the surface area of the indentation. Several test procedures and
scales of hardness have been established. A popular scale is the Rockwell C
scale, which is abbreviated as HRC (Hardness Rockwell C). The range for the
Rockwell C scale is from HRC 20 to HRC 60. For reference, hardness levels of
some common materials are listed in Figure 12.




Figure 12
Hardness Levels Of Some Common Materials
Figure 13 illustrates the relative time to failure (in hours) of bolting materials
with varying hardness levels. Because of the relationship of hardness levels
and SSC, the hardness of valve construction materials must be less than
allowable hardness levels that have been determined by test and evaluation.
Figure 13
Effects Of Material Hardness On Failure Caused By SCC
NACE MR0175 - The National Association of Corrosion Engineers (NACE) has

issued Standard MR0175 that specifies the proper materials, the heat-treating
conditions, and the strength levels that are required to provide good service life
in sour gas and oil environments.

Figure 14 lists some of the NACE approved materials, hardness information,

and pertinent remarks. Note that the maximum hardness that is allowed under
the NACE guidelines depends on the material type.
Re

Re

Re

Po

Ca

Ma

Ex
Mo

Hi

Hi

NA

Mu

NA

NA

NA

Co

Bel

Figure 14
Common NACE Approved Materials
NACE MR0175 does not address elastomer and polymer materials. However, the
importance of these materials for critical sealing must be considered. User experience has
shown that nitrile, neoprene, and PTFE can be applied within their normal respective
temperature ranges.
Because hardness is a required property for a spring, the NACE MR0175 specifications for
maximum material hardness make it difficult to manufacture NACE compliant springs. Most
manufacturers offer a limited number of material options when NACE compliant springs are
required. To solve the problem of spring selection of control valve packing arrangements,
jam-style packings that do not require a spring are typically specified.
According to NACE MR0175, NACE compliant external bolting must be specified
whenever the bolting will be deprived of contact with the atmosphere. External bolting
includes the bonnet-to-body bolting, packing flange bolting, and line flange bolting.
Conditions that deprive the bolting of access to the environment include the use of
insulation, flange protectors, or burial of the valve.
Quantifying Corrosion Intensity

Because there is no standard "corrosion coefficient" upon which to base valve and material
selection decisions, corrosion intensity is generally discussed in subjective terms. For
example, corrosion intensity is often expressed as mild, moderate, or extreme. In advanced
corrosion engineering studies, other parameters such as the millimeters of material lost per
some unit of time provide a more precise index of a material’s corrosion resistance to
specific fluids.
Consequences Of Corrosion
Body Damage - Figure 15 illustrates that corrosion damage to control valve
bodies can range from thinning of the body wall to loss of gasket surface
integrity to total failure of the body.
Trim Damage - Figure 15 also illustrates several different forms of trim damage.
Any loss of material at seating surfaces will degrade the ability of the valve to
shutoff. Material removal may also enlarge plug-to-cage and stem-to-bushing
clearances thereby allowing vibration of the valve plug and progressive
damage to the plug and seat. Crevice corrosion may be observed on gasket
surfaces, on the portion of the valve stem that is in the packing bore, and at
other stagnant areas within the valve. SCC and intergranular corrosion are
generally seen as small leaks before they result in catastrophic failures.

Figure 15
Common Forms Of Corrosion Damage
Corrosive Service Flags And Typical Corrosive Applications
Flags For Corrosive Fluid Applications

Flags, or clues that a particular process is corrosive can come from a variety of sources.
Several flags are discussed below.
Specific Applications And Fluids - Seasoned valve specifiers learn from
experience that certain applications involve corrosive fluids. For example, all
sour hydrocarbons, sour water, seawater, amine stripping processes, and
boiler feedwater control are universally recognized as applications that can
present significant corrosion challenges.
Construction Materials Of Related Equipment - If the piping, pumps, block valves,

instruments, and other equipment in the control loop are made of corrosion
resistant materials, the specifier has received a clear signal that the process
fluid is corrosive.
Corrosion Guides And Compatibility Charts - Specifiers may consult various

corrosion guides and material compatibility charts to determine if a specific
fluid will present the potential for corrosion with standard valve materials.

Common Corrosive Fluid Applications
Sour Services (NACE) - Many crude oils and natural gasses contain hydrogen
sulfide; therefore, sulfide stress cracking is very common in most gas and oil
producing operations. In gas and oil production, SSC and SCC may be
encountered in any application until all the sulfides and the chlorides have
been removed. Refer to Figure 16.
Figure 16
Sour And Sweet Processes In Gas And Oil Production

As discussed previously, the susceptibility of a material to any form of SCC is

related to its hardness level. Some valve manufacturers have established
standard policies and practices that ensure compliance with NACE guidelines
whenever a valve is specified for sour service. For example, the following
summarizes the procedures that are followed by Fisher Controls.
• Carbon steel bodies and bonnets are heat treated to 22 HRC maximum,
and they are post-weld heat-treated.
• Hardened martensitic stainless steels are not used.
• Control valve packing sets are jam style only (springless or externally live-
loaded).
• Valve stems are made from Nitronic 50 when higher strength is required.
• Primary trim materials are S31600 and Alloy 6.
• No machining operations that cause work hardening of the materials are

performed in the manufacturing process.
• Platings and coatings are appliedover NACE approved base metals, and
the coatings are not intended to provide corrosion protection.
• Bolting in Class III material is standard when the bolting is not exposed to
the sour atmosphere. Bolting in Class I and Class II material is available
when bolting is buried, insulated, or otherwise exposed to H 2S.
Most valve manufacturers offer specific valve constructions and/or trim options
that comply with the NACE guidelines. Refer to Table 7 in Bulletin 51.1:ES
(Fisher Catalog 71) and note the standard trim options that are NACE
approved.
Seawater - Seawater is commonly injected for recovery purposes. Regardless

of the application, seawater can present difficult and complex problems for the
materials specifier. The concerns for corrosion include the following:
• General corrosion will be observed in many carbon and low alloy steels.
• Pitting and crevice corrosion is common in many stainless steels.

• Above 160 degrees F, chloride stress corrosion cracking may develop.

Chloride SCC disallows the use of any 300 series or 400 series stainless
steel.
• Because the seawater that is used in secondary recovery oilfield operations

is often high in NaCl, CO2, and H2S, the NACE guidelines must be
observed.
Brine - Brines are commonly used as refrigerants or low temperature heat

exchange media. In these recirculating applications, brines are often treated
with corrosion inhibitors. At temperatures below 160 degrees F, corrosion
inhibitors may prevent corrosion of carbon steel bodies and bonnets and 300
series stainless steel trim components. At temperatures above 160 degrees F,
chloride SCC will occur and materials should be selected accordingly.
High Pressure DGA - A popular process for removing acid gasses from natural
gas involves stripping the gas with an amine such as diglycolamine (DGA) or
diethanolamine (DEA). DGA stripping is common in Saudi Aramco operations.
As shown in Figure 17, lean liquid amine enters the top of the tower and it
flows downward across the trays. As the acid-rich gas flows upward, the amine
absorbs H2S and CO2 from the natural gas. Clean gas exits the top of the
tower and acid-rich amine leaves the bottom of the absorption tower. The rich
amine passes through a letdown valve into a flash tank where a portion of the
of the absorbed gasses flash out of the liquid. Following the flash tank, the
amine passes through a regeneration process. The regenerated amine is
reused in the process.

Figure 17
Typical Amine (DGA) Adsorption Process
During amine letdown, large amounts of entrained gas will come out of
solution. The process, which is referred to as “outgassing”, results in two-
phase flow. One phase is the liquid amine and the other phase is the gaseous
CO2 and/or H2S that has flashed out of the amine solution. The amine itself
does not pose a corrosion problem; however, wet CO 2 can result in the
formation of carbonic acid which is highly corrosive to carbon steel (not to
stainless steel). Also, the presence of H2S results in the potential for stress
corrosion cracking. Materials selection for sour service is not changed by the
presence of CO2 and the NACE guidelines should be followed.
Critical Control Valve Specification Considerations
Selection Of Appropriate Valve Types

When selecting valves for corrosive fluid applications, specifiers may select either standard
alloy valves or they may choose to evaluate lined valves.
Lined Valves - Lined valves are made from an inexpensive base metal such as
carbon steel to which a non-metallic coating, cladding, or lining is applied in
order to achieve corrosion resistance. Control valve body liners and trim
coatings of polyvinyl chloride, rubber, PTFE, and other elastomers are

common. All liners have limitations in terms of temperature ratings,

permeability, vibration sensitivity, susceptibility to mechanical damage, thermal
degradation, and adherence of the lining or coating to the base metal.
Generally speaking, lined valves are selected only for highly corrosive fluids
under the conditions of low pressure, low pressure drop, and low to moderate
temperatures.
Alloy Valves - Because of the flow, pressure, and temperature conditions that
are characteristic of most Saudi Aramco operations, standard control valve
constructions with corrosion-resistant material options are generally preferred
over lined valves. The common limiting factors are the availability of the
desired material options for the selected valve, and the high cost of
increasingly corrosion resistant alloys. For example, an alloy valve that is
resistant to sour seawater may cost 3 to 4 times as much as the same valve
with standard material options. (WCB body and bonnet and 316 stainless steel
trim).
Material Considerations
To provide good performance and long life, control valve components (bodies, bonnets,
trim, packing, and gaskets) must be selected of materials that are resistant to the prevailing
environment. The available materials are numerous and the subject of proper material
selection can easily become a career study. Fortunately, Saudi Aramco standards and vendor
supplied suggestions are available to assist the specifier. It is useful to acquire a fundamental
understanding of the corrosion resistance of some of the popular material options. For the
discussion that follows, refer to the item in the Addendum that is titled “Composition,
Characteristics, And Typical Uses For Common Control Valve Materials”.
Stainless Steels - Stainless steels are the most commonly selected materials for
corrosion service applications. The broad range of materials that are
commonly referred to as stainless steels (SST’s) can be segmented according
to their basic structure and according to the alloying elements that are included
in the composition of the material. The popular stainless steels for valve
components are the martensitics, austenitics, precipitation hardened stainless
steels, and duplex stainless steels.
• Martensitic stainless steels (the 400 series stainless steels) were the first
stainless steels to be developed. Engineers and metallurgists soon noted
that the addition of 12 percent chromium imparted greatly improved
corrosion and oxidation resistance to steel. The improved corrosion
resistance results from the chromium that produces a protective passive
layer. Compared to other types of stainless steel, martensitics have a
relatively high carbon content. The addition of carbon to a stainless steel

results in increased hardness and an increased susceptibility to

sensitization and SCC. Martensitic stainless steels can achieve great
strength and hardness through various heat-treatments.
• Austenitic stainless steels (the 300 series stainless steels) typically provide
increased corrosion resistance as compared to the martensitics. Type 304
stainless steel is sometimes referred to as an “18-8” because its
composition includes 18 percent chromium and 8 percent nickel. The
increase in chromium content results in a better chromium oxide passive
later than a 400 series stainless steel. If the chromium oxide passive layer
becomes damaged and pitting attack occurs, the nickel content provides
increased resistance to further penetration. Because chromium increases
resistance to oxidizing environments and nickel increases resistance to
reducing environments, the austenitic stainless steels are resistant to a
broader range of environments than the martensitic stainless steels. The
316 stainless steels also include Molybdenum which makes the passive
layer tougher and more adherent, thereby increasing the material’s
resistance to pitting in reducing environments. Austenitic stainless steels
are hardened by cold work but they cannot be hardened by heat
treatments.
• Super-Austenitic stainless steels are those that include increased alloy

content. One of the most popular super austenitic stainless steels is Avesta
254 SMO. It should be pointed out that Avesta is the name of a Swedish
steel company that manufactures many alloys and “Avesta” is not a specific
alloy designation. For clarity when describing this alloy, specific material
designations are most appropriate. Super austenitics are sometimes
referred to as the “6 Mo’s”, referring to the nominal 6 percent molybdenum
content of the material. The increased chromium content provides a
tougher, more adherent passive layer, the increase in nickel provides
increased pitting resistance in reducing environments, and the increased
molybdenum and addition of nitrogen increase the resistance to pitting by
chlorides.
• Precipitation-Hardened stainless steels can be heat treated to achieve

great strength and high hardness levels. 17-4PH is the material that is most
commonly used for control valve components. This material is commonly
heat treated to a variety of conditions. The H900 condition is the hardest
and the strongest and has been popular for many valve trim components;
however, because of the exceptional hardness, material in the H900
condition is susceptible to stress corrosion cracking. To minimize SCC
problems, the H1075 condition has become popular.

Procedure
Heat to 900 degrees F for 1 hour, air cool
Heat to 1,025 degrees F for 4 hours, air

cool

cool


cool

cool

cool to ambient, reheat to 1,150
degrees F for 4 hours, air cool

cool to ambient, reheat to 1,150
degrees F for 4 hours, air cool
Figure 18
Common Heat Treatment Procedures
• Duplex stainless steels are becoming increasingly popular because of their

superior resistance to general corrosion and SCC in both sour and chloride
environments. In addition, the yield strength of the duplex stainless steels is
approximately double that of the annealed austenitic stainless steels. A
major consideration is that the common duplex stainless steels are NACE

approved in the wrought form only; only one duplex (Z6CNDU20.08M) is

currently NACE approved in the cast form.
Nickel Base Alloys - A broad range of nickel base alloys are available for
specific corrosive environments. In general, these alloys are known as the
Monels, the Inconels, and the Hastelloys; however, it is imprecise and
potentially dangerous to specify a nickel alloy without giving the full description.
For example, instead of describing an alloy as “Hastelloy”, the specifier should
give the complete description; e.g., N06022 (Hastelloy C22 in the wrought
form).
• Nickel-Copper Alloys - The first nickel-copper alloys were known as the

“Monels”. Nickel-copper alloys are the industry standards for dry chlorine
and hydrogen chloride gasses, hydrofluoric acid, and oxygen. They are
also selected for brine and sea water applications where chloride stress
corrosion cracking of S31600 is a problem. N04400 (alloy 400) is the most
common grade and it is often used as a soft gasket material. N05500 (alloy
K500) is a high strength, age hardenable grade and is routinely used as a
high-strength shaft and stem material.
• Nickel-Chromium Alloys - The nickel-chromium alloys were originally

marketed under the Inco tradename Inconel 600 (N06600 or alloy 600).
Because alloy 600 does not include Molybdenum, its corrosion resistance
is poor in comparison to many other nickel-based alloys.
• Nickel-Iron-Chromium Alloys- The most common alloy in this group is

known as Carpenter 20, Alloy 20, or alloy 20Cb-3. Alloy 20 is the industry
standard for sulfuric acid below 160 degrees F and it is often selected for
chloride environments such as brine and sea water.
• Nickel-Molybdenum Alloys- The most popular alloy in this family is known

as Hastelloy B2 (N10665). N10665 has excellent resistance in all
concentrations and temperatures of hydrochloric acid; however, if ferric or
cupric ions are present, severe attack will occur. N10665 is also compatible
with hydrogen chloride, sulfuric acid, acetic acid, and phosphoric aid.
Cobalt Base Alloys - The most common cobalt base alloy is often referred to as
Alloy 6 or Stellite. The correct designations are R30006 for castings, CoCr-A
for rod and powder (the materials that are used to apply hardfacings), and alloy
6B for wrought forms. Alloy 6 has good corrosion resistance in a variety of
environments but it is inferior to most corrosion resistant nickel base alloys.
Alloy 6 performs well whenever S31600 is acceptable and it is compatible with

steam, sea water, and brine applications. The various forms of Alloy 6 may be
used when, in addition to corrosion resistance, erosion resistance is required.
Elastomers - Elastomers that are compatible with corrosive service applications

are generally not difficult to identify. The most common elastomer components
are packing rings and valve plug seal rings. Standard PTFE and PTFE-based
materials are compatible with most corrosive fluids.
Coatings and Platings - Coatings and platings may be applied to base metals to
improve either the corrosion resistance or the erosion resistance of the base
metal. Corrosion resistant coatings are generally applied to carbon and low
alloy steels or to aluminum. Wear resistant coating are generally applied to
prevent wear, or to prevent galling when a single corrosion resistant base
metal is selected for components that are in a sliding wear application; e.g., a
stainless steel plug and a stainless steel cage.
• Hard chromium platings are deposited by an electroplating process that

requires an aqueous solution, electrodes, and an applied current.
Chromium platings can exhibit very high hardness (equivalent to 70 HRC).
However, all hard chromium platings include small cracks that allow
corrosive fluids to contact the base metal. Accordingly, the plating offers
little or no corrosion resistance and the base metal must be compatible with
the environment. Chromium is compatible with steam, boiler feedwater, and
dry gasses. Hard chrome plating is often applied to actuator diaphragm
rods, cages, and other components that require wear resistant surfaces at
temperatures up to 600 degrees F.
• Electrolyzing is a proprietary method of applying a hard, chrome coating.

The chromium deposit that results from the Electrolyzing process is
referred to as a “coating” rather than a “plating”. While the traditional
chrome plating process and the Electrolyzing process are similar, the
coating displays improved performance. The coating retains good wear
resistance and hardness at temperatures up to 1100 degrees F while the
upper temperature limit for traditional hard chrome plating is 600 degrees F.
Chrome coatings also provide superior galling resistance compared to
traditional hard chromium plating.
• Electroless Nickel Coating (ENC)is applied in much the same way as other
platings except that electrodes and an applied current are not used. The
coating is very homogenous with no crystalline structure; it is actually a
metallic glass. ENC deposits are more uniform than conventional platings
and they will uniformly cover small holes. Traditional platings cannot

uniformly cover small holes in the base metal’s surface. ENC is applied to
plugs and cages in order to improve wear resistance and to prevent galling.
Its corrosion resistance is similar to that of 316 stainless steel.
• Nitriding is a process in which the base metal is heat treated (in a furnace)
in the presence of a specific chemical atmosphere. During the process,
nitrogen ties up the chromium in the alloy to form chromium nitrides and
other compounds at or near the surface. This layer improves the surface
hardness and overall wear properties of the treated material. However,
because chromium is the primary element that produces the excellent
corrosion resistance of stainless steels; all forms of nitriding severely
degrade the corrosion resistance of the stainless steels. Because of the
excellent wear resistance and the poor corrosion resistance that results
from nitriding, nitriding is typically specified for components that will be
exposed to fluids such as steam, boiler feedwater, organic solvents, and
dry gasses such as nitrogen, argon, and methane.
Importance Of Specifying Specific Material Grades

Failure to specify a specific material grade is a common error in valve specification. For
example, a specification for “stainless steel” trim would be satisfied by any of a large
number of 300 and 400 series stainless steels that have widely differing characteristics.
Another example of an incomplete material specification is when a material is specified
simply as “Hastelloy”. There are more than 25 different grades of Hastelloy and each has
unique properties. A more complete specification would include the specific grade; e.g.,
Hastelloy B2, Hastelloy C276, Hastelloy G30, and so forth.
Significance Of An Accurate Fluid Description

Problems in valve specification are often traced to an incomplete or imprecise description of
the process fluid. Figure 19 lists some common fluid descriptions and notes concerning the
nature of the problems that can result.
Comment

Rich DGA
includ
es
H2S
and
CO2,
is
highly
corro
sive,
and is
subje
ct to
NAC
E
guidel
ines.
Lean DGA does

not
requir
e
NAC
E
compl
iant
mater
ials.
DGA, DEA, and

MDA
are

used
in
hydro
carbo
n
proce
ssing
opera
tions.
Thes
e
fluids
are
often
assoc
iated
with
SCC
and
erosio
n
probl
ems.
Alloy
6
(Stelli
te) is
often
select
ed
becau
se of
its
corro
sion
and
erosio
n
resist
ance.
Amines such as
hydra
zine
in
boiler
feedw
ater
applic
ations
attack

and
corro
de
Alloy
6.
440C
or
S440
04
stainl
ess
steel
trim is
often
select
ed for
this
applic
ation.
Temperature
and
conce
ntrati
on
have
a
prono
unced
affect
on
corro
sion
intens
ity
and
mater
ial
select
ion.

Figure 19
Common Problems With Inaccurate Descriptions Of Fluids

Significance Of Providing Accurate Service Conditions

The corrosion resistance of a particular alloy to a particular fluid is often a strong function of
the concentration and temperature of the fluid. For example, the alloys that are commonly
selected to resist corrosion by hydrofluoric acid are show in Figure 20. Note that at high
concentrations and low to moderate temperatures, a WCB cast steel body is acceptable and
that at reduced concentrations, more exotic alloys are required to provide the needed
corrosion resistance. Failure to provide accurate service data for this fluid could easily lead
to the selection of totally incompatible materials.
Figure 20
Material Compatibility Chart For Hydrofluoric Acid
Resources For Control Valve Selection
SAES-L-008
The Materials Appendix that is included in SAES-L-008 provides a great deal of material
compatibility information to the valve specifier. Compared to other compatibility tables and
chars, the Materials Index in SAES-L-008 is unique because it includes (1) a listing of
compounds that are particularly germane to Saudi Aramco operations and, (2) some
temperature and concentration information.
Vendor’s Corrosion Guidelines
Most valve manufacturers also provide fluid compatibility information in the form of charts,
tables, applications guides, and so forth. The limitations of most general compatibility charts
is that they do not include information that relates to temperature, concentration, or wear-

couple compatibility. In addition, it must be emphasized that valve manufacturers do not

recommend materials, but rather suggest material specifications. Most manufacturers believe
that the user is more knowledgeable of the process than a vendor.

Selecting Control Valves For Erosive Fluid Applications
Erosion And Its Consequences

While corrosion is an electrochemical action, erosion - in its simplest form - is mechanical
damage that results in the gradual destruction of a material.
Common Forms Of Erosion

Erosion damage results from the impingement of solid particles, liquids, or liquid droplets
on the target material. The various forms of erosion are shown in Figure 21 and they are
discussed below.
Figure 21
Common Forms Of Erosion
Particle Erosion results when solid particles such as fines, soot, sand, dirt, or
scale impinge on material surfaces.
Flashing Erosion results when a liquid falls below its vapor pressure and some
portion of the liquid vaporizes. The velocity of the vapor phase can increase
significantly. The liquid particles, driven by the high-velocity vapor, can impact
valve components and result in significant erosion damage.
Erosion/Corrosion - While it is convenient to discuss erosion as an independent

phenomena, erosion generally occurs simultaneously with corrosion. Each
independent phenomenon accelerates the other.
Quantifying Erosion Intensity

There is no erosion coefficient, no industry standard, and no scientific means for predicting
the occurrence or intensity of erosion damage. However, a better understanding of the
potential for erosion can be gained by evaluating the parameters that increase the potential
for erosion in a given application. These parameters are shown in Figure 22. The fluid
parameters that influence the potential for erosion damage include the size of the particles,
the sharpness of the particles, the volume ratio of particles in the fluid stream, the angle of
particle impingement on a material surface, and the fluid velocity. The relative susceptibility
of a specific material to erosion damage is a strong function of the material’s mechanical
properties (hardness, toughness, etc.) and, in many instances, the corrosion resistance of the
affected material.
Figure 22
Influences On Erosion Intensity

Consequences Of Erosion
The possible consequences of erosion in a control valve are shown in Figure 23 and they are
discussed below.
Figure 23
Typical Erosion Damage In Control Valves And Piping
Valve Body Damage - Erosive flows commonly result in a thinning of the valve
body casting in the area immediately below the valve port. The loss of
pressure-retaining capability and the total failure of the valve body are potential
results of this type of erosion.
Trim Damage - The erosion of seat rings, valve plugs, cages, guide bushings,
and stems are often the first steps in a progressive failure. For example, the
loss of material at seating surfaces generally results seat leakage and high
velocity clearance flows. High velocity flows may cause a type of erosion
known as wiredraw; a highly localized form of erosion occurs when small, high-
velocity jets cut fine slices or slots into the affected components. Any high
velocity clearance flows at the seat can cause accelerated erosion - even
disintegration - of the seat and plug. Abrasion and wear of the guiding
mechanism (either the cage or the guide bushing) can result in lateral plug
instability and vibration of the valve plug and stem. Lateral stem movement can

cause packing to wear and fail. High frequency vibration of the plug is also a
cause of valve stem breakage.
Valve Plugging And Sticking - If grit, fines, or other forms of solid particles
become lodged between sliding contact surfaces such as cages and plugs or
shafts and bearings, the valve may seize altogether.
Piping Erosion Damage - When fluids leave the control valve at high velocity,
erosion of downstream piping may also occur.
Erosive Service Flags And Typical Erosive Fluid Applications
Flags For Erosive Fluid Applications

Because erosion is a strong function of fluid velocity, many of the flags that indicate the
potential for erosion are based on valve outlet velocity. The fluid velocities at which the
potential for erosion damage should be given additional engineering attention are listed in
Figure 24 and they are discussed below.
Velocity
F
la
g
F
o
r
E
r
o
si
o
n
V > 0.3
(
6
0
-
D
)
m
e
t
e
r

s
/
s
e
c
o
n
d
,
o
r
V > (60-
D
)
f
e
e
t/
s
e
c
o
n
d
Experienc
e
Low
e
r
o
si
o
n
p
o
t

e
n
ti
a
l
V > 0.15
M
a
c
h
,
o
r
P
1
/
P
2
>
3
Figure 24
Fluid Velocities That Indicate Significant Potential For Erosion Damage
Velocity Limits For Clean Fluids - Liquids, even clean liquids, can be seen as
presenting the potential for erosion damage when the fluid velocity is greater
than 0.3 (60-D) meters/second or (60-D) feet second, where D is the nominal
pipeline diameter. The velocity limits for clean liquids are based on the
following concerns:
• Liquids, even those that are described as clean, are rarely truly “clean"; i.e.,
they include some dirt, scale, or other particulate.
• High velocity liquids accelerate the removal of protective passive layers

thereby hastening the erosion/corrosion process.
• High velocity liquids are prone to flashing. The liquid droplets that form
during flashing can impinge on critical valve surfaces

The high-velocity flow of clean gasses and vapors are generally not thought of
as presenting a significant potential for erosion damage.
Velocity Limits For Fluids With Entrained Particles - If a fluid includes fines, scale,
sand, or other particles, erosion damage can occur at relatively low velocities.
For gasses and vapors with entrained particles, the potential for erosion should
be considered whenever the fluid velocity is greater than 0.15 Mach, or
whenever the ratio of P1/P2 >3.
For liquid flows, there is no specific flag in terms of velocity or pressure

conditions; experience is the guide.
Common Erosive Fluid Applications
Any Application Near The Wellhead - Any valve application near the wellhead
should be evaluated for erosion because of the sand, dirt, and other particles
that are commonly present in crude oils and natural gasses. High pressure gas
wells, because of the high velocity flows that are encountered, should always
receive additional attention in order to assess the potential for erosion.
Separators - The dump valves on separators are nearly always subjected to

erosive flows because of the sand, gravel, dirt, and other solids that are
present in the crude oil that is being processed.
Fluidized Cat Cracking - Catalytic cracking processes typically

include several control valves that must be compatible
with erosive fluids. The feed valve may be subjected to
impurities that passed through the initial separation
process. Other valves in the process are required to resist
erosion from coke (a fine, gritty form of carbon) and
catalyst fines (which are generally very hard and very
sharp).
Wet Steam - In applications that involve saturated steam, liquid droplets that are
transported at high velocity can impinge upon critical valve surfaces and cause
significant erosion damage.


When selecting control valves for erosive service applications, specifiers typically consider:
• Valve styles that have been uniquely designed to direct the erosive flowstream away
from critical valve surfaces.
• Materials of construction with the mechanical properties that are needed to resist erosion
damage.
• Sizing issues.
Control Valve Styles

Guiding Methods - If the fluid contains solid particles, cage-guided valves may be a
poor choice because of the abrasion to guiding surfaces and the plug binding that can
occur if particulates becomes wedged between the plug and the cage. To reduce
friction and prevent plug binding, post-guided valves are typically preferred. In some
valve designs, the guide bushing is located in an area that is separated from the main
flow stream in order to prevent particulates from damaging the guide bushing. Refer
to Figure 25.
Figure 25
Post-Guiding Versus Cage Guiding For Erosive Fluid Applications
Flow Geometry - As previously illustrated, the standard flow-down globe body
construction is particularly susceptible to erosion damage because of the
tortuous path and the numerous opportunities for particle impingement on
critical surfaces. In contrast, valve designs that provide a straight-through or

line-of-sight flow path generally provide increased protection against erosion

damage. For example, an angle body construction provides a flow path with a
single turn and minimizes the potential for erosion damage. Line-of-sight rotary
valves also minimize the potential for particle impingement. Figure 26 shows
the differences in the flow path of standard globe style bodies and angle
bodies. Erosion resistant trim materials such as tungsten carbide and ceramics
are commonly available for valves of this type.
Figure 26
Globe Versus Angle Bodies For Erosive Fluid Applications
ANSI Class Shutoff - When a control valve that is selected for an erosive fluid
application must shut off, ANSI Class V shutoff should be selected. The tight
shutoff specification will help to minimize high-velocity leakage across the seat
and the increased potential for erosion. In some applications, it may be

advisable to achieve system shutoff with the use of a separate block valve. If
the control valve is not used to attain shutoff, then the damage that can result
when solids are trapped between the plug and seat can also be avoided.
Thick Seals Vs. Thin Seals - Because erosion manifests itself as the wearing
away of material, the life of vulnerable components can be extended if they are
robust and massive rather than thin and fragile. For example, the thin seals of
a standard ball segment valve or a high-performance butterfly valve will not
tolerate erosive fluids nearly as well as the massive seal of the eccentric rotary
plug valve that is shown in Figure 27. In addition, the plug and seat ring of the
eccentric plug valve are typically available in a variety of erosion resistant
materials including tungsten carbide and ceramics.
Figure 27
Thick Seals Of An Eccentric Rotary Plug Style Valve
Special Valve Constructions - For particularly erosive fluids and for other difficult
applications, special valve constructions may be considered. The valve that is
shown in Figure 28 is a sweep flow, venturi outlet style valve that is available
from many manufacturers. The valve performs well in highly erosive
applications and in coking applications. To protect critical surfaces from coke

buildup, the valve stem and the plug guiding surfaces are protected from the
fluid stream. The flow path around the plug - referred to as sweep flow - also
helps to prevent the accumulation of coke deposits. The enlarged outlet
reduces the outlet velocity and aids in minimizing flashing and erosion
damage. The valve includes provisions for injecting warm oil to ensure
adequate lubrication and to prevent the build up of coke. Steam may also be
injected to help prevent highly viscous fluids such as furnace bottoms from
clogging the valve. For highly erosive flows, the plug tip and seat ring are
available in tungsten carbide and ceramics.
Figure 28
Sweep Flow Valve Design

Hierarchy Of Erosion Resistant Valve Styles - To provide a summary of the

preceding discussion, Figure 29 lists a hierarchy of erosion resistant valve
types and options.

Valve Comment
S
t
y
l
e
Cage- Concern
g f
u o
i r
d
e t
d h
e
v
a p
l l
v u
e g
s
b
i
n
d
i
n
g
i
n
t
h
e
c
a
g
e
.

S
u
i
t
a
b
l
e
w
h
e
n
t
h
e
v
o
l
u
m
e
r
a
t
i
o
o
f
p
a
r
t
i
c
u
l
a

t
e
i
s
v
e
r
y
l
o
w
o
r
w
h
e
n
t
h
e
e
r
o
s
i
v
e
m
e
d
i
a

f
l
a
s
h
i
n
g
l
i
q
u
i
d
(
w
i
t
h
n
o
s
o
l
i
d
s
)
.
Cage- Reduces
g b
u o
i d

d y
e
d d
a
a m
n a
g g
l e
e .
v
a
l
v
e
s
Post- Reduces
g p
u l
i u
d g
e
d b
i
v n
a d
l i
v n
e g
s .
D
e
s
i
g
n
s
w
i
t

p
r
o
t
e
c
t
e
d
b
u
s
h
i
n
g
s
o
f
f
e
r
i
n
c
r
e
a
s
e
d
p
r
o
t
e

c
t
i
o
n
.
Post- Angle
G b
u o
i d
d y
e
d m
i
A n
n i
g m
l i
e z
e
V s
a
l b
v o
e d
s y
d
a
m
a
g
e
.
Post- Liner
G r
u e
i d
d u
e c

d e
s
A
n e
g r
l o
e s
i
V o
a n
l
v t
e o
s
v
w a
i l
t v
h e
h o
a u
r t
d l
e e
n t
e a
d n
, d
r
e s
p e
l r
a v
c e
e s
a
b a
l s
e
a
o

u s
t a
l c
e r
t i
l f
i i
n c
e i
r a
l
m
e
m
b
e
r
.
Eccentric Straight
R t
o h
t r
a o
r u
y g
h
P
l f
u l
g o
w
V
a p
l a
v t
e h
s
m
i
n
i

m
i
z
e
s
i
m
p
i
n
g
e
m
e
n
t
o
n
c
r
i
t
i
c
a
l
p
a
r
t
s
.
R
a
t
i
n
g
s

t
o
A
N
S
I
C
l
a
s
s
6
0
0
.
Sweep Very
F r
l u
o g
w g
e
( d
V
e c
n o
t n
u s
r t
i r
S u
t c
y t
l i
e o
) n
.
A S
n w
g e

l e
e p
V f
a l
l o
v w
e
s d
e
s
i
g
n
d
i
r
e
c
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Figure 29
Hierarchy Of Erosion Resistant Valve Styles

Materials Selection Considerations

For erosive fluid applications, the general guideline for material selection is to specify
materials with sufficient hardness or toughness to provide extended life in erosive fluid
applications.
Material Selection For Valve Bodies - When erosion of a standard, cast carbon
steel body such as WCC or WCB is anticipated, specifiers may consider the
selection of a variety of increasingly erosion resistant alloys. Figure 30 lists a
number of alloys and their relative resistance to erosion damage. The body
material specification can also be affected by the flow geometry of the selected
valve; i.e., if the flow is directed away from the body (as in an angle valve or an
eccentric rotary plug valve), a standard WCB body may provide long life. In
contrast, the direct impingement of the same erosive fluid on the body of a
standard globe may require the selection of a WC9 (chromium-molybdenum)
body in order to provide satisfactory valve life.

Remarks

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Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards 82 l
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Figure 30
Hierarchy Of Erosion Resistant Valve Body Materials
Material Selection For Valve Trim - Because trim components are “wetted”
components, they are exposed to the high velocity fluid stream. Consequently
trim for erosive service applications is always selected in erosion resistant
alloys. Figure 31 lists a hierarchy of erosion resistant construction materials.

Remarks

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Figure 31
Hierarchy Of Erosion Resistant Valve Trim Materials
Problems With Focusing On Material Hardness Only - A common misconception is

that erosion resistance is a function of materialhardness only. Hardness is
defined as a material’s resistance to penetration or indention. In metals,
hardness is measured by loading an indenter into the metal and measuring
either the depth or the of penetration or the surface area of the indentation.
Hardness may provide an approximation of the relative erosion resistance of
one material compared to another in the same alloy family. However, different
families of metals may achieve their erosion-resistant properties in different
ways. Mechanical properties such astoughness can have significant impact on
the erosion resistance of a particular alloy. Although the property of
“toughness” is difficult to precisely define, it can be viewed as the opposite of
brittleness. For example, a tough metal that is subject to a heavy impact will
deform before it breaks whereas a less tough material will break before
deforming.
The cobalt based Alloy 6 (Stellite) is well known for its erosion resistant
qualities even though its hardness is well below the hardness of most erosion-
resistant stainless steels. Alloy 6 derives its erosion resistance from its
toughness. The unusual process by which Alloy 6 achieves its toughness is
shown in Figure 32 and it is summarized below.
1. In its as-manufactured state, Alloy 6 has a specific crystalline structure.
2. Following impact, the crystalline structure of the alloy 6 material actually

changes from one basic form to another. The new crystalline structure
displays a much higher resistance to strain fracture than the material’s
native structure. As a result, the material’s resistance to erosion actually
increases during impact.
3. Under static conditions (following an impact), the alloy reverts to its

initial, as-manufactured crystalline structure.

Figure 32
Structural Changes In Alloy 6 That Improve Erosion Resistance
Erosion Resistance and NACE MR0175 - When the potential for stress corrosion
cracking and erosion are both present, the specifier is confronted with
selecting materials according to two seemingly contradictory guidelines: (1)
selecting materials with sufficient hardness or toughness to withstand the
erosive elements and (2) selecting materials with hardness levels that
sufficiently low to satisfy the NACE MR0175 guidelines. Fortunately, many
material options are available that meet both requirements. Type S41000
stainless steel is reasonably hard and it is NACE compliant if its hardness is
limited to HRC 22. 316 stainless steel with Alloy 6 hardfacing provides a very
popular solution that is superior to S41000 when both erosion resistance and
NACE compliance must be achieved.
Erosion In Combination With Other Severe-Conditions - Erosion in combination

with other severe conditions such as corrosion, cavitation, and high
temperatures can further increase the complexity of the control valve and
material selection process. To clearly identify all requirements, the fluid
properties and service conditions must be closely evaluated.
Sizing Issues
Valve sizing can have a significant impact on the life of a control valve in an erosive fluid
application. The sizing issues typically relate to velocity control.

Valve Body Size Selection - Because erosion intensity is a strong function of fluid
velocity, valve body sizes should be selected that will not significantly increase
the fluid velocity. For example, valve body sizes that are smaller than the
pipeline size should be avoided.
Valve Trim - Oversized valves can present many problems and they are
particularly troublesome in erosive fluid applications. If the trim is oversized,
then the valve will throttle near the seat resulting in high velocity erosive flows
across flow-controlling surfaces. To prevent these flows, extra efforts should
be made to ensure that the valve trim is not oversized.
Information Sources
When selecting materials for erosive fluid applications, specifiers may apply information
that is included in manufacturer’s specification bulletins and in other resources such as the
charts previously shown in Figures 30 and 31. In addition, specifiers may draw upon the
expertise of vendors and peers who have experience in equivalent or similar applications.

SELECTING CONTROL VALVE OPTIONS FOR high-temperature FLUID

Applications
High Temperature Applications And Their Consequences
Categories Of High Temperature Applications
High temperature Applications are those in which the normal operating

temperature is sustained above a specific temperature limit. Refer to Figure 33.
Thermal Cycling Applications are those in which the operating temperature

repeatedly rises and falls over a wide range of temperatures. Refer to Figure
33.
Figure 33
High Temperature Application Vs. A Thermal Cycling Application
Common Applications
High Temperature Applications - Control valves that are used to

control flu gasses in furnace applications, control valves
that are used to control feedstocks in various refinery
operations, and control valves in high-pressure steam
generation systems are all subjected to sustained high
temperatures.
Thermal Cycling Application - A common example of a control valve that is

subjected to thermal cycling is the valve that is used to perform the soot-
blowing process in a fossil-fuel boiler. The boiler tubes are delicate and cannot

tolerate hot spots that would develop if soot were allowed to build up on the
tubes. In many boiler systems, the tubes are cleaned by periodically directing
high pressure steam at the tubes. The steam is controlled by a control valve
that is operated at predetermined intervals, often several times a day.
Another example of a thermal cycling application is the desiccant dehydration

process that is used to remove moisture from many natural gasses. Refer to
Figure 34. Desiccant dehydration towers use trays filled with a solid desiccant
(a substance that attracts moisture). In operation, inlet gas enters into the top
of the tower, the desiccant removes moisture from the gas as the gas passes
downward through the tower, and dry gas exits the bottom of the tower. Over
time, the desiccant becomes saturated and will not hold any more moisture. To
regenerate the desiccant, the tower is heated as shown in the middle tower of
Figure 34. During the heating cycle, valves A and C are closed and valves B
and D control the flow of hot (400 to 500 degree F) gas upward through the
tower. When the desiccant is dry, cool gas (120 degrees F) is introduced into
the bottom of the tower as shown in the third tower in Figure 34. To enable
continuous operation, many desiccant dehydration units include three towers.
The adsorption, heating, and cooling cycle may be repeated several times a
day in each tower. Refer to Figure 34 and note that the temperature of the gas
that passes through valves B and D cycles between 120 degrees F and 400 to
500 degrees F. As a result, valves B and D are in a thermal cycling application.

Figure 34
Thermal Cycling Application: Dry Desiccant Adsorption Process
Consequences Of High Temperature Fluids On Incompatible Components
General Effects Of Elevated Temperature On Materials - Most metal alloys are

metastable, meaning that during the manufacture and subsequent working of
the alloy component, a unique but unnatural and unstable structure is
purposely developed in the alloy. The unique structure of each alloy imparts
the alloy’s mechanical properties such as strength, ductility, toughness, etc.
When an alloy is subjected to elevated temperatures, it tends to transform to
its stable or natural structure. Examples of the effect of elevated temperatures
on some materials are as follows:
• S17400 and similar precipitation hardenable materials become brittle.

• Cold worked 300 series stainless steels lose the effects of cold work.
• Duplex steels become brittle.
Graphitization Of Carbon Steel - Carbon steels possess a two-phase

microstructure that includes ferrite (pure iron) and iron carbides. At
temperatures above 800 degrees F, the carbides decompose into iron and
graphite flakes during a process that is known asgraphitization.
Figure 35
Graphitization In Carbon Steels
Sensitization Of Stainless Steels - Because carbon improves a materials strength

at elevated temperatures, it is often desirable to select materials with a high
carbon content. However, the addition of carbon increases the potential for
sensitization. Refer to Figure 36. Recall that sensitization is a process in which
exposure to high temperature causes corrosion resistant alloys to precipitate
out of the material matrix, leaving a zone at the grain boundary that is not
protected from corrosion attack. In a corrosive environment, the area of the
grain boundary that has been depleted of chromium is susceptible to attack by
the corrosive atmosphere. The corrosion that results is known as intergranular
corrosion.

Figure 36
Sensitization And Intergranular Corrosion
That Result From Exposure To High Temperatures
Creep - When exposed to stress such as an increase in fluid pressure or an

increase in a loading force, most alloy components strain (deform) in
proportion to the amount of stress. When the stress is relieved, the component
reverts to its initial shape. The ability of a material to return to its initial form
after being exposed to stress is known aselasticity. In high-temperature
environments, the elasticity of a material can be affected by the phenomenon
of creep. The effects of creep are illustrated in Figure 37. At temperatures that
are sufficiently high, the amount of strain (deformation) may slowly increase
over time and the strain may become permanent. The main effects of creep in
control valves are the long-term loss of bolting forces, loss of gasket forces,
and the deformation of trim parts.

Figure 37
Effect Of Creep On The Elasticity Of A Material
Effects Of Mismatched Expansion Coefficients - When metallic materials are

heated, they expand in a predictable and repeatable manner. Each alloy has
its own characteristic thermal expansion vs. temperature curve. In general,
materials with similar chemical compositions have similar thermal expansion
properties. The carbon steels, alloy steels, and 400 series stainless steels
have fairly low thermal expansion coefficients whereas the 300 series stainless
steels have very high expansion rates. At elevated temperatures, differential
thermal expansion coefficients of the trim components and the body and
bonnet can cause different types of problems. Figure 38 illustrates two
scenarios. If the body and bonnet expands more than the cage and seat ring
as shown in view B, gasket unloading will occur and the fluid will leak across
the gasket surfaces. If the cage and seat ring expand more than the body and
bonnet as shown in view C, the cage and/or seat ring may be damaged by
crushing and the gaskets may be damaged by overloading.

Figure 38
Effects Of Mismatched Thermal Expansion Coefficients
Gasket Failures - Gaskets that are exposed to temperatures that are greater
than the gasket material rating may become brittle and lose their ability to
deform, thereby preventing them from sealing against their mating surfaces.
Any such failure can result in fluid leaks erosion damage.
Packing Failures - When standard PTFE packing materials are exposed to

temperatures that are above the packing material’s temperature rating as
shown in Figure 39, the PTFE pacing rings may deform, they may sublimate,
and/or they may begin to flow and extrude out of the packing bore as the valve
stem strokes. PTFE-based packing arrangements may display all of these
behaviors at temperatures above 450 degrees F.

Figure 39
Effects Of Elevated Temperature On PTFE Packing
Consequences Of Thermal Cycling Applications
Thermal Fatigue - As a hot fluid is introduced into a control valve, the component
surfaces that are in contact with the fluid are the first to respond to the increase
in temperature. While the outermost surfaces of the components are
attempting to expand, the material that is just behind the outermost surfaces
remains cool and resists expansion. During each heating and cooling cycle, a
stress gradient occurs in the components. The gradient can cause a form of
thermal fatigue that, in extreme cases, results in cracking. Failures that result
from thermal fatigue are rare; however, if an application frequently cycles
across an extreme range of temperatures, specifiers should be alert to the
potential for this form of damage.
Gasket Unloading - During thermal cycling, the bonnet-to-body bolting may

repeatedly load and unload the gaskets in the control valve assembly as
shown in Figure 40. Continuous loading and unloading of the gaskets can
cause the gaskets to take a set (lose their elasticity). If the gaskets lose their
elasticity and fail to seal, leaks can result in high-velocity erosive flows. Such
flows are generally the starting point for a progressive failure of the control
valve.

Figure 40
Thermal Cycling And Gasket Failure
Loosening Of Threaded Components - It has long been known that temperature cycling
has the tendency to loosen threaded components. Refer To Figure 41. In control
valves, thermal cycling applications have been known to loosen threaded seat rings,
threaded bonnet assemblies, and bonnet-to-body bolting.

Figure 41
Effects Of High Temperature On Threaded Joints
High Temperature Service Flags
Saudi Aramco Definition Of High Temperature

Within Saudi Aramco, the definition of a high temperature application is based on the upper
operating temperature limit of PTFE. According to Section 4.1.5 of SAES -J-700, the upper
temperature limit of PTFE is 400 degrees F. Therefore, within Saudi Aramco, the definition
of a high temperature application is any application with an operating temperature that is
greater than 400 degrees F. Refer to Figure 42.
Thermal Cycling Flags
Thermal cycling flags are not defined by Saudi Aramco but are instead defined by valve
manufacturers. Refer to Figure 42. The temperature at which thermal cycling is considered
to be a problem can vary with each different valve construction; however, whenever an
application repeatedly cycles over a range of 300 degrees F, problems from thermal cycling
can be anticipated.

Figure 42
High Temperature Vs. Thermal Cycling Flags
Valve Design Considerations
Seat Ring Retention - Screwed-in seat rings are popular for many general
service applications because they do not require loading from a cage
component to ensure a tight fit in the valve body. However, screwed-in seat
rings are generally not selected for thermal cycling applications because of the
tendency of the seat ring to loosen. Screwed-in seat rings may be used
successfully when the seat ring is tack welded into the valve body (see Figure
43) or if the seat ring is held firmly in place by an indexing lug on a cage or
cage-like component.
Bonnet-To-Body Attachment - Many small, high-pressure valves are designed

with threaded bonnet-to-body connections. Such constructions should be
avoided for high temperature and thermal cycling applications unless options
are available to tack weld the bonnet to the body as shown in Figure 43.

Figure 43
Tack Welding Of Bonnets And Seat Rings
For High-Temperature And Thermal Cycling Applications
Material Temperature Ratings

Refer to Figure 44 for the discussion that follows.
Body And Bonnet Materials - Refer to Figure 44 for the discussion that follows.
Carbon steel bodies such as WCC and WCB are commonly compatible with
temperatures up to a maximum of 800 degrees F. Above this limit, the
phenomenon of graphitization can occur.
Between 800 degrees F and approximately 1050 degrees F, alloy steels that
include additional amounts of chromium and/or molybdenum may be selected.
The addition of chromium and/or molybdenum enhances the alloy’s resistance
to tempering and graphitization at elevated temperatures. Grades C5 and WC9
are common. The WC9 material provides better castings and it is easier to
weld.
For increased high-temperature compatibility and/or for increased pressure

retaining capability, alloys with still more chromium and molybdenum are
specified. CF8M stainless steel (the cast version of S31600) is commonly used
for temperatures up to 1500 degrees F. The pressure and temperature limits
for body and bonnet materials are listed in the ANSI/ASME
pressure/temperature tables and may also be listed in control valve
specification bulletins.

M Upper
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Figure 44
Upper Temperature Limits Of Common Valve Body And Bonnet Materials
Trim Materials - The trim material options that are available for high-temperature
applications vary according to the valve manufacturer. In addition, the specific

temperature rating for a complete trim package depends on several factors,

including:
• the valve type

• the valve body and bonnet material
• the valve size
• the pressure drop
• other materials in the trim package
Because of the number of variables that must be considered, manufacturers

establish charts, tables, and other selection methods for selecting a pre-
engineered trim package for specific temperature and pressure conditions. As
an example, Figure 45 illustrates the temperature and pressure drop limits of
various trim options in a Cr-Mo steel body. Each trim option number refers to
specific materials of construction for the plug, cage, and seat ring. Note also
the cautions and selection guidance that is listed in the section below the chart.
1400
1200
1000 37H
PRESSURE 2
DROP, 800
PSI 1, 3
600
400 3H
2
200
0
-200 0 400 800 1200
-20 FLUID TEMPERATURE, DEGREES F1100
WITH CLASS 600 1 WC9
OR C5 CHROME MOLY STEEL BODY
1 DO NOT EXCEED THE MAXIMUM PRESSURE AND TEMPERATURE FOR THE CLASS RATING
OF THE BODY MATERIAL USED,1EVEN THOUGH THE TRIMS SHOWN MAY HAVE HIGHER
CAPABILITIES
2 BE ESPECIALLY CAREFUL TO SPECIFY SERVICE TEMPERATURE IF TRIM 3 OR 37 IS SELECTED
1
AS DIFFERENT THERMAL EXPANSION RATES REQUIRE SPECIAL PLUG CLEARANCES. SPECIFY
TRIM 37H FOR TEMPERATURES ABOVE 4510 DEGREES F. SPECIFY TRIM 3H FOR TEMPERATURES
ABOVE 800 DEGREES F.
3 TRIM 29 MAY BE USED UP TO 1440 PSI WITH CLEAN, DRY GAS.
1
4 USE TRIM 27 INSTEAD OF TRIM 29 FOR NONLUBRICATING FLUIDS SUCH
1
AS SUPERHEATED STEAM OR DRY GASSES BETWEEN 300 AND 600 DEGREES F.
FIG74
Figure 45

Pressure/Temperature Ratings For Various Trim Material Options
Gasket Materials - Most control valves include two different types of gaskets;
spiral wound gaskets and flat sheet gaskets. The characteristics and
temperature ratings of several common gasket materials are listed in Figure
46.
• Spiral Wound Gasket Options - A spiral wound gasket is made of a metal

alloy that is formed into a V-shape and then wound into a spiral form.
During the manufacture of the gasket, a filler is inserted between each coil
of the V-shaped material. Of the options that are listed in Figure 46 below,
Inconel is the strongest alloy material, it has the highest temperature rating,
and it will maintain its spring properties longer than the other options. As a
result, the Inconel/graphite gasket is typically recommended for thermal
cycling applications.
• Flat Sheet Gasket Options - A standard material for flat sheet gaskets is a
composition material. Options such as PTFE coated Monel provide
corrosion resistance, but at reduced temperature ratings, as shown in the
table below.
The selection of a suitable gasket material is based on the following:
• The temperature rating of the gasket material.
• Whether or not thermal cycling will occur.
• The corrosion resistance of the gasket material.
Standard Optional
M M
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Figure 46
Common Gasket Materials
Bolting Materials - As mentioned previously, each different alloy has a different

thermal expansion vs. temperature curve. However, different alloys in the
same family generally have similar thermal expansion and contraction
characteristics. Accordingly, the general guidelines for bolting material
selection are:
• If possible, select steel bolting (for example, B7 or B16) for alloys steel
bodies and bonnets.
• If possible, select stainless steel bolting (for example, 316 or 304 stainless
steel) for stainless steel bodies.
• Whenever non-standard bolting is considered or the above guidelines

cannot be followed, investigate the need for pressure and/or temperature
derating to compensate for the differential in thermal expansion coefficients,
differences in bolting strength, and other influences.
Packing Materials - Packing material selection is based upon the temperature at

the packing bore. The temperature at the packing bore is often considerably
less than the temperature of the process fluid, especially if the valve is
insulated below the packing bore or if an extended-height (extension) bonnet is
specified. For temperatures below 400 degrees F, PTFE base packing
arrangements are compatible with most fluids. Above 400 degrees, packing
arrangements that are based on graphite materials are the industry standard.
Graphite materials are compatible with a wide range of fluids; however,
graphite base packing arrangements should not be selected for hot oxidizing
acids (nitric acid and sulfuric acid) or for oxygen services that operate above
700 degrees F.
Extended Bonnets For Packing Protection

An extended bonnet locates the packing at an increased distance from the process fluid,
thereby reducing the influence of the process fluid on the packing temperature. Refer to
Figure 47. Section 4.1.5 of SAES-J-700 requires the selection of extended bonnets or the
selection of special packing materials for applications in which the fluid temperature is
greater than 450 degrees F.

Figure 47
Extended Bonnets That Are Used At Temperatures Above 450 Degrees F
Achieving Tight Shutoff At Elevated Temperatures
Metal Seats - ANSI Class VI shutoff is typically achieved with the use of soft-
seated valve constructions. However, Saudi Aramco standards define an
upper temperature limit of 400 degrees F for PTFE and many other materials
that are included in soft-seating arrangements. Therefore, at temperatures
above 400 degrees F, ANSI Class V shutoff or better is generally achieved by
specifying an unbalanced valve construction with metal-to-metal seats that
have been precision lapped to achieve the shutoff specification.
High Temperature Seal Rings For Balanced Valves - To achieve ANSI Class V or
better shutoff with a balanced valve construction in a high-temperature
environment, many manufacturers offer special high-temperature PTFE seal

ring designs. Refer to Figure 48 and note the following features of a soft seal
arrangement that is rated for temperatures up to 600 degrees F.
• The PTFE “omni seal” is pressure loaded to improve seal performance.
• The PTFE seal includes a spring which helps to maintain a seal between the
plug and cage at elevated temperatures where the PTFE material loses its
elasticity.
• The PTFE material includes a high percentage of carbon and graphite to
improve its high-temperature performance.
• An anti-extrusion ring prevents any of the hot and potentially flowing PTFE
material from extruding out of the seal area.
Figure 48
High-Temperature Balanced Plug Seal Configuration

SELECT ing AND Siz ing CONTROL VALVEs FOR Cavitating FLUID
Applications
Cavitation And Its Consequences
The Cavitation Phenomenon
Vapor Cavity Formation and Collapse - When, in a liquid flow, the fluid pressure
falls below the fluid’s vapor pressure, the fluid begins to vaporize; i.e., vapor
bubbles form in the flow stream. In a control valve, the onset of vaporization
often occurs near the vena contracta, as shown in Figure 49. If the
downstream pressure P2 increases to a value that is greater than the fluid’s
vapor pressure, the bubbles collapse and the fluid is cavitating.
Figure 49
Cavitation

Cavitation Versus Other Flowstream Phenomenon
Cavitation Vs. Flashing - Up to the point where the decrease in the local
pressure causes bubbles to form in the fluid stream, flashing and cavitation are
similar phenomenon. In a flashing fluid, however, the downstream pressure 2P
is below the vapor pressure of the liquid and the bubbles that form near the
vena contracta remain in the fluid stream as shown in Figure 50. Flashing will
be discussed later in this Module.
Figure 50
Cavitation Vs. Flashing
Cavitation Vs. Outgassing - When a fluid includes dissolved gasses and the fluid
is subject to pressure reduction or to agitation (both of which occur as the fluid
flows through a control valve), the dissolved gas may come out of solution in a
process that is known as outgassing. Refer to Figure 51. Outgassing differs
from cavitation and flashing in that it is not a thermodynamic event and it
occurs independently of the values of the fluid’s vapor pressure and the
pressure at the vena contracta. In addition, the bubbles that form as a result of
outgassing may remain in the downstream flow regardless of the value of 2P.
An increase in pressure andtime may both be required to force the gas
bubbles back into solution.

Figure 51
Cavitation Vs. Outgassing
Common Forms Of Cavitation
Hard Cavitation Vs. Soft Cavitation
The term “hard” cavitation is used to describe the worst-case scenario in terms
of the potential for cavitation damage. Hard cavitation implies that there are no
circumstances or conditions present in the application that will have a
mitigating effect on the intensity of the cavitation or the potential for cavitation
damage. Cold water is the classic example of a fluid that will exhibit hard
cavitation.
The phrase “soft cavitation” is used to describe any application in which either
the fluid properties or the service conditions serve to lessen the potential for
cavitation damage. For example, the cavitation that occurs in a multi-species
fluid such as a hydrocarbon mixture may be less likely to cause significant
cavitation damage because the mixture includes components with several
different vapor pressures. As the local fluid pressure is reduced, not all of the
components will vaporize, and the components that remain in the liquid form
may cushion the collapse of the vapor cavities. In addition, fluids that are

viscous and outgassing fluids may provide a cushioning effect on vapor cavity
implosions. Refer to Figure 52.
Figure 52
Hard Vs. Soft Cavitation
Specifiers typically view the cavitation that occurs in crude oil as “soft
cavitation”. In a crude oil flow, the cavitation damage that occurs as a result of
vapor cavity implosion may not present as great a concern as the noise and
vibration that occurs. As hydrocarbon liquids become more refined (less
viscous and closer to a single species fluid), the damage from vapor cavity
implosions becomes a major concern.
Incipient Vs. Full Blown Cavitation
Specifiers will often encounter the term “incipient” cavitation. The term
“incipient” cavitation defines the point at which the first vapor cavities form in
the fluid stream. On a plot of flow (Q) versus the square root of the pressure
drop that is shown in Figure 53, this point is observed as the first deviation of
the actual flow plot from the plot of predicted flow. Incipient cavitation occurs

when the local fluid pressure first dips below the fluid’s vapor pressure.
Damage may or may not occur at this point.
At increased pressure drops, more and more bubbles form and collapse in the
fluid stream. At the condition of fully choked flow, the cavitation that occurs is
often described as “fully blown cavitation” or as “choked flow cavitation”. These
terms indicate there is a substantial potential for cavitation damage; however,
they are highly subjective and they provide little real guidance to the valve
specifier.
Figure 53
Incipient Vs. Choked Flow Cavitation
Consequences Of Cavitation
Valve And Piping Damage - If the vapor bubbles that are formed during the
cavitation cycle implode on or near fluid boundaries such as valve components
and pipe walls, high-velocity microjets and sonic waves can result in rapid and
catastrophic damage to the components as shown in Figure 54.

Figure 54
Cavitation Damage That Results From Imploding Vapor Cavities
Vibration - In many liquid flows, vibration of the valve and piping is as great a
concern as the potential for damage from the implosion of vapor cavities.
Figure 55 shows a representative plot of valve and pipeline vibration versus
the value of sigma (σ = P1-Pv/P1-P2). Following the occurrence of incipient
cavitation, the intensity of the vibrations increases rapidlyas the value of sigma
decreases. Cavitation has been known to cause vibrations of sufficient
intensity to break welded joints and damage pipeline supports.

Figure 55
Valve And Pipeline Vibration Versus The Value Of Sigma
Hydrodynamic Noise - Cavitation may also be accompanied by moderate to high

levels of hydrodynamic noise. However, the intensity of cavitation that is
required to generate objectionable levels of hydrodynamic noise is generally
sufficient to cause rapid and catastrophic damage to the valve and piping. As a
result, the concern for damage from vapor cavity implosion and from pipeline

vibration is generally a far greater concern than the concern for high levels of
hydrodynamic noise.
Predicting The Potential For Cavitation
Saudi Aramco And Manufacturer’s System Cavitation Indices
Saudi Aramco Index Ksa - Saudi Aramco makes use of the cavitation index K sa.
Refer to Figure 56. Ksa is defined as Ksa = P1-P2/P1-Pv. As the value of P1-P2
approaches the value of P1-Pv, the pressure dip that occurs at the vena
contracta is more likely to drop below the value Pv; hence, an increasing value
of Ksa indicates an increased potential for cavitation. Values of Ksa that are
greater than approximately 0.75 indicate a substantial potential for cavitation
and cavitation damage. A Ksa value of 0.99 signals the maximum potential for
cavitation and cavitation damage. If the value of Ksa is 1.0 or greater, P2 is less
than Pv and the fluid is flashing.
Fisher A r and Mokveld K cs - Fisher Controls and Mokveld each use a cavitation
index that is identical to the Saudi Aramco index K
sa. However, Fisher uses
the term Ar instead of Ksa and Mokveld uses the term Kcs instead of Ksa.
Figure 56
Cavitation Indices K sa, A r, and K cs

Valtek Sigma - Valtek uses the cavitation indexsigma. Values of σ that

approach 0 signal an increasing potential for cavitation. A sigma value of 0 or
less indicates flashing conditions. The significant relationship is the pressure
differential between P2 and Pv. Refer to Figure 57.
Figure 57
Valtek Cavitation Index σ
∆Pchoked (Masoneilan) - Some manufacturers (including Masoneilan and others)

evaluate the system potential for cavitation by calculating the value of∆Pchoked
(∆Pcriticial in Masoneilan nomenclature). Note that a valve must be initially
selected in order to obtain a value of FL. If the actual pressure drop is greater
than the allowable pressure drop, the flow is choked and, if P 2>Pv, the flow is
also assumed to be cavitating. The problem of associating cavitation with the
choked flow pressure drop is that the calculated value of∆Pchoked predicts the
choked flow flow rate only; it does not predict the precise ∆P at which choked
flow will occur nor does it provide any clear indication of cavitation intensity. As
shown in Figure 58, incipient cavitation is likely to occur at pressure drops that
are lower than the choked flow pressure drop.

Figure 58
∆Pallow (∆
∆Pchoked or ∆Pcritical ) As An Indicator Of Cavitation
Ci (CCI) - Although cavitation is a function of pressure conditions (P

vc < Pv and
P2 > Pv) some manufacturers, including Control Components Incorporated,
prefer to evaluate the velocity conditions rather than pressure conditions that
will cause cavitation to occur. Because of the pressure/velocity relationships
that are defined by Bernoulli's theorem, the relative tendency of a system to
cavitate can be expressed in terms of fluid velocity as well as in terms of fluid
pressure. The cavitation index that is used by CCI is C i.
Ci = 9724 (P-Pv)/ V2
where:
Ci Cavitation index
9724 A constant
P The fluid pressure at any point in the valve, psia
Pv The fluid vapor pressure, psia
fluid density, lbm/ft3
V Fluid velocity at the point where P is measured, ft/sec

If, as shown in Figure 59, the computed value of C i is 1.0 or less, the system
will cavitate. In essence, this means that the fluid pressure P at the point that is
being examined will be less than the fluid’s vapor pressure and cavitation will
occur.
Figure 59
Control Components Cavitation Index C i
Because the values of V and P are not readily known, the index C
i is not easily
or quickly determined.
Subjective Factors For Analyzing The Potential For Cavitation Damage

In addition to the empirical methods that predict the occurrence of cavitation, several
subjective factors can be evaluated in order to assess the relative potential for cavitation
related problems. These factors are discussed below and they are listed in Figure 60.
Fluid Viscosity- As previously mentioned, highly viscous fluids such as heavy
crude oils can lessen the effects of cavitation. Viscous fluids have two effects
on cavitation:
1. Viscous fluids impede the nucleation and growth of vapor cavities
2. Viscous fluids help to cushion the collapse of the vapor cavities.
Dissolved Gas Volume - If the liquid flow includes a large volume of entrained
(dissolved) gas that comes out of solutions as flow passes through the valve,

the presence of the vapor in the fluid stream may help to cushion the collapse
of the vapor bubbles.
Fluid Composition - If a liquid flow consists of a mixture of substances with

widely varying vapor pressures (which is often the case with hydrocarbon
liquids), the classical “single fluid” model for cavitation does not apply. With
fluid mixtures, fluid vaporization may occur over a range of pressures as
opposed to the single vaporization pressure of a single-species fluid. The net
impact is generally a reduction in the intensity of cavitation related problems.
Duty Cycle - If a valve will only be subjected to severe cavitating conditions for
short periods of time, e.g., at startup, shutdown, or during rare transients, the
valve may be able to provide long life and good performance even though
cavitation does occasionally occur. In some applications where the occurrence
of cavitation is rare and occurs for short periods of time, the selection of
hardened trim materials may be sufficient to resist cavitation damage.
Pressure Scale Effects - The potential for cavitation is not absolutely defined by
indices such as Ksa, Ar, or σ. Laboratory tests indicate that the potential for
cavitation damage increases as the upstream pressure increases.
Size Scale Effects - Investigators have determined that the potential for
cavitation and cavitation damage increases as the valve size increases. The
size scale effect is also independent of the popular cavitation indices such as
Ksa, Ar, or σ.









Figure 60
Subjective Factors For Analyzing The Potential For Cavitation Damage
Cavitation Service Flags And Typical Cavitating Applications
Flags For Cavitating Fluid Applications

Each unique application must be studied carefully in order to determine the potential for
cavitation. However, a general rule of thumb is that any application with a value of Ksa that
is greater than or equal to 0.8 should be closely examined to determine the potential for
cavitation and cavitation related problems.
Specific Applications
Many applications, because of the nature of the fluid properties and/or the service
conditions, are universally recognized as cavitating applications. Several such applications
are discussed below.

Boiler Feedwater - A boiler feedwater control valve is susceptible to cavitation

because the fluid is a single-species, the feedwater control system operates at
elevated temperatures (with the effect of reducing the vapor pressure), and the
valve operates at very high pressure drops.
Tanker Loadout − A tanker loadout application is susceptible to cavitation

because, for economy, the control valves are typically high efficiency types. At
the beginning of the loading cycle, there is large pressure drop across the
valve because P2 approaches atmospheric pressure until the level in the
tanker increases. This application presents the potential for mild and periodic
cavitation as opposed to the constant and severe cavitation that is inherent in
other services.
Pump Bypass Or Recirculation Valve - The recirculating valve or bypass valve on

a pump typically controls a high pressure drop, low flow stream. The high
pressure drops create a significant potential for cavitation, especially for single-
species fluids such as water.
Water Injection - For secondary recovery operations, high pressure water that
often includes brine, sour liquids, and sand is pumped, at high pressure, into
the reservoir. Because the pressure drops across the valve are often very
large, cavitation is a natural result. In addition, salt can cause chloride stress
cracking, the sour liquids can cause sulfide stress cracking, and any particles
such as sand can cause rapid erosion. The combination of cavitation,
corrosion, and erosion can dramatically shorten valve life unless the specifier
selects appropriate anti-cavitation valve designs that are made of corrosion
and erosion resistant materials.
Anti-Cavitation Valve Technology
General Anti-Cavitation Valve And Trim Design Strategies
Low Recovery Trim Designs - The most common design strategy that is used to
prevent the occurrence of cavitation is the selection of low recovery valves and
trim. The objective is to maintain the fluid pressure at the vena contracta at a
pressure that is greater than the fluid’s vapor pressure. As shown in Figure 61,
the pressure dip at the valve vena contracta is not nearly as large as it is in a
high recovery trim. As the recovery coefficient (FL or Km) approaches a value
of 1.0, the pressure dip becomes smaller and smaller. If F L or Km = 1.0 there is
no pressure recovery, Pvc will remain above Pv, and, if P2 > Pv, the fluid will
not vaporize.

Figure 61
The Potential For Cavitation As A Function Of Pressure Recovery
Pressure Drop Staging - In order to maintain Pvc above Pv, most anti-cavitation
valve trims employ a pressure drop staging strategy. Pressure drop staging
involves directing the fluid through a series of several small restrictions, or
stages, as opposed to directing the flow through a single large restriction. Each
successive restriction dissipates a certain amount of the available energy and
presents a lower inlet pressure to the next stage. As shown in Figure 62, the
pressure dip that occurs at each stage is much smaller than the pressure dip
that would result from a single large restriction.

Figure 62
Pressure Drop Staging
Damage Resistant Materials Of Construction- Although the recovery

characteristics of a valve or trim may determine the pressure conditions under
which cavitation occurs, the recovery characteristic of a device does not
necessarily predict the occurrence of cavitationdamage. Cavitation damage is
influenced to a large degree by the ability of the selected trim materials to
resist cavitation damage. The material properties that provide the greatest
resistance to cavitation damage are hardness and toughness. As a general
guideline, materials that provide resistance to cavitation damage include - in
order of increasing resistance to damage - 316 stainless steel, 440C stainless
steel, 17-4 stainless steel, tungsten carbide, and Stellite (Alloy 6).
Figure 63 illustrates an application in which mild cavitation will be expected

because there is some fluid vaporization. However, if the valve materials are
sufficiently cavitation resistant, cavitation damage may not occur.

Figure 63
Preventing Cavitation Damage With Damage Resistant Materials Of
Construction
Specific Anti-Cavitation Valve And Trim Designs
Straight Through Holes, Radial Flow Designs - The cage that is shown in Figure
64 includes multiple, straight-through holes. The holes serve several functions.
• In a flow-down configuration, the holes direct the collapsing vapor cavities

to the center of the cage. The flowstream loses some energy as the
individual flow streams impinge upon one another. In addition, vapor cavity
collapse is likely to occur in the center of the cage rather than near critical
boundary surfaces.
• The holes separate the large free jet into many small flow streams and the
total flow stream energy is divided into many small energy sources. By
breaking the single, large flow stream into many small streams, the
frequency of the noise that is generated is shifted upward. At higher

frequencies, valve and pipeline vibration are less likely to produce

significant problems.
This trim style is useful for treating low levels of cavitation. For large valves (>
12 to 16 inches) and for large pressure drops (>300-400 psid), some
manufacturers have successfully minimized low level, low frequency vibration
problems by installing this trim in a flow-up configuration.
Figure 64
Single Stage Cavitation And Noise Control
Multi-Stage, Parallel Hole, Radial Flow Design - This method of pressure staging is
incorporated in many manufacturers trim designs. Figure 65 shows an
example of Fisher Controls’ Cavitrol III trim. The geometry of the holes is
specially designed to provide effective pressure staging while maintaining
maximum flow capacity. Trims are available to provide one, two, three, or four
stages of pressure reduction.

Figure 65
Fisher Controls Cavitrol III Trim
Multi Stage, Offset Hole, Radial Flow Design - This design is incorporated in
Valtek’s ChannelStream trim. The trim is essentially a cartridge that is made of
several concentric cylinders. As shown in Figure 66, the flow travels first
through the holes in the outer cylinder and it then enters a channel that is
machined into the second cylinder. This flow path is repeated in successive
stages to provide up to six stages of pressure reduction.

Figure 66
Flow Concept Of The Valtek ChannelStream Trim
Stacked Plate, Tortuous Path, Radial Flow Designs - The “stacked plate” or
tortuous path approach to pressure reduction is employed in the Valtek Tiger-
Tooth trim and in the CCI Drag trim.
In Valtek’s Tiger-Tooth trim (see Figure 67), concentric grooves (or teeth) are
machined on both sides of a series of circular stacked disks. Flow passes from
the center of the disc in a radial, wave-like manner. The numerous turns in the
flow path provide the staged pressure reduction that is desired. Trim is
available with up to seven stages of pressure reduction.

Figure 67
Flow Path Through The Valtek Tiger Tooth Trim
CCI’s DRAG trim also includes a number of plates. Each plate includes
multiple flow passages and each passage includes a number of right-angle
turns as shown in Figure 68.

Figure 68
Control Components Incorporated Drag Trim
Axial Flow, MultiStep Design - This trim design is the basis of Masoneilan’s VRT
(Variable Resistance Trim) product. As shown in Figure 69, the flow is directed
upward and parallel to the axis of the valve plug and stem. The trim is made up
of a number of plates that are drilled or machined to create a flow path that
includes many turns or stages. When the valve plug is throttling near the seat,
the flow is forced through a maximum number of stages. As the valve plug
approaches the open position, the flow is directed through fewer and fewer
stages. As a result, this trim is most suitable for applications where the
pressure drop decreases with increasing flow; i.e., the potential for cavitation
and cavitation related problems decreases at the normal and maximum flow
rate. In constant pressure drop applications where cavitation could occur at
any or every point in valve travel, this trim may not provide the required
cavitation protection.

Figure 69
Masoneilan VRT Trim Concept
Notched Plug, Axial Flow Design - This trim design is the basis for Masoneilan’s
“Lincoln Log” trim that is shown in Figure 70. In this axial flow design, the plug
and cage are machined to form several throttling surfaces, or stages, along the
length of the plug. As the valve is stroked, each stage throttles in unison and
the pressure drop is divided among each of the stages. Because the flow
passages in the Lincoln Log trim are larger than the flow passages in most
other anti-cavitation trim designs, the Lincoln Log trim is especially tolerant of
dirty fluids.

Figure 70
Flow Pattern Of The Masoneilan Lincoln Log Trim
Combination Axial And Radial Flow Design - Fisher Controls Cav IV trim is an
axial flow design that includes a drilled-hole, radial flow cage element for each
axial stage. As shown in Figure 71, the flow is directed downward through the
valve. After the flow passes each axial stage, the flow is directed through a
drilled hole cage. The advantage of this design is that the large number of
stages can eliminate cavitation in highly demanding applications.

Axial Flow Path

Through The Valve
Flow
Drilled Hole,
Radial Flow
Cages
Cav4
Figure 71
Combination Axial Flow With Radial Flow Cage Elements
Brute Strength Approach To Cavitation Damage Control - Some applications

present challenges that cannot be met by sophisticated anti-cavitation valve
technology. For example, when a fluid is extremely erosive, is alternately
flashing and cavitating, and includes large particles that are not compatible
with the small flow passages of most anti-cavitation trim designs, specifiers
may select a “brute strength” approach to damage control. Figure 72 shows a
sweep flow, angle body valve with tungsten carbide trim and a hardened outlet
liner. This particular valve design has provided long valve life in difficult
applications where other, more sophisticated approaches have failed.

Figure 72
A “Brute Strength” Approach To Cavitation Damage Prevention
Custom Valves
Characterized Anti-Cavitation Trim - Most standard anti-cavitation trims produce

an approximately linear inherent flow characteristic. In applications where
multiple stages of pressure reduction are required at low flow conditions only, a
standard multi-stage trim can unnecessarily reduce the maximum capacity of

the trim and require the selection of a very large valve size. When the pressure
drop and the potential for cavitation related problems decrease at the
maximum flow condition, most anti-cavitation trims can be characterized as
shown in Figure 73. In a characterized anti-cavitation trim, the trim includes the
number of stages that are required to prevent cavitation when the valve is
throttling near the seat and the pressure drop is at maximum. At mid travel
positions where the pressure drop decreases, the number of stages is
reduced. When the valve is fully open (or nearly so) and the pressure drop is at
its minimum value, the number of stages may be further reduced or, if there is
no potential for cavitation, the trim may include straight-through flow passages.
Although Figure 73 illustrates the means by which a drilled-hole cage is
characterized, nearly all trim designs can be custom characterized.
Figure 73
Decreasing Pressure Drop Application And Characterized Anti-Cavitation
Cage
Super Severe Service Custom Valves - Many manufacturers have the capability to
design and manufacture super-special valves for difficult, super-severe service
applications. Super-special valves are unique, one-of-a-kind designs that are
designed specially designed for unique and especially demanding applications.
For example, Figure 74 shows a custom valve that was designed for use as a

liquid level control valve on a high pressure separator. The valve was designed
to provide cavitation protection, corrosion resistance, and erosion resistance.
The initial flow direction is flow down through a drilled hole cage. The upper
cage provides one stage of cavitation protection and forces the flashing and
outgassing to occur in the void between the upper and lower plugs. The lower
cage provide the benefits of a flow-up orientation; i.e., the flow is broken into
several smaller jets to prevent valve plug instability that can result from
flashing and outgassing. Although custom valves have a high first cost, they
may be the most economical solution when “standard” valves do not provide
satisfactory performance or valve life.
Figure 74
Super-Severe Service Valve For A Cavitating, Erosive, Corrosive, And
Outgassing Fluid

Control Valve Selection Considerations
Performance Objective: Cavitation Damage Control Versus Cavitation

Prevention
When selecting valves for cavitating applications, one must determine whether the objective
is to select trim that will totally eliminate the potential for cavitation (by preventing bubble
formation) or to eliminate the potential for cavitation damage.
Cavitation Prevention - For a majority of applications, trims are available that will
totally eliminate cavitation by preventing the formation of bubbles in the flow
stream. In high pressure and high pressure drop applications, the prevention of
cavitation may require a large number of stages which in turns leads to larger
and larger body sizes and more costly valves. For critical applications that are
constantly operated at severe conditions, the selection of valves and valve trim
that will totally eliminate cavitation may be the most cost-effective solution over
time.
Prevention Of Cavitation Damage - In applications where the potential for

cavitation damage only occurs at system startup, system shutdown, or during
operating transients, it may be more economical to:
1. Select a trim design that will prevent fluid vaporization during normal
operating conditions.
2. Select materials of construction that will resist cavitationdamage during

startup, shutdown, and other periods of operating transients.
For example, it may be more economical to select a smaller two-stage trim that
is made of 316 stainless steel with Alloy 6 hardfacing than a larger valve with a
four-stage trim that is made of a less damage resistant material such as a
standard 410 or 416 stainless steel.
Manufacturers Control Valve Selection Procedures

Various techniques have been developed by valve manufacturers to evaluate system
conditions and select anti-cavitation control valves. Although each manufacturer’s methods
and techniques are different, most methods involve two major steps.
Step 1. Assessment of the system potential for cavitation with the use of a system
cavitation index.
Step 2. Selection a valve with a valve cavitation index that is appropriate for the
value of the system cavitation index.
Several manufacturer’s methods for valve selection are discussed below.

Fisher Controls - Fisher Controls’ method for anti-cavitation valve and trim
selection is a two-step process.
1. Calculate the system cavitation index. The system cavitation index is

the application ratio, or Ar, where:
Ar = P1-P2/P1-Pv
2. Select a valve with a Kc rating that is greater than the value of Ar.
The Kc values that are published by Fisher Controls are designed to guide one
to the selection of a specific valve and trim that will prevent cavitation related
problems; i.e., damage from vapor cavity implosion, excessive noise, or
excessive valve and piping vibration. The Kc values are based on the recovery
coefficient of the valve as well as experiential factors that also take into
account the materials of construction, the valve size, and the pressure drop.
Valtek - To select a Valtek anti-cavitation valve and trim, one also performs a
two-step procedure.
1. Calculate the system cavitation index,σoperating, where:
σoperating = P2-Pv/P1-P2
2. Select a valve with a σmin rating that is less than the value of σoperating.
The σmin values that are published by Valtek are designed to guide one to an
estimated valve size only. Valtek’s literature indicates that final sizing must be
performed by factory personnel who will account for pressure scaling effects,
size scaling effects, trim exit velocity, and other factors.
Masoneilan - To select an appropriate Masoneilan anti-cavitation valve and trim,

an initially selected valve is evaluated in terms of its pressure recovery
coefficient and the calculated value of∆Pcritical (∆Pallow or ∆Pchoked) versus the
value of the actual pressure drop ∆ ( Pactual).
1. Calculate the value of ∆Pcrit, where:
∆Pcrit = Cf2(∆Ps)
Cf = FL
∆Ps = P1 - FfPv

Note: The value of Pcrit is the same as the choked flow pressure drop that is
calculated with the use of the standard ISA liquid flow sizing equations.
2. Compare the value of ∆Pcrit with the actual ∆P. If the value of ∆Pactual is
less than the value of ∆Pcrit, the selected valve is satisfactory. If the
value of ∆Pcrit is less than the value of∆Pactual, then a valve with a
higher Cf (FL) should be selected.
CCI - The basic criteria for selection of a particular CCI Drag trim is the
selection of a trim that will limit fluid velocity at the trim exit to a value that is
less than 100 feet per second. Because the indices and calculations that are
used to calculate fluid velocities throughout the valve are somewhat complex,
most specifiers make use of CCI’s valve selection and sizing software in order
to select an appropriate valve and trim.
Valve Performance Contingency Requirements
Changes In Service Conditions - Specifiers should always allow for the possibility
that the valve will be operated at pressure drops that are higher than those that
are specified on the ISS or on the process and piping drawings. In addition, the
system may be operated at elevated fluid temperatures which will cause an
increase in the value of Pv and an increase in the potential for cavitation. In
order to minimize the potential for cavitation related problems when service
conditions change, specifiers should always specify a valve with an extra
margin of cavitation resistance. For example, if the value of Ksa for a given
application is 0.85, then a valve with a Kc of approximately 0.9 should be
considered.
Size Scale Effects - Control valve manufacturers often interpolate the cavitation
indices for large valves on the basis of research that has been performed on
smaller valves. Because of size scale effects (larger valves often cavitate more
readily and more intensely than smaller valves of the same design), the valve
cavitation index for a large valve may be somewhat overrated. Within Saudi
Aramco, it has been observed that manufacturers often ignore or miscalculate
the effects of valve size on cavitation damage resistance. Therefore, when
large anti-cavitation valves and trim are being selected, the specifier should
allow for an additional margin of cavitation protection; i.e., the specifier should
select a valve with a higher Kc, lower σmin, etc. than is indicated by the normal
calculations. Generally speaking, size scale effects should be considered for
all valves that are larger than 6 inches unless size scale affects have been fully
considered by the manufacturer.
Sensitivity To Accurate Data

Importance Of Accurate Fluid Properties - When specifying anti-cavitation valves,

the specifier must make a concerted effort to secure accurate fluid properties.
For example, the calculations that are used to predict cavitation are highly
dependent upon the value that is given for the fluid’s vapor pressure. Figure 75
shows that if an incorrect value is given for the vapor pressure, one may
determine that an application is flashing when it is actually cavitating, or vice
versa.
Figure 75
Fluid Behavior Versus The Value Of P v
Importance of Accurate Service Conditions - The need to secure accurate service

conditions is illustrated in Figure 76 which shows a plot of vibration as a
function of P1-P2/P2-Pv. Note the rapid increase in vibration that follows the
onset of incipient cavitation. If the pressure drop is understated or overstated in
this range, then cavitation intensity cannot be accurately predicted.

Figure 76
Vibration Intensity As A Function Of P 1-P 2/P2-P v

Importance Of Defining Worst Case Cavitating Conditions

When specifying valves for cavitating applications, the specifier should make a concerted
effort to identify the worst-case conditions for cavitation. Some of the conditions that help to
define the “worst-case” scenario are described below.
Startup And Shutdown - During system startup and shutdown, the system is
often operated at low flow conditions for some period of time. In many
applications, low flow operation is accompanied by high pressure drops that
increase the potential for cavitation. To protect against cavitation damage
during system startup and shutdown, the service conditions should be clearly
identified and considered during the selection process.
Changes In Operating Conditions - Specifiers should remain alert to the

possibility of changes in operating conditions. For example, if the system is
likely to be operated at an elevated temperature, with a higher inlet pressure,
or with a reduced outlet pressure, an allowance for additional cavitation
damage prevention should be made during valve selection.
Reduced Throughput - If it can be anticipated that the system will be operated at

reduced capacity (extreme turndown), the reduced capacity service conditions
should be evaluated during the valve selection process and a valve should be
selected that will prevent cavitation related problems.
Cavitation In Combination With Other Severe Conditions

Cavitation in combination with other severe service conditions such as corrosion and/or
erosion can quickly compound the rate and intensity of cavitation damage. When fluids are
erosive or corrosive, specifiers must give special attention to the materials of construction
that are selected.
Anti-Cavitation Trim And Flashing Applications
In some instances, a fluid may be cavitating at the normal flow condition and the maximum
flow condition while it is flashing at a low flow condition. Two general guidelines help to
guide the specifier under this circumstance.
1. Of the two phenomenon, cavitation is by far more damaging than flashing; therefore,
cavitation must be treated with an appropriate anti-cavitation trim.
2. In multi-stage, anti-cavitation trims, the flashing damage is most likely to occur
between the trim stages (inter-stage flashing). Therefore, the following guidelines
apply.
a. If possible, select single stage anti-cavitation trim.
b. If multi-stage anti-cavitation trim must be selected to prevent cavitation

related problems, select materials of construction that are highly

resistant to damage from vapor cavity implosion and from flashing

erosion; i.e., 316 stainless steel with Alloy 6 hardfacing, solid Alloy 6,
tungsten carbide, etc.
Non-Valve Methods Of Reducing The Potential For Cavitation

During the valve selection process, the specifier should remain alert to means of minimizing
cavitation related problems other than valve selection. Two such possibilities are discussed
below.
System Design - In some applications, a change in valve placement can help to
minimize cavitation related problems. For example, moving a feed valve from a
mid-line position to a tank mounted position can reduce the potential for
cavitation damage to the valve and piping. By mounting the valve on or near
the tank as shown in Figure 77, the vapor cavities will implode inside the
vessel where they will not cause damage to valve parts or pipe walls.

Figure 77
Minimizing Cavitation Damage Through Valve Placement
Valve Elevation - A change in the elevation of a valve can also have a significant
impact on the potential for cavitation and cavitation related problems. For
example, Figure 78 shows the difference in the values of P 1 and P2 of a
distillation column feed valve when the valve is located near the top of the
column (Installation A) and when the valve is located near the bottom of the
column (Installation B). When the valve is located near the bottom of the
vessel, P1 is increased because there is less friction loss and less head loss.
P2 is also increased because of the additional head at the valve outlet. Both
pressure conditions serve to decrease the potential for cavitation.

Figure 78
Minimizing Cavitation Damage By Changing The Elevation Of The Valve
ISA System Indices From ISA-dRP75.23
Standardization - Given the broad range of methods for predicting cavitation and
for rating the cavitation resistance of a particular control valve, there is
considerable confusion and controversy concerning the preferred methods for
system assessment and for assigning valve indices. In an effort to standardize
system assessment and valve selection procedures, ISA subcommittees have
prepared a draft recommended practiceISA-dRP75.23 Considerations For
Evaluating Control Valve Cavitation . This standard provides a recommended
methodology for evaluating the potential for cavitation and for rating the
cavitation resistance of control valves.

System Cavitation Parameter σsystem - In order to evaluate the potential for

cavitation in a given system, the ISA recommends the parameterσsystem where
σsystem = (P1-Pv)/(P1-P2). Using this analysis, the potential for cavitation
increases as σ approaches 1.0. Refer to Figure 79. As the value ofσsystem
increases from 1.0 to approximately 17, the potential for cavitation decreases.
σsystem is related to the Saudi Aramco index Ksa as follows:
σsystem = 1/Ksa.
The parameter σ as used by the ISA is not the same as theσ parameter that is
used by Valtek.
Figure 79
ISA System Cavitation Index σsystem
σ: Universal Control Valve Cavitation Index - The parameter σsystem only

quantifies the service conditions. By itself, the value ofσsystem does not
convey any information about the performance of a particular valve in a
particular application. In order to gain utility from the parameterσsystem, the
ISA recommended practice describes a methodology in which the behavior of
a specific valve can be predicted as a result of the value ofσsystem. The ISA
recommended practice suggests that manufacturers test their valves under
standard test conditions and assign several valve performance indices.
Several indices are illustrated in Figure 80 and they are discussed below.

Figure 80
ISA-dRP75.23 Control Valve Cavitation Indices
• σI - The coefficient of incipient cavitation is the value of (P

1-Pv)/(P1-P2) at
which cavitation can first be detected. This coefficient can be determined
with noise or vibration measurements as shown in Figure 80.
• σc - The coefficient of constant cavitation is the value of (P

1-Pv)/(P1-P2) at
which mild, steady cavitation occurs. Damage is not usually associated with
this level of cavitation. This coefficient can be determined with noise or
vibration measurements as shown in Figure 80.
• σid - The coefficient of incipient cavitation damage is the value of (P

1-
Pv)/(P1-P2) at which the onset of cavitation damage occurs. This value

cannot be determined from noise or vibration measurements; it must be

evaluated in the laboratory.
• σch - The coefficient for choking cavitation is the value of (P

1-Pv)/(P1-P2)
that causes choking in the valve. The maximum levels of noise, vibration,
and material damage have been observed to occur at or just prior to this
condition. The value of σch may be estimated with the following:
P1 − Pv
σ ch =
FL 2 (P1 − FF Pv )
• σmv - The coefficient of maximum vibration can be determined by identifying
the value of (P1-Pv)/(P1-P2) at which the maximum vibration or noise
occurs on a plot such as the one shown in Figure 80.
• σmr - The manufacturer’s recommended minimum limit σ( mr) is an

operational limit that is supplied by the valve manufacturer. The
determination of this value may be based on laboratory analysis,
experience with specific applications, or an understanding of specific valve
features.
σ Parameters That Are Used During Valve Selection - The specifier may select a
specific valve on the basis of any of the aboveσ parameters. For example, if
the value of σsystem is 2.5 and the specifier’s objective is to limit cavitation to
the level of constant cavitation, the specifier would select a valve with aσc of
2.5 or less. The decision of which parameter to use during the selection of a
particular valve is largely subjective and may depend upon many factors such
as valve style, percentage of valve travel, duty cycle, location, desired life, and
past experience. According to the draft recommended practice, “the valve
manufacturer should be consulted in this matter.”
Scale Effects - ISA-dRP75.23 includes provisions for calculating size scale

effects (SSE) and pressure scale effects (PSE) for a particular control valve.
The calculations are explained in the draft.
Piping Factors - Upstream pipe reducers and downstream expansions cause a

variation in cavitation levels and in sizing coefficients. To account for these
effects, ISA-dRP75.23 defines a mathematical procedure for evaluating the
effects of reducers and expanders (swages) on the performance of a particular
valve.
Future Application Of ISA -dRP75.23 - When manufacturers fully endorse and

comply with the recommended practiceISA-dRP75.23, and when

manufacturers test and publish the various values ofσ that describe valve
performance in cavitating applications, the specifier will have a massive
amount of unbiased data on which to base his valve selection decisions.
However, considerable time will be required for manufacturers to test their
products and to publish the results.
Immediate Application Of ISA-dRP75.23 - Until valve manufacturers complete

comprehensive testing of their products and until the results of the tests are
published, the only data that is likely to be available is a listing ofσmr values.
The σmr values that will be initially published will likely to be translated from
existing cavitation indices.

SELECTING AND SIZING CONTROL VALVES FOR FLASHING FLUID

Applications
Flashing And Its Consequences
Review Of Flashing Phenomenon
Flashing Compared To Cavitation - When, in a liquid flow, the fluid pressure falls
below the fluid’s vapor pressure, the fluid begins to vaporize; i.e., vapor
bubbles form in the flow stream. In a control valve, the onset of vaporization
often occurs near the vena contracta, as shown in Figure 81. If the
downstream pressure (P2) increases to a value that is greater than the fluid’s
vapor pressure (Pv), the bubbles collapse and the fluid is cavitating. If the
downstream pressure P2 is less than the fluid’s vapor pressure, the bubbles, or
vapor cavities, remain in the fluid stream and the fluid is flashing. It is important
to note that flashing occurs only as a function of the values of Pv and P2; i.e.,
flashing is independent of the inlet pressure P1 and the vena contracta
pressure Pvc.
Figure 81
Flashing Phenomena That Occurs When P 2<P v

Flashing And Choked Flow - The pressure drop vs. flow plot that is shown in
Figure 82 shows that flashing normally occurs at higher pressure drops than
are required to cause cavitation and choked flow. Under certain conditions,
however, flashing can occur prior to choked flow and cavitation. For example,
a valve with a very high pressure recovery coefficient (K
m or FL approaching
1.0) will have a very high allowable pressure drop and the fluid may begin to
flash at a pressure drop that isless than the ∆Pallow.
Figure 82
Relative Values of ∆P That Cause Cavitation, Choked Flow, And Flashing
Changes In Fluid Density and In Fluid Velocity - When a liquid flashes (vaporizes),
the fluid density decreases (specific volume increases). To pass the required
flow, the fluid velocity must increase. These conditions present two concerns
for the valve specifier.
1. The expansion of the fluid may require a larger valve in order to pass the
required flow.
2. The high-velocity flow can present the potential for erosion damage to the
valve and to the downstream piping.

Figure 83
Major Concerns With Flashing Fluids
Common Forms Of Flashing
Unwanted Flashing - In some applications, flashing occurs as an unwanted

phenomenon that results from rigorous service conditions, improper system
design, or operating transients. For example, the water dump valve on the high
pressure separator that is shown in Figure 84 has a high inlet pressure and a
low outlet pressure (P2 = atmospheric pressure). In this application, flashing
cannot be avoided.

Figure 84
Flashing As A Result Of Severe Conditions
Flashing By Design - In some applications, the process isdesigned to flash (P2

is intentionally set below Pv) in order to achieve a specific process objective.
For example, Figure 85 shows that an individual fluid component can be
“knocked out” of a liquid hydrocarbon mixture by setting the control valve outlet
pressure to a pressure that is less than the vapor pressure of the fluid
component that is to be removed. In this manner, the component that is to be
extracted is converted to its gas or vapor phase and piped away from the liquid
for downstream processing.

Figure 85
Flashing As A Means Of Achieving A Process Objective
Flashing Versus Outgassing - Outgassing is a phenomenon that is similar to

flashing. Outgassing occurs when a gas that has been dissolved in a liquid
comes out of solution as a result of pressure reduction or agitation. Refer to
Figure 86. There are several important differences between flashing and
outgassing.

Figure 86
Flashing Versus Outgassing
Outgassing is a physical reaction that can occur instantaneously upon a

reduction in fluid pressure or upon significant agitation of the fluid. Most valves
present sufficient obstructions at the valve inlet to cause the onset of
outgassing; therefore, outgassing can occur within the valve. Depending on the
pressure drops and the amount of gas that comes out of solution, outgassing
can result in areas of high and low pressure within the valve. Areas of high and
low pressure around the valve plug can cause valve plug instability and
destructive vibrations, especially in larger valves. In addition, the standard
liquid sizing model and the equations for choked flow do not apply to
outgassing flows.
Flashing is a thermodynamic event that requires a change in the latent heat of

vaporization for a change of state to occur. It is commonly believed that the
time that is required for the change of state to occur is generally longer than
the transit time of the fluid moving through the region of the vena contracta. As
a result, the majority of the flashing phenomenon typically occurs downstream
of the primary flow restriction. The standard liquid sizing model and the
equations for choked flow generally provide acceptable results.

Quantifying Flashing
Flashing And Control Valve ∆ P - There are no useful equations or indices that
allow the specifier to predict flashing intensity; however flashing intensity can
be viewed as a function of the pressure drop across the valve; i.e., the valve ∆
P is an indicator of the total energy that can be transformed into changes of
state, vibration, and noise.
Flashing, Velocity, And Erosion - Erosion is a strong function of fluid velocity, and
because any degree of flashing will cause the fluid velocity to increase,
specifiers should apply additional engineering attention to any flashing
application.
Single-Species Liquids Vs. Liquid Mixtures - For liquid mixtures, the value that is
given for the vapor pressure is often the “bubble point”; i.e., the pressure at
which the lightest component will vaporize. The entire mixture will not flash at
the bubble point. Instead, only those components of the mixture whose vapor
pressures are greater than P2 will vaporize. As shown in Figure 87, the amount
of flashing that will occur in a mixture may be substantially less than what one
might predict for a single-species fluid. As a result, the choked flow sizing
equations may calculate a conservative valve size.
Figure 87
Flashing Of One Component In A Liquid Mixture

Consequences Of Flashing
Flashing Erosion - Because the fluid velocity is greatly accelerated during the
liquid-to-vapor transformation, flashing is always accompanied by an increased
potential for valve and piping damage. Flashing erosion is the result of high
velocity vapor particles impinging upon critical valve surfaces such as valve
plugs, valve seats, valve body castings, and pipewalls. If the fluid includes
particles such as fines, sand, or other solids, the particles are swept along at
high velocity by the vapor phase of the fluid and the potential for erosion
damage is further increased. Most industry authorities agree that the potential
for erosion damage increases exponentially as the fluid velocity increases; i.e.:
Potential For Erosion Damage∝ Velocityn
The value of the exponentn is estimated to be in the range of 5 to 8.
Choked Flow - Choked flow is usually present when flashing occurs. Choked
flow is treated as a sizing issue.
Flashing Service Flags And Typical Flashing Applications
Flags For Flashing Fluid Applications
Liquids With High Vapor Pressures - Any liquid with a high vapor pressure has an
increased potential for vaporization and flashing.
High Temperature Liquids - When the temperature of a liquid is elevated, its

vapor pressure also increases thereby increasing the potential for flashing.
Letdown Applications - Flashing is likely to occur in any application in which the

fluid pressure is let down to a low pressure, to atmospheric pressure, or to a
vacuum.
Typical Flashing Fluid Applications

In many applications, the fluid flashes as a result of system objectives or as a result of the
normal service conditions.
Flash Drum Feed Control Valve - The valve that controls the fluid flow into a flash
drum reduces the fluid pressure for the purpose of separating gasses and
vapors from the liquid phase. Although the fluid is generally outgassing, some
flashing may also occur.

High Pressure Separator Condensate Drain - The condensate drain valve (or liquid
level control valve) on a high pressure separator often lets down to
atmospheric pressure or to a very low pressure.
Steam Generation Applications - Many of the control valves that are used to
control the flow of fluids in steam generators and boilers are subjected to
flashing conditions. For example, heater drain valves flash the drain water to
the condenser.
Critical Control Valve Selection Considerations
Basic Control Valve Selection Criteria
Because flashing is the result of the fluid pressure at the valve outlet falling
below the fluid’s vapor pressure, flashing is the result of system conditions
only. There is no control valve design that will prevent the occurrence of
flashing. Therefore, the specifier’s objectives are to:
1. Identify and select control valve types that will provide resistance toflashing
damage.
2. Specify materials of construction that will resist flashing damage.
3. Consider the effects of choked flow on the valve sizing calculations.
4. Where possible, change system design parameters to minimize the

negative effects of flashing.
Erosion Resistant Control Valve Types

Angle Bodies Vs. Globe Valve Bodies - For flashing applications, angle bodies are
often the preferred body style. The features that support this preference are
illustrated in Figure 88 and they are discussed below.

Figure 88
Angle Body Construction
1. After the fluid flows through the trim, the flow path is parallel to valve and
pipe walls; i.e., the angle at which the high-velocity vapor cavities and solid
particles (if present) impinge on critical surfaces is near zero.
2. Because the flow path of an angle valve is less tortuous than the flow path
of a standard globe valve, there are fewer areas of locally high or low
pressure. Consequently, the vena contracta is more likely to be well defined
and located in an area that is downstream of the valve trim. If the vena
contracta is downstream of the trim, fluid vaporization and flashing damage
is more likely to occur downstream of the valve trim.
3. The transit distance through an angle body valve is shorter than it is in a

standard globe valve. Therefore, it is likely that the flashing fluid will not

attain equilibrium (totally change state) untilafter the fluid has passed the
critical trim components.
4. In order to protect the downstream piping against flashing damage, angle

bodies are typically available with hardened outlet liners that can be easily
and economically replaced if necessary.
5. In many instances, the availability of reduced capacity trim (restricted trim)

allows the selection of a line-size valve body instead of body size that is
smaller than the pipeline size. Bynot selecting a valve body size that is less
than line size, the increased volume on the outlet side of the valve helps to
reduce the outlet velocity.
Line-Of-Sight Valve Constructions - For medium to low pressure flashing

applications, an eccentric rotary plug valve is often a good selection. Refer to
Figure 89. In flashing or erosive applications, the valve is installed with the plug
on the downstream side of the body. In this orientation, the flow restriction is
well defined and the vena contracta - and therefore the occurrence of flashing -
is most likely to occur at a location that is downstream of the valve. A spool
piece of sacrificial pipe is often installed downstream of the valve for the
purpose of absorbing flashing damage.

Figure 89
Eccentric Rotary Plug Valve
Velocity Control - Generally speaking, specifiers should avoid valve and trim
designs that include features that would obstruct flow or increase the fluid
velocity. For example, multi-stage anti-cavitation trims are generally avoided
because high-velocity flashing flows is likely to cause flashing erosion in the
interstage areas of the trim. Single stage trims may be applied when
necessary.
Materials Of Construction
Body Materials - For flashing applications, specifiers typically follow the same
guidelines that were discussed for erosive fluid applications. When angle
bodies and eccentric rotary plug valves are selected, the erosive flows do not
impinge directly on the body walls and standard carbon steel bodies may
provide adequate life.
A listing of popular erosion-resistant body materials is shown in Figure 30 of

this Module.
Trim Materials - A listing of popular erosion-resistant trim materials was shown

in Figure 31 of this Module.
System Design Considerations

The location of a valve in a flashing application can have significant impact on the life of the
system. For example, Figure 90 shows a heater drain valve that flashes the drain water to a
condenser. In Installation A, flashing will occur in the long run of piping between the valve
and the condenser. The pipe may have to be replaced periodically because of the flashing
damage that will occur. In installation B, the control valve is close coupled to the condenser.
In this installation, the flashing will occur within the condenser and without the potential for
valve and piping damage.
Figure 90
Example Of Changes In System Design To Prevent Flashing Damage
Valve Sizing Procedures

Because flashing is usually accompanied by choked flow, the valve sizing pressure drop
must be limited to the lesser of the ∆Pactual or the ∆Pchoked . The equation for calculating
choked flow is:
∆Pallow = FL2(P1-rcPv)
where:
∆Pallow the maximum pressure drop that is effective in producing

flow

FL ISA nomenclature for the control valve recovery

coefficient. Fisher nomenclature is Km where Km = FL2.
P1 Upstream fluid pressure.
rc The critical pressure ratio; 0.96-0.28(Pv/Pc) where Pv is

the fluid’s vapor pressure and Pc is the fluid’s critical
pressure.
Pv The fluid’s vapor pressure.
Flashing In Combination With Particle Erosion Or Corrosion
Flashing in combination with particle erosion exponentially increases the

potential for erosion damage. Flashing in corrosive fluids can hasten both the
erosion and corrosion processes because of the removal of protective platings,
coatings, and naturally-occurring passive layers that provide corrosion
resistance.
Importance Of Accurate Data
Sensitivity To Accurate Fluid Properties And Service Conditions - Because the

occurrence of flashing can only be predicted if the values that are given for v,
P
P2, T, and Pc are accurate, this information should be verified.
Information Sources - Accurate fluid properties (Pv and Pc) can be found in
reference books that list physical properties of fluids and they can be obtained
from the Saudi Aramco Process Group. Accurate service conditions (the
values of P1, P2, and T) can be obtained from process documentation and
from operating personnel.

SELECTING And sizing CONTROL VALVEs To Attenuate Aerodynamic

Control Valve Noise
Sources Of Control Valve Noise
Types Of Control Valve Noise
Mechanical Vibration - Mechanical vibration of valve components is a result of

random pressure fluctuations within the valve body and/or fluid impingement
upon movable or flexible valve components. As shown in Figure 91, the most
prevalent source of noise that results from mechanical vibration is the lateral
movement of the valve plug relative to the plug guiding surfaces. The noise
that is generated by this type of vibration normally has a frequency of less than
1500 hertz, and it is often described as a metallic rattling. One particularly
troublesome form of mechanical vibration is observed in a valve component
that resonates at its natural (resonant) frequency. Resonant vibration
generates a sound that is a single-pitched tone, normally having a frequency
between 3000 and 7000 hertz. This type of vibration generates high levels of
mechanical stress that can cause fatigue failure of the vibrating part. Valve
components that are susceptible to resonance include contoured valve plugs
with hollow skirts, and flexible members such as the metal seat ring of a ball
valve. The potential for physical damage to valve components is generally of
greater concern than the noise that is emitted. Fortunately, the noise that is
generated by mechanical vibration has, for the most part, been eliminated with
improved valve designs.

Figure 91
Mechanical Noise
Hydrodynamic Noise - Excessive noise levels can be generated by the collapse

of bubbles in a cavitating flow. Refer to Figure 92. The noise that is generated
in a cavitating flow includes a broad range of frequencies. Hydrodynamic noise
is frequently described as the sound that would be generated if gravel were
flowing in the fluid stream. Excessive levels of hydrodynamic noise are
accompanied by an increased potential for valve and piping damage from
vapor cavity implosions (cavitation) and from low frequency vibration of the
valve and piping. As a result, high levels of hydrodynamic noise are generally
treated as a cavitation concern instead of a concern for excessive levels of
noise in the environment.
Test results indicate that the noise that is produced by flashing liquids is rarely
excessive; therefore, while flashing liquids are a concern because of the
potential for erosion damage, flashing liquids are not typically associated with
unacceptably high levels of noise.
Figure 92
Hydrodynamic Noise

Aerodynamic Noise - Aerodynamic noise is generated by the turbulence that is

associated with the control of gas, steam, or vapors. Major sources of
aerodynamic noise are the stresses or shear forces that are present in
turbulent flows. Some sources of turbulence are obstructions in the flow path,
rapid expansion or deceleration of high-velocity flows, and directional changes
in the fluid stream as shown in Figure 93.
Figure 93
Sources Of Aerodynamic Noise
Aerodynamic noise is generally considered to be the primary control valve

noise problem. The focus on aerodynamic noise is supported by the following:
1. Aerodynamic noise has its highest energy components at the frequencies

where the human ear is most sensitive - between 1,000 and 8,000 hertz.
2. Large amounts of energy can be converted to aerodynamic noise without

damaging the valve. Today, with increasing focus on environmental issues,
agencies and corporations have established guidelines and standards that
limit the amount of noise that a valve can emit in the workplace.

3. Extremely high levels of aerodynamic noise can cause mechanical damage

to the valve.
Mechanics Of Aerodynamic Noise Generation And Transmission

Researchers who study aerodynamic noise address four distinct phases of noise generation
and transmission. The four phases are shown in Figure 94.
Figure 94
Mechanics Of Noise Generation And Transmission
Noise Generation - Aerodynamic noise is generated in a control valve as a result

of turbulence and shear forces as previously described. The valve body is a
rigid casting with thick walls, an irregular shape, and substantial reinforcing
and therefore does not vibrate with sufficient intensity to transmit noise to the
environment. The noise of concern is the noise that propagates to the
downstream piping.
Propagation - The noise that is generated in the control valve propagates into
the downstream piping as a result of fluid flow through the system.
Coupling - The noise within the piping causes the pipewall to vibrate. The
degree to which the sound energy is converted to pipewall vibrations is
determined by many complex variables including:
• The resonant or natural frequency of the piping versus the predominant

frequency of the valve generated noise.
• The mass of the pipewall.

• The mass of the flowing media.
• The stiffness of the pipewall.
Radiation - The vibration of the pipewall radiates sound pressure waves into the
environment that can be detected by the human ear as noise, or sound.
Quantifying Noise Intensity
Measurement Parameters
A sound wave is a pressure wave that travels through a media (air, gas, liquid, solid, etc.)
with a fixed amplitude and frequency. As shown in Figure 95, noise is a random mixture of
sound waves of various amplitudes and frequencies. To fully characterize noise, one must
evaluate both the amplitude (intensity) and the frequency (pitch) of the noise.
Figure 95
Amplitude And Frequency Of Noise
Measurement Units And Scales
SPL and Lp - The intensity of sounds is often described in terms ofsound

pressure level. Sound pressure level is commonly abbreviated with the term
SPL (sound pressure level) and with the term Lp (sound pressure). The terms
SPL and Lp are identical in meaning. The abbreviation SPL has been popular

in the past; however, emerging international standards have endorsed the

abbreviation Lp. To remain consistent with current Saudi Aramco standards,
the term SPL will be used throughout this module.
dB - As illustrated in Figure 96, all sound is generated from a form of

mechanical, radiant energy that is transmitted by longitudinal pressure waves
in a material medium such as air. The pressure waves that produce most
sounds are relatively small in magnitude; accordingly, the pressures are
measured in very small pressure units such as micropascals (10-6
Newton/m2). The most common unit of measurement that is used to describe
the sound pressure level is a decibel, abbreviated dB. A decibel is equal to 20
times the logarithm to the base ten of the ratio of a measured sound pressure
to a reference sound pressure of 20 micropascals.
 Measured Sound Pr essure, micropascals 

1dB = 20 Log10  
 20 micropascals 
Figure 96
Pressure Waves Measured In dBA
Frequency Spectrum Of Aerodynamic Noise - Aerodynamic control valve noise is

typically generated over a broad range of frequencies. Figure 97 shows a
typical frequency spectrum distribution for a typical valve. Note that the highest
SPL’s are generated in the frequency range of 1 to 8 KHz.

Figure 97
Typical Frequency Distribution Of Aerodynamic Noise
dBA stands for A weighted decibel. A-weighting is designed to bias the noise
frequency spectrum to correspond with the frequency response (the
sensitivity) of the human ear. For example, consider a noise with an SPL of
100 dB at a frequency of 1,000 hertz. If the intensity of the noise remains
constant and the frequency changes to 200 hertz, the noise will sound to the
human ear like a noise with an SPL of 90 dB. To account for the sensitivity of
the human ear, we describe the sound pressure level of the sound at 200 hertz
as 90 dBA. The plot in Figure 98 shows the corrections that are made at
various frequencies to achieve A-weighting. Referring to Figure 97, note that
A-weighting does not have a significant impact on most aerodynamic noise
measurements.
Figure 98
Corrections For A-Weighting At Various Frequencies

Representative Noise Levels - The decibel scale ranges from zero for the least
perceptible sound, to about 130 dBA for the threshold of physical pain. The
chart in Figure 99 shows the approximate sound pressure level, in dBA, of
familiar environments.
Figure 99
Representative Noise Levels
Measurement Techniques
Noise measurements can be made with meters that measure the sound pressure level at a
given location.
Line Source Measurement - For line sources (such as pipelines), noise
measurements are taken at a point that is 1 meter downstream of the valve
and 1 meter from the pipeline surface as shown in Figure 100. For line
sources, equal noise levels will be measured on an imaginary cylinder for
which the axis is the pipe centerline. As an observer moves away from the
pipeline, the SPL decreases inversely with the increase in the surface area of
the imaginary cylinder.

Figure 100
Line Source Noise Measurement
Line Source Distance Doubling - Each time the distance from a line source is
doubled, the apparent sound pressure level is reduced by approximately 3
dBA, as shown in Figure 101.
Figure 101
Line Source: SPL Attenuation From Distance Doubling = Approximately 3
dBA

SPL At Any Distance - If an SPL measurement is taken 1 meter downstream of

the valve and 1 meter from the pipeline, the apparent dBA at any given
distance can be determined with the following equation:
1+ r
SPL = F + 10 Log
R +r
where:
r pipe radius in meters based on the

pipe outside diameter
R distance in meters from the pipe

surface
F noise level at 1 meter from the pipe

surface
To illustrate the utility of the equation, assume that the SPL at a point that is 1
meter downstream of the valve and 1 meter away from the pipeline is 95 dBA.
Assume also that the pipeline is 12 inches in diameter (a radius of 0.16 meter).
To calculate the SPL at a point that is 32 meters from the pipeline, the equation
is solved as follows:
1 + 0.16
LpA = (95) + 10 Log
32 + 0.16
LpA = 95 - 14. 43
LpA = 80.57 dBA
Downstream Pipeline Attenuation - Downstream of the noise source, the noise

that propagates through the medium and the pipeline tends to diminish over
distance. Though there is no absolute guideline for quantifying the amount of
noise attenuation at points downstream of the noise source, a common
guideline suggests that there will be a 1 dBA of noise attenuation for every 100
feet of distance downstream of the source.
Point Source Measurement - For a point source (such as a vent), sound pressure
measurements are routinely taken 3 meters from the source. As an observer
moves away from a point source, the SPL decreases inversely with the
increase in the surface area of an imaginary sphere, as shown in Figure 102.

Figure 102
Point Source Noise Measurement
Point Source Distance Doubling - Each time the distance from a point source is
doubled, the apparent sound pressure level is reduced by approximately 6
dBA, as shown in Figure 103.
Figure 103
Point Source: Distance Doubling = Approximately 6 dBA Attenuation

SPL At Any Distance - If an SPL measurement is taken at a point that is 3

meters away from a point source, the apparent dBA at any given distance can
be determined with the following equation:
3
SPL = F + 20 Log
R
where:
R Distance in meters from the source
F Sound pressure level at 3 meters from

the source
For example, assume that the SPL at 3 meters from a vent is 95 dBA. To
calculate the SPL at a distance of 24 meters from the pipeline, the equation is
solved as follows:
3
LpA = (95) + 20 Log
24
LpA = 95 - 18. 06
LpA = 76. 94 dBA
Vibration Measurement Vs. SPL Measurement - Noise levels can also be

determined by measuring the intensity of the pipewall vibrations with an
accelerometer and, then, converting the pipewall vibration measurements to an
SPL value or to a frequency spectrum distribution. This technique is useful
when direct SPL measurements would be corrupted by ambient noise in the
environment. Additional insights to a noise problem can often be gained by
interpreting a spectrum analysis that is developed from vibration
measurements. For example, excessive noise levels that have been attributed
to control valve noise are sometimes found to occur at frequencies that match
the operating frequency - or multiples of the operating frequency - of an
upstream compressor or other prime mover. In this instance, efforts to limit
control valve noise would not be productive because the origin of the noise is
the upstream device rather than the control valve.
Combining Measurements From Independent Systems - The combined SPL of two

noise sources is determined bydifference between the sound pressure level of
the two sources. The chart in Figure 104 shows the DSPL (the number of dB
that must be added to the louder of two noise sources) for different values of
SPL1 - SPL2.

Two examples of combining SPL measurements are illustrated in Figure 104.

For the two identical levels of SPL, the combined SPL is equal to the SPL of a
single source + 3 dBA. In the example where the sound pressure level of one
source is 65 dBA and the sound pressure level of a second source is 95 dBA,
the total difference is greater than 12 dBA; therefore, the combined SPL is
(approximately) the louder of the two sources.
Figure 104
Combining Noise Sources
Consequences Of Control Valve Noise

The concern for high levels of noise is a twofold issue. First, noise is a human factors issue.
Second, research indicates that high levels of noise can cause the total failure of valves and
other piping system components.
Human Factors - Prolonged exposure to high levels of noise generally results in
hearing loss. Because the hearing loss results from mechanical damage to the
ear, the losses are cumulative and permanent.
SAES-A-105 is dedicated to the subject of noise limits and noise control at all
Saudi Aramco sites. Figure 105 shows the exposure limits that are established
in Section 4.3.1 of SAES-A-105.


Figure 105
dBA Versus Exposure Guidelines
Section 5.8 of SAES-J-700 relates noise concerns as they apply specifically to

control valves. This standard gives the following maximum LpA limits for
control valve noise:
• 90 dBA, measured at a distance of 1 meter downstream of the valve, for

valves normally in operation (throttling). This limit is intended to apply to a
valve that is in continuous operation.
• 95 dBA for recycle valves and other control valves which are normally
closed (such as manual valves). This limit is intended to apply to a valve
that is intermittently operated.
• 105 dBA (before any acoustic treatment) for any valve in any application.
This limit is absolute limit and is notto be exceeded under any
circumstances.
The first two guidelines are based on environmental and human factors issues.
The third guideline limits noise to a level that is below the threshold of
equipment damage.
Equipment Damage - High levels of noise is an indication that there has been a
transformation of energy within the fluid stream to mechanical vibration. These

vibrations are generally of a fairly high frequency and can cause wear and
fatigue of internal valve components. For example, a vibrating plug can cause
wear of guiding surfaces. If the plug and cage become worn, the increased
clearance between the plug and guiding surface can allow high intensity
vibrations that result in total failure of the stem-to-plug connection.
As a result of laboratory tests and experiential factors, valve manufacturers

have established a maximum upper noise limit of 110 dBA to preserve the
mechanical integrity of the valve and other piping system components. As
shown in Figure 106, the threshold for valve damage is actually greater than
110 dBA for larger valves; however, the common 110 dBA limit is broadly
applied to all valve sizes.
Figure 106
SPL Versus Valve Damage In Various Valve Sizes
Flags For Excessive Noise And Common Noise Applications
SPL> 90 dBA For A Standard Valve

Whenever any standard control valve with standard trim and with standard downstream
piping generates an SPL that is in excess of 90 dBA, the specifier must evaluate the
application in terms of excessive noise generation.

Outlet Velocity Greater Than 0.3 Mach

A valve outlet velocity that is greater than 0.3 Mach indicates the potential for excessive
noise generation. 0.3 Mach is the approximate boundary at which the noise that is
propagated into the downstream piping becomes greater than the noise that is generated in
any valve, including those valves with quiet trim options.
P1/P2 > 5 For Dry Gas And Superheated Steam Services

Significant potential for excessive noise generation exists whenever the pressure ratio
(P1/P2) in psia of dry gas and superheated steam is 5.0 or greater. Pressure ratios of 5.0 or
greater can create the high outlet velocities that are associated with high levels of
aerodynamic noise.
SPL > Limits That Are Established By Saudi Aramco Engineering Standards
Saudi Aramco Engineering Standards SAES-J-700 and SAES-A-105 that were previously
discussed define absolute SPL limits for various applications and conditions.
Specific Applications
In addition to the flags that are described above, many services are known, through
experience, to present the potential for excessive levels of aerodynamic noise. Control valve
applications that commonly present high potential for noise generation include:
• Compressor bypass valves.
• Atmospheric vent valves.
• Gas injection valves.
Predicting Control Valve Noise
Introduction
The SPL of a valve that is being considered for a given application can be predicted with the
use of various noise prediction equations that have been developed by valve manufacturers,
by standard organizations such as the ISA and the IEC, and by academia.

Influences On Noise Generation And Transmission

The common noise prediction methods are based on broadly varying approaches to acoustic
theory, experience, and laboratory research. Most techniques could be made more precise if
more complete system and operating conditions could be made available. However, the
common prediction techniques are reasonably accurate in view of the information that is
commonly available to the specifier. The parameters that are typically included in prediction
methods are discussed below.
Pressure Drop ( ∆ P) - The pressure drop across the valve is a representation of
the total energy that is available to be converted into sound energy.
Flow Rate - Mass flow, in conjunction with other factors, helps to quantify the
total stream power that can be converted to noise.
Pressure Drop Ratio ( ∆ P/P1) - The pressure drop ratio serves to account for fluid
velocity. The impact on velocity is as follows:
1
Impact On Fluid Velocity ≈
1 − ∆P / P1
Downstream Pressure P 2 - The downstream pressure influences the fluid density

and therefore the fluid velocity at the valve outlet. Downstream pressure also
influences the degree of coupling that occurs.
Valve Acoustic Efficiency Factors - Acoustic efficiency is a measure of how much

of the total flow stream energy will be converted to sound (the ratio of the
stream power that is converted into sound to the stream power). Acoustic
efficiency is a complex function of the valve’s pressure recovery coefficient,
the number and size of flow passages, other valve design factors, and the
relative pressures at the inlet, vena contracta, and the valve outlet.
Downstream Pipe Size - The size of the downstream piping has a direct effect on
fluid velocity in the downstream system.
Downstream Pipe Schedule - The mass and the acoustic characteristics of the
downstream piping influence the degree of acoustic coupling and the
transmission losses that occur at the pipewall.
Valve Noise Peak Frequency Vs. Pipe Coincident Frequency - As the peak
frequency of the valve generated noise approaches the pipe coincident
frequency (the natural resonant frequency of the pipe), a greater degree of
coupling occurs and more noise is transmitted to the environment. As the
frequency of the valve generated noise moves away from the pipe coincident

frequency, coupling is less complete and less noise is transmitted to the

environment.
Fluid Temperature - The fluid temperature influences fluid density and therefore
fluid velocity.
Distance From Source - The measured SPL decreases as the point of

measurement is moved further from the source.
Noise Prediction Equations
Differences In Nomenclature - The equations that have been developed by each

valve manufacturer and the equations that are endorsed in ISA/IEC standards
do not necessarily include terms for each of the influences previously
described. Many noise prediction techniques account for multiple influences
with a single term and minor influences are sometimes ignored. In addition,
manufacturers often use entirely unique approaches that involve proprietary
coefficients that prevent the user from "reverse-engineering" the equations. As
a result, each manufacturer's prediction techniques are designed to provide
accurate results for that manufacturer's valves only.
Application - Generally speaking, several different methods may be used to

apply the noise prediction techniques that have been developed by valve
manufacturers. Methods include:
• Direct calculation with the use of appropriate equations.
• Graphical methods in which one refers to a series of charts or tables to

determine the values of the various components of the total noise level;
e.g., one may determine the SPL that is associated with the pressure drop,
with the pressure ratio, with the downstream piping, etc. and, then, sum all
the components.
• Sizing software that calculates SPL levels at the same time the valve sizing
equations are solved.
Of the three methods, the software approach is by far the most time-efficient
and the most preferred.
Fisher Noise Prediction Equations - Fisher Controls’ noise prediction equation is

as follows:
LpA = DLpADP+DLpACg+DLpADP/P1+DLpAK+DLpAP2 + ∆LpAM2

Where:
LpA Sound pressure level (dBA)
DLpA∆P Base SPL as function of DP
DLpACg The correction for the required Cg
DLpA∆P/P1 The correction for the pressure drop ratio DP/P
1abs
DLpAK The correction for the pipe size and schedule.
DLpAP2 The correction for valve outlet pressure, P2 (psig)
∆LpAM2 Correction to be used only when the valve outlet velocity
is higher than the recommended outlet velocity
Valtek Noise Prediction Equations - Valtek’s noise prediction equation is as

follows:
SPL = Vs + Ps + Es + Ts + Gs + As
Where:
SPL Sound pressure level (dBA)

Vs flow factor - 6.95 Ln (Cv) + 4.8
Ps pressure factor - 9.03 Ln (P1) +17.2
Es pressure ratio factor - 30 Log (∆P/P1) + 25.24
Ts temperature correction factor - -7.68 Log (T1) + 20.78
Gs gas property correction factor - 7.26 Log (Mw) - 11
As pipewall attenuation factor - from Valtek Engineering Bltn. 3
Masoneilan Noise Prediction Equations - The equation that Masoneilan publishes

in the literature that address noise prediction is as follows:
SL = 10log [28CvCfP1P2D2ηT /t3] + SLg
Where:
SL Sound pressure level, dBA

28 Units constant
Cv Actual required flow coefficient
Cf Critical flow factor (same as FL)
P1 Upstream pressure, psia
P2 Downstream pressure, psia
D2 Downstream nominal pipe diameter, inches
η Acoustical efficiency factor, dimensionless; determined graphically
from a chart.
T Absolute temperature, degrees R
t Pipe wall thickness, inches
SLg Gas property factor, dBA; dimensionless; determined graphically
from a chart.
CCI Noise Prediction Equations - The equations that Masoneilan publishes in the
literature that address noise prediction are as follows:
Trim Noise (SPLt)
SPLt = dBw + dBp1 + dB 2 - dBp2 - dBnt - dBd2 - dBt2 - dBr + 63 - A
Pipe Noise (SPLp)
Inlet: SPLp1 = dBw + dB 1 + dBd1 - dBt1 - dBr - 104 - A
Outlet: SPLp2 = dBw + dB 2 + dBd2 - dBt2 - dBr - 104 - A
Where:
SPLt Total trim noise in dBA
dBw function of mass flow rate
dBp1 function of inlet pressure
dBρ2 function of outlet fluid density
dBp2 function of outlet pressure
dBd1 function of the inlet pipe I.D.
dBnt function of number of turns in the disk

dBd2 function of the downstream pipeI.D.

dBt2 function of the downstream pipewall thickness
dBr function of near field distance
63 units constant
104 units constant
A thermal lagging; 5 dBA for steam and 0 dBA for no thermal lagging.
ISA Noise Prediction Equations - ISA Standard S75.17-1989 and Part 8, Section
3 of IEC 65B/231/DIS describe a very thorough method for predicting the SPL
of a standard valve. The ISA/IEC noise prediction method requires one to
manually solve up to forty or more equations in order to calculate an estimated
SPL value and the method appliesonly to standard valves (those that do not
include quiet trim options). The technique involves the following major steps:
1. Determination of a regime. Every application will fall into a regime (Regime I

through Regime V) depending on the pressure conditions.
2. Determination of the acoustic efficiency factor for the regime. The acoustic
efficiency factor, η, is a measure of the flow stream energy that can be
converted to sound energy.
3. Calculation of the sound power level. The sound power level, W a, is

calculated with the use of the acoustic efficiency factor and a corrected
value that indicates the stream power.
4. Calculation of the valve internal sound pressure level, pLi. Lpi is calculated
as a log function of a constant, the sound power (previously calculated), the
mass density, the speed of sound under downstream conditions, and the
inside diameter of the downstream piping.
5. The transmission loss is calculated as a function of the pipe coincident

frequency and the peak generated frequency of the control valve noise.
6. The final sound pressure level is calculated as a function of the internal

sound pressure level that is corrected for transmission loss.
Because it is mathematically intensive, because its use is strictly limited to

outlet velocities that are equal to or less than 0.3 mach, and because it cannot
be used to predict the SPL of noise-abatement valves, specifiers rarely make
use of the ISA/IEC equations. Specifiers do, on occasion, use the ISA/IEC

equations to determine if the results that are obtained with a manufacturers

method are reasonably accurate.

Control Valve Options For Attenuating Control Valve Noise
Source Treatments Vs. Path Treatments

The methods that are used to attenuate aerodynamic control valve noise can be categorized
as either source treatments or path treatments. Common source and path treatments are
shown in Figure 107 and they are discussed below.
Figure 107
Source Versus Path Treatments Of Aerodynamic Noise
Source Treatments - The term source treatment refers to the measures that are
taken to actually reduce the amount of noise that is generated by the valve.
Source treatments address the cause of the noise, rather than the symptom.
As Illustrated in Figure 107, the most common source treatment is the
selection of special control valve trim that is designed to reduce the level of
noise that is generated in the valve and propagated through the downstream
piping. Because source treatments address the problem rather than the
symptom, Saudi Aramco typically prefers source treatments over path
treatments.
Path Treatments - The term path treatment refers to any measure that is taken
to prevent the noise that is generated within the valve and the piping from
reaching the environment. As shown in Figure 107, common examples of path
treatments include heavy-walled pipe, pipeline insulation, and equipment that is
inserted into the pipeline that reduces the intensity of the sound that reaches
the environment.

Valve Style Versus Noise Attenuation

Different valve styles (globe, angle, ball, butterfly) of the same capacity will produce
broadly differing levels of aerodynamic noise. When noise attenuation in a throttling
application is an objective, the selection of a globe or angle style valve is generally
recommended for the following reasons:
• Low efficiency valves (those with high Km or FL values) tend to limit the maximum
fluid velocity to a greater extent than high efficiency (ball and butterfly) valves.
• A broad range of special noise-abatement trims are routinely available for globe and
angle style valves whereas only a few noise-abatement options are available for rotary-
shaft (ball and butterfly) valves.
Body Options For Globe And Angle Valves

Valve bodies with enlarged flow areas and with expanded outlet connections are often used
to limit aerodynamic noise by reducing velocities. Refer to Figure 108. Enlarged bodies are
typically identified with a nomenclature such as “an 8x6 body”, indicating an 8-inch body
that includes 6-inch trim. A valve that is described as having a 6x8x8 body will have a 6-
inch inlet, an 8-inch nominal body size, and an 8-inch outlet connection.
Figure 108
Example Of An Expanded Flow Areas And Expanded Outlet Connection
Noise Abatement Trim Design Strategies

Reducing Sound Power Levels - Most noise-abatement valve trims are designed
to separate the flowing fluid into many small flow streams. The division of the
large free jet into many small fluid streams reduces the scale of the shock cell
shear and the intensity of the consequent noise. The strategy of breaking the
fluid stream into several small streams is effective because of the relationships
between port area, sound power, and the sound pressure level. These
relationships are illustrated in Figure 109.
Flow Flow

For Flow
WA ∝ WB ∝ 8

Sound 2 x WB,
LpA(A) LpA(B)
Figure 109
Capacity, Sound Power, And LpA For Single Port And Multi-Port Valve Trim
Minimizing Shock Cell Interaction - In order to preserve the benefits of breaking

the free jet (the flow stream that enters the valve) into many small streams, the
individual streams must not be allowed to recombine after exiting the trim.
Figure 110 shows that the streams grow and recombine as the pressure drop
ratio increases. If the streams recombine after exiting the trim, the noise levels
will increase. Figure 110 also shows two methods of preserving stream
separation.
• The use of smaller passages in the trim.
• Increased separation of the individual passages.

Figure 110
Shock Cell Interaction
Shifting Frequencies - Another benefit of multiple-passage trims is that the

frequency of the sound that is generated by each small hole is much higher
than the frequency of the sound that would be generated by a single large
passage. The frequency is often shifted to a frequency that is much greater
than the pipe coincident frequency; therefore, much of total noise that is
generated in the valve does not couple to the pipewall and it is not radiated to
the environment. Refer to Figure 111.

Figure 111
Valve Noise Frequency Versus The SPL That Is Transmitted To The
Environment
Commonly Available Noise Abatement Valve Options
Slotted Cages - Many manufacturers offer noise abatement trim that is based on
a slotted cage design. Figure 112 shows a typical slotted cage that is similar to
the Fisher Whisper Trim I design. The slots separate the fluid stream and
reduce the amount of flow turbulence, thereby reducing the level of noise that
is generated as the fluid flows through the cage passages.

Figure 112
Slotted Cage
Parallel Hole, Radial Flow Trims - Noise-abatement cages that are based on a
parallel hole, radial flow design are commonly available. Valtek’s MegaStream
trim is shown in Figure 113 and Fisher Control’s Whisper Trim III cage design
is shown in Figure 114. To ensure that the small flow streams remain
separated as the fluid exits the cage, trim is typically available with various
hole sizes and hole spacing dimensions. In addition, the flow may be directed
through several stages of drilled hole components.

Figure 113
Valtek’s MegaStream Cage Design
Figure 114
Fisher Control’s Whisper Trim III Cage Design
Tortuous Path Trims - The prime objective of noise-abatement trims that are
based on tortuous path designs is to introduce frictional losses that will reduce
the velocity of the fluid as it passes through the trim. Control Components’
Drag trim is shown in Figure 115 and Valtek’s TigerTooth trim is shown in
Figure 116.

Figure 115
CCI’s Drag Trim Design
Figure 116
Valtek’s TigerTooth Trim
Axial Flow Trims - The axial flow valve and trim design that is shown in Figure
117 includes a multiple-step plug and seat design. Because of the relatively

large flow passages through the trim, this trim design is well suited to the
control of gasses that include entrained solids. This design is unique to
Masoneilan’s 77000 series LO-DB product.
Figure 117
Masoneilan’s 77000 Series LO-DB Trim Design
Characterizing Noise Abatement Trim

In many applications, excessive noise may be generated at one flow condition, moderate
noise may be generated at another flow condition, and, entirely acceptable levels of noise
may be generated at yet another flow condition. If a cage with small holes and wide hole
spacing is selected to ensure adequate noise attenuation at the worst-case flow condition, a
very large valve size may be required to achieve the needed flow capacity.
A characterized cage is often a viable option to the selection of a larger valve. As shown in
Figure 118, characterization is accomplished by designing a cage that provides the
appropriate balance of noise attenuation and flow capacity that is needed over the rated
travel of the valve. For example, if considerable noise attenuation is needed at the minimum
flow condition, small, widely spaced holes may be located near the seat. If only moderate
noise attenuation is needed at mid-travel positions, larger holes with a wider spacing may
provide the needed noise attenuation while providing additional flow capacity. In some
applications, the chief concern at the maximum flow condition is flow capacity rather than

noise attenuation. To achieve the needed capacity, the holes in the upper portion of the cage
may be large and closely spaced.
Characterized cages are designed for specific application requirements. To enable the design
of an optimally characterized cage, specifiers must provide the valve manufacturer with the
pressure and flow conditions for as many operating points as possible
Figure 118
Characterized Noise Abatement Cage Design
Common Selection Problems And Specification Errors
Absence Of Industry Standards For Noise Prediction Equations

The prediction and abatement of control valve noise is an area for which there are few
universally accepted standards. As a result, specifiers must remain aware of the
ramifications of the broadly varying methods that are used to predict aerodynamic noise and
of the valve vendor’s interests in winning bid awards on the basis of low cost.
Vendor Tendency To Under-Predict Noise - Although most manufacturer’s noise
prediction techniques are based on sound engineering principles and up-to-
date acoustic theories, it is only logical that any method of noise prediction
would include an accuracy limit of at least plus or minus 5 dBA. However, it is
in the manufacturer’s best interest to be as optimistic as possible; i.e.,
manufacturers may take advantage of rounding, push the performance limits of
specific valves, employ prediction techniques other than their published
techniques, or calculate the SPL at working distances rather than at standard
distances.

Limited User Ability To Evaluate Submitted Bids - Most noise prediction

techniques include some factors for which the derivation is known only to the
manufacturer. As a result, there is no common basis for evaluating all the
various prediction methods or the amount of noise attenuation that is provided
by various noise abatement trim options. Confidence in a particular
manufacturer’s claims can only be gained through experience.
Specifier's Failure To Identify Worst Case Service Conditions

In order for vendors to submit bids for products that will provide the desired noise
attenuation, specifiers must provide complete and accurate data and they must fully
document the worst-case service conditions.
Worst-Case Scenarios - To ensure proper performance, specifiers must define all
worst case scenarios. Worst-case scenarios for noise generation include the
conditions that occur during startup, during shutdown, during emergency
situations, and during periods of increased or decreased throughput.
Changes In Service Conditions
Because of changes in process design, changes in daily throughput, or

changes in fluid composition, the valve SPL can change dramatically.
Whenever possible, specifiers should anticipate such changes in operating
conditions and provide all pertinent data.

Work Aid 1: Fluid Compatibility Information That Is Used To S elect Control

Valves For Corrosive Fluid Applications
Work Aid 1A: NACE Compliant Materials Of Construction
Remarks/
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Work Aid 1B: Recommended Materials Of Construction For Seawater And Brine
Services





Work Aid 1C: Valve And Material Selection Guidelines For Amine (DGA) Letdown
Applications
Refer to the following:
• The compatibility table (Table I) that is located in SAES-L-008.
• Fisher Controls PS Sheet 59:042(A) Application Guideline - Rich Amine Letdown Valve
(located in the Addendum of This Module).

Work Aid 2: Hierarchical Listings Of Erosion Resistant Valve Styles And

Construction Materials
Work Aid 2A: Hierarchy Of Erosion Resistant Valve Styles That Is Used To Select
Control Valves For Erosive Fluid Applications
Valve Comme
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Work Aid 2B: Hierarchies Of Erosion Resistant Body And Trim Materials That Are Used
To Select Control Valves For Erosive Fluid Applications
Hierarchy Of Erosion Resistant Body Materials
Remarks

A standard
m
a
t
e
r
i
a
l
.
M
a
y
b
e
s
e
l
e
c
t
e
d
f
o
r
m
i
l
d
l
y
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r
o
s
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v
e
a
p
p
l
i
c
a
t
i
Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards 258 o
n
s
Much
g
r
e
a
t
e
r
e
r
o
s
i
o
n
r
e
s
i
s
t
a
n
c
e
t
h
a
n
c
a
r
b
o
n
s
t
e
e
l

Superior
e
r
o
s
i
o
n
r
e
s
i
s
t
a
n
c
e
i
n
f
l
a
s
h
i
n
g
a
p
p
l
i
c
a
t
i
o
n
s
Hierarchy Of Erosion Resistant Trim Materials

Remarks
Good corrosion
resis
tanc
e
but,
in its
basi
c
form
,
offer
s
little
erosi
on
resis
tanc
e.

Typically heat-
treat
ed to
HRC
38.
Goo
d
erosi
on
resis
tanc
e but
lack
s
gene
ral
corr
osio
n
resis
tanc
e.

Typically heat-
treat
ed
usin
g
H10
75
(HR
C
32)
for
stan
dard
servi
ce
and
with
H11
50
(HR
C
33)
for
NAC
E.
Goo
d
stren
gth,
hard
ness
, and
erosi
on
resis
tanc
e.

Hardfacing on
plug
tips,
plug
guidi
ng
surfa
ces,
and
seat
rings
provi
des
exce
llent
resis
tanc
e to
erosi
on
and
corr
osio
n.

Can be
hard
ened
to
56-
60
HRC
.
Very
hard
and
erosi
on
resis
tant
in
non-
corr
osiv
e
appli
catio
ns.
such
as
boile
r
feed
wate
r
and
stea
m.
Very
susc
eptib
le to
SCC
.

Very tough
mate
rial
with
supe
rior
erosi
on
resis
tanc
e.
Corr
odes
rapid
ly in
the
pres
ence
of
som
e
boile
r
feed
wate
r
corr
osio
n
inhib
itors
(hyd
razin
es).

Superior
erosi
on
and
wear
resis
tanc
e;
how
ever,
the
bind
ers
that
hold
the
tung
sten
carbi
de
are
susc
eptib
le to
corr
osio
n in
som
e
appli
catio
ns
inclu
ding
hydr
azin
e-
treat
ed
boile
r
feed
wate
r
and
amm
onia.

Unequaled
erosi
on
resis
tanc
e
with
good
corr
osio
n
resis
tanc
e;
sele
cted
for
extre
mely
erosi
ve
appli
catio
ns.

Work Aid 3: Procedures That Are Used To Select Control Valve Options
For High Temperature Fluid Applications
Body And Bonnet Material Selection

Refer to any source of ANSI pressure/temperature ratings for bodies and bonnets. One
source is Fisher Specification Bulletin 59.1:021.
Trim Material Selection

Refer to the appropriate specification bulletin and locate the manufacturers
recommendations for trim packages that are compatible with the body and bonnet material.
Select trim that is rated for the maximum operating temperature. Also ensure that the trim
will provide the necessary resistance to corrosion and erosion.
Gasket Material Selection

Refer to the manufacturers temperature ratings for both flat sheet gaskets and spiral wound
gaskets.
Packing Material Selection

Refer to Section 4.1.5 of SAES-J-700 for packing material guidelines. Standard PTFE is to
be selected for temperatures up to 400 degrees F. Above 400 degrees F, graphite packing
materials are to be selected.
Bonnet Type Selection

Refer to Section 4.1.5 of SAES-J-700 for bonnet selection guidelines. At temperatures above
400 degrees F, extended bonnets are to be considered.
Thermal Cycling Considerations

Observe all notes in the manufacturer’s product literature. In general, the following are to be
avoided:
• Threaded bonnets
• Threaded seat rings
In addition, the materials of construction of spiral wound gaskets should be closely
evaluated.

Work Aid 4: Procedures That Are Used To Select And Size Control Valves
For Cavitating Fluid Applications
Work Aid 4A: Procedures That Are Used To Perform Basic Selection And Sizing With
The Use Of Control Component’s Inc. Sizing Software
Preliminary Entries
1. Change to the appropriate directory. The default is c:\cci.
2. Launch the program by typing the name of the executive file: VALSIZ.
3. When prompted to select a method of data input option, select Enter New Data.
4. When prompted for a run descriptor, enter any appropriate name.
5. When prompted to select a valve style, select the desired valve type.
6. When prompted to enter a pipe geometry factor option, select Computer To Calculate.
Enter the upstream pipe size. Enter the downstream pipe size.
7. When prompted to select a nominal valve size option, select Computer To Calculate.
8. When prompted to select a noise option, select Noise Level Not Calculated.
9. When prompted to select a percent over-capacity margin, enter 10 percent.
10. When prompted, enter the number of flow conditions.
Entering Fluid Properties And Service Conditions

Note: The procedures in this section will be repeated for each flow condition.
1. When prompted, enter the inlet pressure and select the appropriate units.
2. When prompted, enter the outlet pressure and select the appropriate units.
3. When prompted, select the fluid type.
4. When prompted, enter the fluid temperature, select the appropriate units, and very the
fluid state.
5. When prompted, select either volumetric or mass flow units. Enter the flow rate and
select the units for the flow rate.
Repeat items 1 through 5 immediately above for each flow condition.
Design Information
1. When prompted, enter the design pressure (the shutoff pressure) and select the
appropriate units.
2. When prompted, enter the design temperature (a temperature that will provide some
safety margin; e.g., a temperature that is 25 percent higher than the normal operating
temperature. Select the appropriate units.
Change Menu
The change menu displays all the information that has been entered. As the change menu
screens are displayed for review, the specifier may select entries to change by placing the
cursor on the entry to be changed and, then, pressing the space bar. When all of the change

menu screens have been displayed, the items that have been selected will be listed and they
can be changed at that time.
Calculation Results
1. After all changes have been made, several screens display the results of the sizing
calculations.
2. The first screen shows the valve Cv that is required. Other valve indices and ANSI Class
body rating information is also displayed.
3. The screen that is titled “Trim Exit Velocity Analysis” lists the trim outlet velocities for
various trims. The trim that will provide an outlet velocity that is less than 100 feet per
second will be indicated by color coding.
4. The next several screens display the results of the calculations for each of the service
conditions. The number of turns that are required to prevent cavitation damage at that
flow condition are shown on each screen.
5. When prompted to view application information, select NO.
6. When prompted to select an option to proceed, select the appropriate response.
Work Aid 4B: Procedures That Are Used To Perform Basic Selection And Sizing With
The Use Of Valtek’s Sizing Software
Preliminary Entries
1. Change to the appropriate directory. The default is c:\valtek.
2. Launch the program by typing the name of the executive file: QQ.
3. When prompted, select Valve Sizing.
Project Identification
The entries in the boxed area in the upper right corner of the screen identify the project.
They are optional entries. For the purpose of these exercises, press the cursor down arrow
until the cursor is on the first entry field of the boxed area on the left hand side of the screen.
Valve Selection
To identify the selected valve style and options, move the cursor with the use of the up
arrow and the down arrow. For each entry field, a sub-menu will appear on the screen.
Select the option that is desired by typing the number that precedes the option.
Valve Sizing
1. Press either the F2 key or the Page Down key to display the valve sizing.
2. Enter the appropriate values in all the entry fields that are highlighted. Entries are not
required for the fields that are titled Required Cv.
3. To select the fluid, move the cursor to the entry field that is titled “Fluid” and, then, press
the space bar. Select the appropriate fluid from the list.
4. Press the F3 key to calculate the valve size information. A description of the selected
valve is displayed in the lower left hand corner of the screen.

To exit the program, press the F10 key several times and follow the instructions that are
given in the prompt.

Work Aid 4C: Procedures That Are Used To Perform Basic Selection And Sizing With
The Use Of Fisher Control’s Sizing Program
Preliminary Entries
1. Change to the appropriate directory. The default is c:\fsp.
2. Launch the program by typing the name of the executive file: FSP. When the title screen
appears, press the Enter key.
3. From the menu that appears, select Valve.
4. From the menu that appears, select Fisher Water.
5. From the menu that appears, select Valve Sizing and LpA.
Setting Options
Press the F3 key and ensure that the options are set as follows:
Solve for Cg, Cs, or Cv.
LpA (SPL) OFF
Cavitation Check ON
Calculate SG
Pipe Size/Sched
Warnings ON
To change an option, place the cursor on the option and press enter. When all options have
been set, press the ESCAPE key to return to the program.
Data Entry And Sizing Calculations

1. Enter the appropriate data in the Service Conditions portion of the screen.
2. Enter the appropriate data in the Valve Specifications portion of the screen.
To determine the value of Km for the initially selected valve, locate the Fisher Catalog
10 page for the initially selected valve. Browse through the Km values that are listed and
select a typical value. Enter this value.
To determine the value of Kc for the initially selected trim, refer to the Help Screens by
performing the following procedures:
Press the F1 key twice to view an index of Help Screens.

Press the "K" key to navigate to the topics that begin with the letter 'K'.
Select "Kc Table" from the index of topics
Press the PAGE DOWN key until the Help Screens for the selected valve is displayed.
Determine the value of Kc.
Press the Escape key to return to the sizing screen.
Enter the value of Kc.

3. Press the F2 key to calculate and display the valve sizing information.
4. To enter data for the minimum flow condition and for the maximum flow conditions, the
data that has been entered for the normal flow condition can be copied. To copy data
from the normal flow screen to the minimum or maximum flow screens, perform the
following:
• Press the ESCAPE key.
• With the use of the left arrow key or the right arrow key, move the cursor to the
condition to which values are to be copied.
• Press and hold the ALT key, and, then, press the C key.
• Enter the number of the flow condition that is to be copied to the selected flow
condition.
• To copy the information to the new condition and to view the calculation
screen, press the ENTER key.
• Change the sizing inputs that are different for this flow condition
(P1, dP, and Q).
• Press the F2 key to calculate the sizing information.

Display The Calculated Results

Press the F9 key to display a table of calculated values. Ensure that the valve Kc is greater
than the value of Ar. If the value of Ar is greater than the Kc of the selected valve, select a
valve trim with a higher value of Kc and repeat the sizing procedures.

Work Aid 5: Guidelines For Valve Style And Material Selection And
Procedures That Are Used To Size Control Valves For
Flashing Fluid Applications
Work Aid 5A: Procedures That Are Used To Size Control Valves For Flashing Fluid
Applications
1. Ensure the values that are given as the fluid properties and the service conditions are
accurate. A slight error in these values can cause an application to be erroneously
interpreted as flashing, cavitating, or neither flashing or cavitating.
2. Because flashing is usually accompanied by choked flow, the valve sizing pressure drop
must be limited to the lesser of the ∆Pactual or the ∆Pchoked . The equation for calculating
choked flow is:
∆Pallow = FL2(P1-rcPv)
where:
∆Pallow the maximum pressure drop that is effective in producing flow
FL ISA nomenclature for the control valve recovery coefficient.

Fisher nomenclature is Km where Km = FL2.
P1 Upstream fluid pressure.
rc The critical pressure ratio; 0.96-0.28(Pv/Pc) where Pv is the

fluid’s vapor pressure and Pc is the fluid’s critical pressure.
Pv The fluid’s vapor pressure.
Work Aid 5B: Guidelines For Valve Style And Material Selection That Are Used To
Select Control Valves For Flashing Fluid Applications
Valve Style Selection Guidelines

1. For flashing fluid applications, specifiers should select control valve styles according to
same guidelines that are applied to erosive flows. Refer to Work Aid 2A of this Module.
2. Because flashing tends to occur downstream of the control valve, specifiers should
consider the use of outlet liners.
3. If flashing and cavitation can occur in the same valve, specifiers should avoid multi-
stage anti-cavitation trim if possible. Interstage flashing can damage multi-stage anti-
cavitation trim.
Body and Trim Material Selection Guidelines

1. For flashing fluid applications, specifiers should select control valve materials of
construction according to same guidelines that are applied to erosive flows. Refer to
Work Aid 2B of this Module.
2. Materials of construction must also be selected on the basis of their compatibility with
the process fluid (corrosion resistance) and on the basis of their temperature ratings.
Other Considerations
1. If outlet liners are not available, a spool piece of heavy, sacrificial piping can be installed
downstream of the control valve.
2. In some instances, flashing can be avoided by changing the system design parameters.
Any change in system design that will help to maintain the value of Pvc above the value
of Pv should be pursued.
3. If the valve discharges to a tank or vessel, it may be possible to mount the valve directly
on the tank and direct the flashing into the vessel where it will not cause damage.
Specifiers should consult with system design personnel to ensure the feasibility of this
approach.

Work Aid 6: Procedures That Are Used To Select And Size Control Valves
To Attenuate Aerodynamic Control Valve Noise
Work Aid 6A: Procedures That Are Used To Select And Size Noise Attenuating Control
Valves With The Fisher Sizing Program
Preliminary Entries
1. Change to the appropriate directory. The default is c:\fsp.
2. Launch the program by typing the name of the executive file: FSP. When the title screen
appears, press the Enter key.
3. From the menu that appears, select Valve.
4. From the menu that appears, select Fisher Vapor.
5. From the menu that appears, select Valve Sizing and LpA.
Setting Options
Press the F3 key and ensure that the options are set as follows:
Solve for Cg, Cs, or Cv.
LpA (SPL) ON
Pipe Size/Sched
Warnings ON
Diffuser: Manual Sizing

To change an option, place the cursor on the option and press enter. When all options have
been set, press the ESCAPE key to return to the program.
Data Entry And Sizing Calculations

1. Enter the appropriate data in the Service Conditions portion of the screen.
2. Under the heading Valve Specifications, enter an estimated value of C1 for the selected
valve type. An estimated value of C1 may be determined by browsing through the C1
column on the Fisher Catalog 10 page for the selected valve and identifying a value
of C1 that is typical for the type and size of the selected valve. Alternatively, many
specifiers perform initial sizing with the C1 values that are listed below.

Typical C 1 Values
That Are
Used For
Initial Sizing


3. With the cursor on Valve Type, press the F4 key and select the valve type from the
drop down menu.
4. Enter the pipe size and schedule.
5. Press the F2 key to calculate the valve sizing and noise prediction information.
6. To enter data for the minimum flow condition and for the maximum flow conditions,
the data that has been entered for the normal flow condition can be copied. To copy
data from the normal flow screen to the minimum or maximum flow screens, perform
the following:
a. Press the ESCAPE key.
b. With the use of the left arrow key or the right arrow key, move the cursor
to the condition to which values are to be copied.

c. Press and hold the ALT key, and, then, press the C key.
d. Enter the number of the flow condition that is to be copied to the

selected flow condition.
e. To copy the information to the new condition and to view the calculation
screen, press the ENTER key.
f. Change the sizing inputs that are different for this flow condition
(P1, dP, and Q).
g. Press the F2 key to calculate the sizing information.

Display The Calculated Results
Press the F9 key to display a table of calculated values.

Work Aid 6B: Procedures That Are Used To Select And Size Noise Attenuating Control
Valves With Control Components Sizing Software
Preliminary Entries
1. Change to the appropriate directory. The default is c:\cci.
2. Launch the program by typing the name of the executive file: VALSIZ.
3. When prompted to select a method of data input option, select Enter New Data.
4. When prompted for a run descriptor, enter any appropriate name.
5. When prompted to select a valve style, select the desired valve type.
6. When prompted to enter a pipe geometry factor option, select Computer To Calculate.
Enter the upstream pipe size. Enter the downstream pipe size.
7. When prompted to select a nominal valve size option, select Computer To Calculate.
8. When prompted to select a noise option, select User To Select Downstream Pipe.
9. When prompted to select a percent over-capacity margin, enter 10 percent.
10. When prompted, enter the number of flow conditions.
Entering Fluid Properties And Service Conditions

Note: The procedures in this section will be repeated for each flow condition.
When prompted, each of the values that is requested.
Design Information
1. When prompted, enter the design pressure (the shutoff pressure) and select the
appropriate units.
2. When prompted, enter the design temperature (a temperature that will provide some
safety margin; e.g., a temperature that is 25 percent higher than the normal operating
temperature. Select the appropriate units.

Change Menu
The change menu displays all the information that has been entered. As the change menu
screens are displayed for review, the specifier may select entries to change by placing the
cursor on the entry to be changed and, then, pressing the space bar. When all of the change
menu screens have been displayed, the items that have been selected will be listed and they
can be changed at that time.
Calculation Results
1. After all changes have been made, several screens display the results of the sizing
calculations. While viewing these screens, record the pertinent data.
2. When prompted to view application information, select NO.
3. When prompted to select an option to proceed, select the appropriate response.

GLOSSARY
∆ Pcav The pressure drop at which a particular valve will become
susceptible to cavitation damage.
A-weighting The adjustment to a sound pressure measurement that
compensates for the frequency sensitivity of the human ear.
aerodynamic noise The noise that is associated with high speed, turbulent gas
flows.
ambient noise The background sound pressure level of a given environment.
application ratio (Ar) The ratio of the system pressure drop to the pressure
differential between P1 and Pv that is used to provide an index
of the susceptibility of a system to cavitate.
austenitic A family of stainless steels that include 18 percent chromium
and 8 percent nickel.
cavitation In liquid service, the noisy and potentially damaging
phenomenon that accompanies vapor bubble formation and
collapse in the flowstream. Cavitation is most commonly
encountered in high pressure and high pressure drop services.
creep The loss of elasticity that occurs over time at elevated
temperatures.
crevice corrosion Corrosion that occurs in areas where access to oxygen is
restricted.
Cv see flow coefficient
dB see decibel
dBA A-weighted decibel
decibel A unit that expresses the ratio of two sound pressure levels;
i.e., 1 dB = 20 log10 Ps/Po, where Ps is the measured sound
pressure and Po is a reference pressure.
diffuser A noise abatement device that is essentially a downstream,
fixed restriction, the purpose of which is to reduce the pressure
drop across both the valve and the diffuser to reduce
aerodynamic noise.
dynamic unbalance The net force produced on the valve stem in any given open
position by the fluid pressure acting on the closure member
and stem within the pressure retaining boundary, with the
closure member at a stated opening and with stated flowing
conditions.
elasticity The ability of a material to return to its initial form after being
exposed to stress.
erosion The damage that results from the impingement of particles or
vapor droplets on critical valve surfaces.

erosion The damaging effects of flashing or abrasive media impinging

on component surfaces. Erosion may be forestalled with
hardened materials or with valve designs that separate the
flowstream from critical valve components.
erosion corrosion A form of corrosion that occurs when erosive particles erode
the protective passive layer and the base material is attacked
by the environment.
extension bonnet A bonnet with a packing box that is extended above the bonnet
joint of the valve body so as to maintain the temperature of the
packing above or below the temperature of the process fluid.
flashing Phenomenon observed in liquid service when the pressure of
the fluid falls below its vapor pressure and when it does not
recover to a pressure above the vapor pressure.
flow characteristic Indefinite term, see inherent flow characteristic and installed
flow characteristic
flow coefficient A constant (Cv), related to the geometry of a valve, for a given
valve opening, that can be used to predict flow rate. See
ANSI/ISA S75.01 "Control Valve Sizing Equations" and
ANSI/ISA S75.02 "Control Valve Capacity Test Procedure".
(The number of U.S. gallons of water at 60 degree F that will
flow through a valve with a one pound per square inch
pressure drop in one minute.)
fluid Substance in a liquid, gas, or vapor state.
frequency spectrum A plot of sound pressure level versus frequency.
Hertz The measure of frequency, or cycles per second.
high-recovery valve A valve design that, due to streamlined internal contours and
minimal flow turbulence, dissipates relatively little flow-stream
energy.
hydrodynamic noise The noise that is associated with cavitation. It sounds like
gravel flowing through the valve and associated piping.
IEC International Electrotechnical Commission
incipient cavitation The onset of cavitation, observed when the first vapor cavities
begin to form in the liquid stream.
inherent flow The relationship between the flow rate through a valve and the
characteristic travel of the closure member as the closure member is moved
from the closed position to rated travel with constant pressure
drop across the valve.
installed flow The relationship between the flow rate through a valve and the
characteristic travel of the closure member as the closure member is moved
from the closed position to rated travel when the pressure drop
across the valve varies as influenced by the system in which
the valve is installed.

intergranular corrosion A form of corrosion that occurs along the grain boundaries of a
material as a result of sensitization.
ISA Instrument Society of America.
Kc Control valve damage index that is used to describe a control
valve's relative susceptibility (due to its pressure recovery
characteristics and its materials of construction) to cavitation
damage.
Km The pressure recovery coefficient for a control valve. Km is
determined by valve manufacturers and published in sizing
catalogs. Km is used to calculate the ∆Pallow (choked flow
pressure drop) for valve sizing purposes. The value of Km may
also be used to predict cavitation damage.
line source A noise source from which equal noise levels are measured on
an imaginary cylinder with the line source as the axis of the
imaginary cylinder. A pipeline is a typical line source.
low-recovery valve A valve design that dissipates, due to the turbulence that is
created by the contours of the flow path, a considerable
amount of flowstream energy.
LpA An A-weighted sound pressure level; see sound pressure.
mach number The ratio of the fluid speed to the speed of sound in the fluid at
the local conditions.
martensitic A family of stainless steels that includes 12 percent chromium.
microjets Microscopic, high velocity fluid streams produced as a result
of vapor bubble collapse in cavitating liquids.
Micropascal A unit of pressure measurement for very small pressures. One
micropascal is equal to 10-6 Newton/m2.
NACE National Association of Corrosion Engineers.
noise Any sound that is considered unpleasant or unwanted. The
sound that is generated by the fluid leaving the control valve is
considered noise because of its intensity and because of its
high-frequency, broad-band spectrum.
octave band One of the established frequency groupings in which the
highest frequency in the grouping is twice the lowest (such as
the band 2000 to 4000 Hertz). Frequencies are grouped so that
filters can be constructed to measure the sound pressure level
over the bandwidth.
outgassing The action of dissolved gasses coming out of solution as a
result of pressure reduction or agitation.
passive layer A naturally occurring deposit of tough, adherent oxides that
form on the surface of a material.

point source A noise source from which equal noise levels are measured on
an imaginary sphere, the center of which is the point source. A
vent is a typical point source.
Pv The vapor pressure of a fluid.
Pvc Pressure at the vena contracta.
rebound The successive collapse, regrowth, and collapse of vapor
bubbles in a cavitating liquid.
recovery A relative term that describes the difference in pressure
between the valve vena contracta and the downstream system.
restricted trim* Control valve trim which has a flow are less than the full flow
area for that valve.
SCC Stress corrosion cracking.
sensitization A process in which exposure to high temperature causes
corrosion resistant alloys to precipitate out of the material
matrix, leaving a zone at the grain boundary that is not
protected from corrosion attack.
silencer A device that removes acoustic energy from the flow stream.
There are two methods of silencer construction. The
dissipative or packed silencer removes the acoustic energy by
dissipating it into heat in the sound absorbing material lining
the structure. The reactive or packless silencer provides an
impedance mismatch to the acoustic energy such that the
acoustic energy is reflected back to the source and prevented
from traveling downstream.
sound An auditory sensation that is caused by pressure oscillations in
the ambient atmosphere due to the vibration that is created in
an elastic medium by a change in pressure, stress, or
displacement.
sound intensity The average rate of sound power that is transmitted in a
specified direction through a unit area.
sound level meter An instrument that includes a microphone, an amplifier, an
output meter, and usually frequency weighting networks for
the measurement of sound pressure.
sound power The measurement of total sound energy per unit of time that
radiates from a source. No meters are available to directly
measure sound power.
sound pressure The force per unit area that is caused by a sound wave.
source The media where vibration is created due to a change in its
pressure, stress, or displacement.
SPL Sound pressure level, generally expressed in terms of dB or
dBA. SPL is being replaced by the term LpA.
SSC Sulfide stress cracking

thermal cycling Descriptive of a process in which the operating temperature

repeatedly cycles over an arbitrary but broad range of
temperatures.
trim The internal parts of a valve which are in flowing contact with
the controlled fluid.
trim, anti-cavitation Trim that is specifically designed to eliminate or reduce
cavitation and cavitation damage in a control valve. Common
designs stage the total pressure drop across one or several
specially designed restrictions.
vapor pressure (Pv) The pressure at which a given liquid begins to vaporize, given
a constant temperature.
vena contracta The location where the cross-sectional area of the flowstream
is at its minimum size, where fluid velocity is at its maximum
value, and where local fluid pressure is at its lowest value. The
vena contracta normally occurs downstream of the actual
physical restriction in a control valve.

ADDENDUM
Composition, Characteristics, And Typical Uses For Common Control Valve Materials
Fisher Controls PS Sheet 59:042(A) - Applications Guideline - Rich Amine Letdown Valve

Specifying Control Valves

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