Engineering Encyclopedia Chapter on Sizing Control Valves

Engineering Encyclopedia
Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards
Sizing Control Valves For

Two Phase Flows,Fluids With
Dissolved Gasses, And Hydrocarbon Mixtures
Note: The source of the technical material in this volume is the Professional
Engineering Development Program (PEDP) of Engineering Services.
Warning: The material contained in this document was developed for Saudi
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employees. Any material contained in this document which is not
already in the public domain may not be copied, reproduced, sold, given,
or disclosed to third parties, or otherwise used in whole, or in part,
without the written permission of the Vice President, Engineering
Services, Saudi Aramco.
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File Reference: PCI20403 E. W. Reah on 875-0426
Engineering Encyclopedia Instrumentation
Sizing Control Valves for 2 Phase
Flows, Fluids with Dissolved Gasses, etc.
CONTENTS PAGES
BASICS OF FLUID THERMODYNAMIC BEHAVIOR, ASSUMPTIONS FOR

CONTROL VALVE SIZING MODELS, AND CONTROL VALVE SIZING EQUATIONS ...... 1
Basics of Fluid Thermodynamic Behavior....................................................................... 1

Pressure-Enthalpy Phase Diagrams .................................................................... 1
Axis Identification.............................................................................................. 1
Chart Data .......................................................................................................... 3
Phase Dome And Fluid States ............................................................................ 3
Lines Of Constant Temperature ......................................................................... 4
Change In Enthalpy............................................................................................ 5
Lines Of Constant Entropy................................................................................. 6
Lines Of Specific Volume .................................................................................. 7
Critical Point ...................................................................................................... 8
Assumptions For Control Valve Sizing Models .............................................................. 9
Importance Of Identifying Conditions At The Control Valve Vena
Contracta ............................................................................................................ 9
Assumptions Concerning Entropy That Are Used In Control Valve Sizing..... 10
Assumptions Concerning Enthalpy That Are Used In Control Valve Sizing ...11
Gas Flow Example ........................................................................................... 13
Liquid Flow Example....................................................................................... 15
Control Valve Sizing Equations..................................................................................... 16
Fluid States For Which The Standard ISA Sizing Equations Are Applicable ..16
Fluid States That Require Special Sizing Techniques ...................................... 17

SIZING CONTROL VALVES FOR TWO PHASE FLOWS ...................................................... 18
Types Of Two Phase Flows And Implications For Valve Sizing ...................................18
Types Of Two Phase Flows.............................................................................. 18
Implications For Valve Sizing.......................................................................... 19
Two-Phase Flow Sizing Assumptions And Sizing Methods.......................................... 20
Best Case Assumptions: Homogenous Mixture ............................................... 20
ISA Standard S75.01 ........................................................................................ 20
Fisher Methods For Sizing Control Valves For Two-Phase Flows ................................ 20
Overview Of The Two-Phase Sizing Procedure ............................................... 20
Determining Flow Rates At The Valve Inlet .................................................... 24
Unique Problems For Vapor/Liquid Flows ...................................................... 25
Computer Sizing Two Phase Flows ............................................................................... 26
Method Selection Criteria ................................................................................ 26
Inputs To The Vapor/Liquid Two-Phase Sizing Method .................................27
Calculated Results With The Vapor/Liquid Two-Phase Sizing Method .......... 28
Differences Between The Vapor/Liquid Method And The Gas/Liquid
Method ............................................................................................................. 29
SIZING CONTROL VALVES FOR FLUIDS WITH DISSOLVED GASSES ........................... 30
Mechanics Of Outgassing And Implications For Valve Sizing...................................... 30

Dissolved Gas Defined..................................................................................... 30
Mechanics Of Outgassing ................................................................................ 30
Outgassing Versus Flashing ............................................................................. 31
Outgassing Versus Cavitation .......................................................................... 32
Indicators Of The Presence Of Dissolved Gasses............................................. 32
Implications For Valve Sizing.......................................................................... 34

Bracketing Approach To Valve Sizing For Dissolved Gas Applications ....................... 35

General Concept............................................................................................... 35
Calculating The Minimum Valve Size ............................................................. 36
Calculating Maximum Valve Size.................................................................... 37
Evaluation Of The Minimum And Maximum C v Calculations ....................... 38
Valve Style Selection Guidelines ..................................................................... 38
SIZING CONTROL VALVES FOR HYDROCARBON MIXTURES ....................................... 39
Introduction ................................................................................................................... 39
Unique Sizing Problems With Liquid Mixtures............................................................. 39
Multiple Pressure-Enthalpy Diagrams.............................................................. 39
Defining Fluid Properties ................................................................................. 40
Common Anomalies In The Values Of Fluid Properties ..................................42
Sensitivity Of Sizing Calculations To Accurate Fluid Properties ..................... 43
Liquid Mixture Sizing Techniques ................................................................................ 44
When Pv<Pc<P1 .............................................................................................. 44
When P1=Pv<Pc .............................................................................................. 45
When P1>Pv>Pc .............................................................................................. 46
When P1=Pv>Pc .............................................................................................. 47
Features And Limitations Of The Sizing Techniques....................................... 48
Gas Mixture Sizing ........................................................................................................ 49
Review Of Ideal Gasses And Real Gasses........................................................ 49
Determining The Value Of Z For Gas Mixtures............................................... 52
Computer Sizing .............................................................................................. 54
Seeking Assistance ........................................................................................................ 55

WORK AID 1: PROCEDURES FOR THE USE OF THE TWO-PHASE SIZING OPTION
OF THE FISHER SIZING PROGRAM ...................................................................................... 56
Work Aid 1A: Procedures That Are Used To Size Control Valves For Vapor/Liquid
Flows ............................................................................................................................. 56
Work Aid 1B: Procedures That Are Used To Size Control Valves For Gas/Liquid
Flows ............................................................................................................................. 58
WORK AID 2: PROCEDURES FOR THE USE OF A BRACKETING TECHNIQUE

THAT IS USED TO SIZE CONTROL VALVES FOR FLUIDS WITH DISSOLVED
GASSES ...................................................................................................................................... 60
WORK AID 3: GUIDELINES FOR ADJUSTING THE VALUES OF FLUID

PROPERTIES THAT ARE USED TO SIZE CONTROL VALVES FOR HYDROCARBON
MIXTURES.................................................................................................................................62
Work Aid 3A: Guidelines That Are Used To Size Control Valves For Hydrocarbon
Liquid Mixtures ............................................................................................................. 62
Work Aid 3B: Guidelines That Are Used To Size Control Valves For Hydrocarbon
Gas Mixtures.................................................................................................................. 63
GLOSSARY ................................................................................................................................ 64

BASICS OF FLUID THERMODYNAMIC BEHAVIOR, ASSUMPTIONS FOR CONTROL VALVE

SIZING MODELS, AND CONTROL VALVE SIZING EQUATIONS
Basics of Fluid Thermodynamic Behavior
Pressure-Enthalpy Phase Diagrams

A pressure-enthalpy diagram (see Figure 1) is useful in predicting the behavior of a specific fluid as it passes
through a control valve. A unique phase diagram is available for most common fluids; e.g., methane, ethane,
pentane, carbon dioxide, water, etc.. The pressure-enthalpy diagram enables the specifier to determine whether
a fluid is a liquid, a gas, or a two-phase fluid. The phase diagram that is shown in Figure 1 is taken from the
GPSA (Gas Processors Suppliers Association) Handbook.
Axis Identification
Pressure - The fluid pressure in psia is listed on the ordinate.
Enthalpy - The enthalpy, H, is shown on the abscissa. Enthalpy is defined as the heat contained in the
fluid. Enthalpy is often measured in Btu/lb.
Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards 1

Use Word 6.0c or later to
view Macintosh picture.
Figure 1
Pressure-Enthalpy Diagram For Methane

Chart Data
The information that is included on the pressure-enthalpy chart that is shown in Figure 1 includes the following:
• Lines of constant temperature, T, degrees F
• Lines of constant entropy, S, [(Btu/lb) (degrees R)]
• Lines of specific volume, V, cu ft/lb
Phase Dome And Fluid States

The simplified plot that is shown in Figure 2 shows the two-phase dome. The dome serves to separate distinct
regions of the plot that define whether a fluid is a liquid, a gas, a two-phase fluid, or a supercritical fluid.
Figure 2
Two-Phase Dome And Fluid States

Lines Of Constant Temperature

The simplified plot that is shown in Figure 3 includes lines of constant temperature. Notice that when a
temperature line intersects the phase dome, the line moves horizontally across the two-phase dome.
Figure 3
Simplified Phase Diagram With Lines Of Constant Temperature

Change In Enthalpy
To better understand the effect of a change in the heat content of a fluid, (a change in enthalpy), refer to Figure
4 and the discussion that follows.
Figure 4
Relationship Of Temperature And Enthalpy
A. At point A, the fluid is at some defined inlet pressure, temperature, and enthalpy.
B. As heat is added under conditions of constant pressure, the fluid temperature increases from point A to
point B. When the temperature increases to the point where the temperature line intersects the saturated
liquid line of the two-phase dome (point B), the liquid begins to vaporize.
C. As additional heat is added, the fluid temperature remains constant but more vapor is produced in the
mixture.
D. When the saturated vapor line is reached (point C) , no liquid remains and the fluid is a gas or vapor.
E. As additional heat is added, the fluid temperature increases (points D and E).

Lines Of Constant Entropy

Figure 5 includes several lines of constant entropy (S). Entropy is defined as the permanent and irreversible
change in the amount of available energy. A change in energy is often caused by friction. A process in which
no energy is given up is referred to as isentropic (entropy remains constant). Note that the isentropic lines (lines
of constant entropy) pass through the two-phase dome.
Figure 5
Simplified Phase Diagram With Lines Of Constant Entropy

Lines Of Specific Volume

Figure 6 includes several lines of specific volume (V). Specific volume is given in terms of cubic volume per a
unit of mass; e.g., cubic feet per pound. Specific volume is the inverse of fluid density; i.e.:
Density (pounds per cubic feet) = 1/V
Figure 6
Simplified Phase Diagram With Lines Of Specific Volume

Critical Point
The critical point is defined as the temperature and pressure at which the liquid and vapor specific volumes, or
densities, become equal. As shown in Figure 7, the critical point is determined by the intersection of the fluid’s
critical pressure and its critical temperature. It is impossible to identify supercritical fluids as a liquid or a vapor;
accordingly, they have been referred to as ‘dense gasses’ or ‘compressible liquids’. Supercritical fluids can
present unique challenges for the valve specifier.
Figure 7
Critical Point Defined By The Critical Pressure And The Critical Temperature

Assumptions For Control Valve Sizing Models
Importance Of Identifying Conditions At The Control Valve Vena Contracta

Pressure-enthalpy diagrams are useful in predicting fluid behavior as the fluid passes through a control valve.
However, one must make some assumptions concerning fluid flow before one can gain insight from the
diagrams.
Sizing Pressure Drop Vs. Valve Capacity - The pressure drop that creates fluid flow is the pressure
differential between the upstream pressure P 1 and the pressure at the control valve vena contracta, P vc.
The vena contracta is the point, following a restriction to flow, at which the cross-sectional area of the
flow stream is at its minimum value, the fluid velocity is at a maximum value, and the fluid pressure
(Pvc) is reduced. Because the value of Pvc is rarely known, valve sizing equations include choked flow
calculations in order to predict the pressure value of P vc. Precise determination of the value of P vc is
made difficult by the fact that in many valves, there may be several vena contractas. In addition, the
location of the vena contracta(s) often changes as the service conditions change.
Fluid State At The Vena Contracta Vs. Valve Capacity - The fluid pressure at the vena contracta
determines the whether the fluid at the vena contracta is a liquid, vapor, or a two-phase mixture. Any
degree of fluid vaporization at the vena contracta will reduce the fluid density and, as density
decreases, larger and larger valve sizes will be required to pass a given flow rate. For this reason, it is
useful to devise means of predicting the fluid state at the vena contracta.
Figure 8
Sizing Pressure Drop P1 - Pvc Versus Valve Pressure Drop P1-P2

Assumptions Concerning Entropy That Are Used In Control Valve Sizing

Valve Inlet To The Vena Contracta - Most valve sizing procedures are based on the assumption that
as the fluid passes from the valve inlet to the valve vena contracta, any fluid expansion that occurs as a
result of increased velocity is isentropic; i.e., there is no change in the available energy. Refer to Figure
9.
Valve Vena Contracta To Outlet - As the fluid flows from the valve vena contracta to the valve
outlet, some of the pressure energy is converted to heat because of friction. The pressure loss is
permanent and irreversible; therefore, there is an increase in entropy. Refer to Figure 9.
Figure 9
Entropy Assumptions

Assumptions Concerning Enthalpy That Are Used In Control Valve Sizing

For the discussion that follows, refer to Figure 10 on the next page.
Valve Inlet To The Vena Contracta - The assumptions concerning enthalpy are based on the first
Law Of Thermodynamics; i.e.,
V2 V 2
H1 + 1 = Hvc + vc
2g 2g
where:
H enthalpy, Btu/lb
V fluid velocity, ft/sec
g gravitational constant
subscript 1 upstream conditions
subscript vc vena contracta conditions
Fluid velocity always increases as fluid flows from the valve inlet to the valve vena contracta.
Referring to the above equation, if the velocity at the vena contracta (V vc) increases, Hvc must
decrease.
Vena Contracta To The Valve Outlet - As the fluid flows from the vena contracta to the valve outlet,
the fluid velocity decreases. According to the equation that is shown above, the decrease in velocity
must be accompanied by a corresponding increase in enthalpy.
Valve Inlet To The Valve Outlet: Isenthalpic, Adiabatic Process - For valve sizing purposes, the
assumption is made that there is no actual transfer of heat from the fluid to the valve because of the
very short time that the fluid undergoes the change in enthalpy. Because there is no actual transfer of
heat from the fluid to the valve, the flow is considered to be adiabatic.
And, because velocity decreases from the vena contract to the valve outlet, the flow is assumed to be
isenthalpic (enthalpy is constant) from the valve inlet to the valve outlet, even though there is a
temporary change in enthalpy at the vena contracta.

Figure 10
Isenthalpic Flow

Gas Flow Example

The assumptions that were previously described can be used in conjunction with the data that is included in the
pressure-enthalpy diagrams to determine the state of the fluid as it passes through a control valve. Figure 11
shows the thermodynamic behavior of a gas as it passes through a control valve.
Figure 11
Thermodynamic Analysis Of Gas Flow Through A Control Valve
Valve Inlet To The Vena Contracta - As a gas passes from the valve inlet to the valve vena contracta,
the pressure changes from P1 to Pvc. According to the assumption of isentropic flow from P 1 to Pvc,
Pvc and P1 will both be located on the same entropy line. Also note the following:
• The fluid temperature at Pvc is much lower than at P1.

• The fluid velocity at the vena contracta increases; therefore, the enthalpy is lower.

Vena Contracta To The Valve Outlet - The assumption of isenthalpic flow across the valve means
that P2 and P1 will both be located on the same enthalpy line. Also note the following:
• Significant pressure energy is converted to heat, noise, and vibration. The loss of
pressure energy is permanent and irreversible; therefore entropy increases (the
available energy is reduced).
• Because the fluid velocity decreases, its enthalpy will increase.
• The fluid temperature at P2 is slightly reduced from the temperature at P1.

Summary - From the above, it should be clear that if one knows the inlet pressure and temperature, the
vena contracta pressure (calculated by the choked flow equation P vc = rcPv), and the outlet pressure, a
wealth of information can be determined, including:
• The fluid state at the vena contracta.

• The temperature of the fluid at the valve outlet.
• The fluid specific volume and therefore the fluid density at the valve outlet.
It must be stated that while the specific points of P 1, Pvc, and P2 can be clearly identified on the chart, the exact
path of the traverse from P1 to P2 is unknown. The traverse may occur in a direct path as shown in Figure 11,
or it may dip and rise in a fashion that is totally unpredictable.

Liquid Flow Example

Figure 12 illustrates the thermodynamic behavior of a liquid as it passes through a control valve. The only
difference between the liquid expansion that is shown in Figure 12 and the gas expansion that was previously
discussed is that the liquid expansion takes place in the liquid region of the phase diagram.
Figure 12
Thermodynamic Analysis Of Liquid Flow Through A Control Valve

Control Valve Sizing Equations
Fluid States For Which The Standard ISA Sizing Equations Are Applicable
The applicability of the control valve sizing equations that are endorsed by the ISA is limited to specific fluid
states and conditions. The applicability of a particular equation is determined by the fluid state at the valve inlet.
The equations and the fluids states to which they apply are shown in Figure 13 and they are discussed below.
Figure 13
Fluid States And Applicable Sizing Equations
Liquids - If P1, Pvc, and P2 are all located to the left of the two-phase dome, the liquid will not
vaporize as it passes through the control valve. Fluid density will remain constant and the standard
liquid sizing equation can be applied.
Flashing Liquids - If P1 is in the liquid region and if P2 is inside the two-phase dome, the liquid will
be flashing. The decrease in fluid density means that a larger valve may be required to pass the flow.
To determine if the flow is choked, the choked flow pressure drop is calculated and compared with the
actual pressure drop. The valve is sized with the use of the lesser of the two pressure drops.

Cavitating Liquids - If P1 and P2 are outside the two-phase dome but P vc dips inside the two-phase
dome, fluid vaporizes and then reverts to a liquid; i.e., the fluid cavitates. Cavitation is also
accompanied by the potential for choked flow.
Ideal Gasses - If P1, Pvc, and P2 are located at a considerable distance to the right of the two-phase
dome, the fluid is an ideal gas. In this region, the temperature lines are parallel to the vertical lines of
constant enthalpy. As a result, the relationships of pressure, volume, and temperature are constant, as
expressed with PV=RT, where R is a gas constant.
Real Gasses - If P1, Pvc, and P2 are all located to the right of the two-phase dome and below the
critical pressure and if one or more of the three points is near the two-phase dome, the gas will exhibit
real gas behavior. In this region, the temperature lines are not parallel to the lines of constant enthalpy.
The compressibility factor, Z, compensates for real gas behavior which is described with PV=ZRT.
Fluid States That Require Special Sizing Techniques

A number of flow conditions are commonly encountered for which the standard ISA sizing equations are not
applicable.
Two Phase Flows: Liquid/Vapor Or Liquid/Gas - If either P1 or P2 is located inside the two-phase
dome, a two-phase flow is present. For a single-species fluid, the flow consists of a liquid and its
vapor. If the fluid is a binary fluid (two different substances) the flow may consist of a liquid and a gas.
Fluids With Dissolved Gasses (Outgassing Fluids) - Many fluids include dissolved gasses that come
out of solution as a result of agitation (such as occurs when the fluid passes through a control valve) or
pressure reduction. With regard to valve sizing, the impact of an outgassing fluid is similar to that of a
flashing fluid; i.e., the decrease in fluid density at the vena contracta has a flow-limiting effect.
Fluid Mixtures: Gas Mixtures And Liquid Mixtures - The ISA sizing equations are based on the
flow of single-species fluids; e.g., water, pentane, etc.. The equations may not accurately predict the
flow rate if the fluid is comprised of two or more gasses or two or more liquids.

SIZING CONTROL VALVES FOR TWO PHASE FLOWS
Types Of Two Phase Flows And Implications For Valve Sizing
Types Of Two Phase Flows

A two-phase flow consists of a liquid and either a gas or a vapor as shown in Figure 14.
Figure 14
Two-Phase Flows
Vapor/Liquid Flow - For a single species fluid such as water, two-phase flow is encountered when
some portion of the fluid is in the liquid state and some portion of the fluid is in the vapor state. Steam
is a common example of a vapor/liquid flow.
Gas/Liquid Flow (Binary Fluid) - In many applications, the flow consists of two different
components (a binary fluid). If one component is in the liquid state and another is in the gaseous state
under the prevailing conditions, the flow is referred to as a gas/liquid flow. A common example of a
binary fluid is air and water.

Implications For Valve Sizing

Special considerations for two-phase flows are listed in Figure 15 and they are discussed below.
Specific Volume Of The Mixture - All sizing equations for liquid and gas flows include a factor for
the fluid density. As the ratio of the gas or vapor phase to the liquid phase increases, the fluid density
decreases (specific volume increases) and increased valve capacity may be required to pass the
specified flow rate. With two phase flows, the determination of the fluid density that will be useful in
the valve sizing equations is an important step.
Gas Velocity Versus Liquid Velocity (Slip) - Gasses tend to flow at higher velocities than liquids.
The phenomenon of a gas moving faster than a liquid in the same flowstream is referred to as “slip”.
Because fluid velocity determines flow rate, “slip” must be considered when calculating valve
capacities for two-phase flows.
Choked Flow And The Valve Sizing Pressure Drop - The value of the flow-limiting pressure drop
(choked ∆P, critical ∆P) can be somewhat different for liquids and for gasses. Accordingly, any two-
phase sizing procedure must include a method for determining the pressure drop that is effective for
sizing purposes.
Figure 15
Two-Phase Flow Sizing Considerations

Two-Phase Flow Sizing Assumptions And Sizing Methods
Best Case Assumptions: Homogenous Mixture

A two-phase sizing procedure is most feasible to develop for a homogenous flow (bubble, mist, or spray flow).
For plug or slug flows in which the flowstream is alternately all liquid and then all gas or vapor, development
of a universal equation would be virtually impossible.
ISA Standard S75.01

The ISA sizing standard (S75.01) does not include equations for two-phase sizing. In the absence of industry-
wide standards, valve manufacturers and others have developed systematic procedures for sizing control valves
for two-phase flows. This Module will introduce the two-phase sizing procedure that has been developed by
Fisher Controls. The method is documented in the manufacturer’s sizing catalogs (Fisher Catalogs 10 and 12)
and it is included in the Fisher Sizing Program.
Fisher Methods For Sizing Control Valves For Two-Phase Flows
Overview Of The Two-Phase Sizing Procedure

The basic approach for sizing two-phase flows is shown in Figure 16 and it is discussed below.
1. Calculate the Cv for the liquid phase of the flowstream (C vl).

2. Calculate the Cv for the gas or vapor phase of the flowstream (C vg).
3. Sum Cvg and Cvl.
4. Apply a correction factor (1+Fm) to the sum of the Cv’s to determine the Cv required (Cvr).
C vr = (C vl + C vg )(1 + Fm )
Where:
C vr = Therequiredcontrol valve C v
C vl = C v for the liquid phase
C vg = C v for the gas or vapor phase
Fm = a correction factor
Figure 16
The Fisher Controls Two-Phase Valve Sizing Equation

Valve Sizing Pressure Drops - To ensure that flow is not overestimated (and that valve size is not
underestimated) when calculating valve sizes for two-phase flows, the valve sizing ∆P must be limited
for each phase. The pressure drop that is used for valve sizing purposes is selected according to the
information that is shown in Figure 17. Note that the value of ∆Pc is determined by:
1. Finding the critical pressure drop ratio (∆P/P1) from the chart below. The ratio is a function of the
value of C1 (C1 = Cg/Cv).
2. Multiplying the inlet pressure (P 1) by the value that is determined in the above step.
Fluid Phase Conditions Sizing ∆P

Vapor/Gas All Lesser of ∆Pactual or ∆Pc
Liquid If ∆Pactual ≥ ∆Pc ∆Pc
If ∆Pactual ≤ ∆Pc Lesser of ∆Pactual or ∆Pallow
Figure 17
Sizing ∆P’s That Are Used In Two-Phase Sizing

Correction Factor, Fm - Figure 18 shows the correction curve that is used to determine the correction
factor Fm. To determine the value of Fm, the point at which the volume ratio, V r, intersects the plot is
determined and the value of Fm is read off the left axis of the chart.
Figure 18
Gas Volume Ratio, Vr Versus Cv Correction Factor, Fm

Volume Ratio Vr For Gas/Liquid Flows - The volume ratio for gas/liquid flows is calculated as
follows:
Qg
284 Q l P1
Vr = + Qg
T1
where:
Vr = the gas volume ratio
Qg = gas flow, scfh
Ql = liquid flow, gpm
T1 = inlet temperature, degrees R (Degrees R = Degrees F + 460)
P1 = fluid pressure at the control valve inlet, psig
Volume Ratio Vr For Vapor/Liquid Flows - The volume ratio for vapor/liquid flows is calculated as
follows:
Vg
Vr =
 1 − x
Vg + Vl  
 x 
where:
Vr = the gas (vapor) volume ratio

Vg = specific volume of the gas or vapor, cubic feet per pound
Vl = specific volume of the liquid, cubic feet per pound
x = mixture quality, dimensionless

Determining Flow Rates At The Valve Inlet

Establishing Service Conditions At The Valve Inlet - It should be clear from the previous discussion
that in order to apply the two-phase sizing equation, the flow rates of the liquid and the gas
components at the valve inlet must be known. For most applications, the respective flow rates of the
liquid and the gas at the valve inlet are assumed to be the same as the flows at the downstream
conditions as shown in Figure 19. Although flow rate information is often difficult to obtain, it should
be available from process engineers and experienced operations personnel. In many instances, the flow
rates can be determined by studying the downstream process.
Figure 19
Inlet Flow Assumptions
Fm Values - The values of Fm range from 0 to 1.0. When the value of V r is near 0, the fluid is mostly
liquid and the correction factor F m is small. As the volume ratio increases (the flowstream consists of
increasing amounts of gas or vapor), the correction factor F m also increases. At the maximum value of
Fm, the Cvr is double that of the uncompensated value of C v. Notice that when the volume ratio is
greater than 0.9, the correction curve displays a steep downward slope. The steep slope is partially
related to the phenomenon of slip; i.e., the much higher velocity of a gas or vapor as compared to the
velocity of a liquid under the same conditions.

Unique Problems For Vapor/Liquid Flows

Transfer Of Mass And Energy Between Phases - Refer to Figure 20 and note that the horizontal
traverse of the constant temperature line across the two-phase dome can be viewed as an indicator of
quality, x. When the quality (x) of a fluid is 0, the fluid is entirely in the liquid state and when the
quality is 1.0 the fluid is entirely in the vapor state. If only the pressure and temperature of a vapor are
known, the fluid state could be defined by any point on the horizontal temperature line that passes
across the two-phase dome. For this reason, either the value of x or the enthalpy must be known in
order to determine the density of a vapor. Because the enthalpy value is often difficult to obtain, the
value of x is commonly used for valve sizing purposes.
Figure 20
Enthalpy And x Versus Pressure And Temperature
Available Data Vs. Actual Conditions At The Valve Inlet - The service conditions that are provided
to the valve specifier - including the value of x - are often the conditions that were determined for the
fluid at some upstream location. Because of pressure losses, heat losses, and changes in operating
parameters, the pressure conditions, temperature conditions, and the value of x at the valve inlet may
be substantially different than the given data. Any such discrepancy can result in erroneous
calculations for Vr and Cvr. When sizing valves for vapor/liquid flows, specifiers should make an
additional effort to ensure that accurate data is available.

Computer Sizing Two Phase Flows
Method Selection Criteria

Refer to Figure 21 and note that there are two two-phase sizing methods within the Fisher Sizing Program: a
vapor/liquid method and a gas/liquid method. The criteria for selection of a particular method is discussed
below.
Units For Fluid Density - If the fluid density is given in units of mass (M, lb/ft 3, kg/m3, etc.), the
vapor/liquid option should be selected.
Gas And Liquid Chemical Structure (Single Species Vs Binary Fluid) - As a generalization, the
vapor/liquid method is selected for single species fluids (water/steam) while the gas/liquid method is
commonly selected for binary fluids.
Figure 21
Fisher Sizing Program Menu Screen

Inputs To The Vapor/Liquid Two-Phase Sizing Method

The sizing screen for the vapor/liquid method is shown in Figure 22 . The entry fields and the calculated results
are discussed below.
Figure 22
Fisher Sizing Program Screen For The Vapor/Liquid Sizing Method
Vapor Phase Information - The fluid data that is required to size the vapor phase of the flow is shown
in Figure 22. The required inputs are:
• The vapor name.

• The density of the vapor, lb/ft3.
• The flow rate, lb/hr.
Liquid Phase Information - The fluid data that is required to size the liquid phase of the flow is
shown in Figure 22. The required inputs are:
• The liquid name.

• The liquid critical pressure, Pc in psia.
• The liquid vapor pressure, Pv in psia.
• The liquid specific gravity, SG.
• The liquid flow rate, Q lb/hr.

Mixture Service Conditions

The mixture service conditions that must be entered are:
• The inlet pressure, P1, in psia.

• The pressure drop, dP, in psid.
• The temperature of the mixture at the valve inlet, T, in degrees F.
Note: The measurement units for many of the entry fields can be changed by pressing the F8 key, and,
then, selecting the desired units from the list that is shown.
Valve Specifications - The valve specifications that must be input are:
• The value of Km (recall that FL = K m )

• The value of C1 (recall that C1 = Cg/Cv
Note: The program can be used to size non-Fisher control valves by converting the pressure
recovery coefficient FL to Km with the use
of FL2 = Km, and by calculating the value of C1 with the use of C1=Cg/Cv.
Calculated Results With The Vapor/Liquid Two-Phase Sizing Method

The software automatically calculates the valve size and displays the results of the various calculations.
Calculated Parameters - The results that are calculated and displayed include the following:
• dP Critical - The flow-limiting pressure drop for the gas phase.

• dP allowable - The flow limiting pressure drop for the liquid phase.
• rc - The critical pressure ratio that defines the vena contract pressure.
• Cg - The flow coefficient for the gas or vapor phase.
• Cv - The flow coefficient for the liquid phase.
• Quality - The value of x (x = the weight fraction of vapor in a vapor-liquid
mixture).
• Vr - The volume ratio (the percent by volume of gas to liquid).
• Fm - The correction factor that is included in the two-phase sizing equation.
• Cvr - The required control valve Cv, corrected for two-phase flow.

Notes On Other Sizing Parameters - Many of the sizing options that are normally available by
pressing the F3 key are not active in the two-phase sizing methods. For example:
• The option to calculate the sound pressure level is not available because even at
critical flow, excessive SPL is generally not a problem with two-phase flows.
Furthermore, the standard noise prediction equations do not yield accurate results
for two-phase flows.
• Cavitation damage is rarely a problem for two-phase flows because the high vapor
content provides a cushioning effect that protects against cavitation bubble
implosion. Accordingly, the options to evaluate the cavitation indices of Kc and Ar
are not available in the two-phase sizing methods.
Differences Between The Vapor/Liquid Method And The Gas/Liquid Method

The basic difference between the vapor/liquid method and the gas/liquid sizing method is the units that are used
to express density of the gas or vapor phase. In the vapor/liquid method, the vapor density is expressed in terms
of mass flow (lb/ft3, etc.). In the gas/liquid method, the vapor density is expressed in terms of specific gravity
(SG) or molecular weight (M). Refer to Figure 23.
Figure 23
Fisher Sizing Program Screen For The Gas/Liquid Sizing Method

SIZING CONTROL VALVES FOR FLUIDS WITH DISSOLVED GASSES
Mechanics Of Outgassing And Implications For Valve Sizing
Dissolved Gas Defined

Figure 24 shows that gasses can be forced into solution in a liquid. The amount of gas that can be dissolved in a
solution is partially dependent upon the fluid pressure and the amount of time that the fluid is under pressure.
Dissolved gasses are typically found in high pressure streams of untreated, multi-component fluids. Crude oil is
a common example of a liquid that includes dissolved gasses. An example that is found in daily life is a
carbonated drink in a sealed bottle or can.
Mechanics Of Outgassing
Gas molecules may come out of solution (outgas) if the fluid pressure is reduced or if the fluid is agitated. A
common example of outgassing occurs when a can or bottle of a carbonated beverage is shaken and then
opened. Similarly, pressure letdown and the creation of turbulence are two of the operating mechanisms of a
high-pressure separator that is used in oil field operations.
Figure 24
Mechanics Of Outgassing

Outgassing Versus Flashing

Refer to Figure 25 and compare the thermodynamic analysis of a flashing liquid with an outgassing liquid.
With flashing fluids, Pvc must fall below Pv and P2 must remain inside the two-phase dome. With outgassing
fluids, P1, Pvc, and P2 may all be on the liquid side of the two-phase dome. A slight reduction in fluid pressure
or the occurrence of agitation is all that is required to cause a gas to come out of liquid solution (outgas).
Figure 25
Outgassing Versus Flashing

Outgassing Versus Cavitation

If the local pressure of a liquid falls below the liquid’s P v and then rises above the liquid’s P v, the fluid will
vaporize and then revert to the liquid state; i.e., the fluid will cavitate. If the local pressure of an outgassing
liquid decreases and subsequently increases, the gaseous portion of the fluid may not go back into solution.
Often, additional time is required for the increased pressure to force the gas back into the liquid solution. Refer
to Figure 26.
Figure 26
Outgassing Versus Cavitation
Indicators Of The Presence Of Dissolved Gasses

Stated Pv = P1 - Whenever the stated Pv of a liquid is equal to P1, one may deduce that the liquid
includes dissolved gasses that will come out of solution upon any reduction in pressure. The exception
is when both the true vapor pressure and the inlet pressure happen to fall on the saturated vapor line of
the two-phase dome. In this case, flashing rather than outgassing may be the greatest consideration.
Pv=P1>Pc - Even though it is a physical impossibility for the value of P v to be larger than the value of
Pc, there are two common reasons for the occurrence of such defective data. (1) The value that is given
as the fluid’s Pv is actually the fluid’s bubble point. The bubble point is the pressure at which the
lightest fluid components will come out of solution, or outgas. (2) The value that is given for the
critical pressure is actually the fluid’s pseudocritical pressure. Pseudocritical pressures will be
discussed later in this Module.

Figure 27
Fluid Properties As Indicators Of Outgassing

Implications For Valve Sizing

Valve Capacity As A Function Of Gas Volume Ratio - Pressure reductions and turbulence in the
valve can cause varying amounts of dissolved gasses to come out of solution. Depending on the
amount of dissolved gas in the liquid and the degree of outgassing that occurs, fluid expansion at the
valve vena contracta can have a choking effect on flow capacity. If the effects of outgassing are not
considered, the valve may be undersized. The challenges that are encountered during valve sizing are
shown in Figure 28 and they are listed below.
• There is no simple method that can be used to accurately determine the amount of gas that is
dissolved in the liquid.
• There is no simple method to determine the extent of outgassing that will occur under various
service conditions.
• There is no scientific method for precisely calculating the impact of outgassing on valve capacity.
Figure 28
Sizing Considerations For Fluids With Dissolved Gasses
Absence Of Sizing Standards For Dissolved Gasses - No standards body (ISA, IEC, etc.) has
endorsed a method for compensating for dissolved gasses. Experience and the application of practical
techniques are the only guides that are available to the specifier.

Bracketing Approach To Valve Sizing For Dissolved Gas Applications
General Concept
A common approach to valve sizing for outgassing liquids is to perform two or more sizing calculations that are
based on different assumptions regarding the state of the fluid. Then, the results of the two calculations are
compared and a subjective assessment is made in order to estimate the appropriate valve size. A common
technique is illustrated in Figure 29 and it is introduced below.
1. First, in order to determine the smallest possible valve size, the specifier sizes the valve as if it were a pure,
non-choked, liquid flow.
2. Next, in order to determine the largest possible valve size, the specifier assumes that the gas that does come
out of solution is present at the valve inlet. This is accomplished through the use of the two-phase sizing
procedure that was previously discussed.
3. The results of the two sizing calculations are compared and a valve size is selected on the basis of
experience and engineering judgment.
Figure 29
Basic Concept Of A Bracketing Approach To Valve Sizing

Calculating The Minimum Valve Size

Assumption: Fluid Remains In Liquid State - In order to determine the smallest possible valve size,
the assumption is made that the fluid will remain in a liquid state; i.e., no vaporization will occur. Refer
to Figure 30.
Sizing Technique - To size the fluid as a liquid, the value of P v is set to an arbitrarily low value; e.g.,
Pv = 0 (or a very low pressure value). After setting P v to 0, the minimum valve size is calculated with
the use of the standard liquid sizing equations. Figure 30 shows that by setting P v to 0 or a value that is
near 0, there is little chance that the pressure at the vena contracta (P vc) will drop below the fluid vapor
pressure (Pv). In other words, the sizing equations will not allow for fluid vaporization (choked flow).
The calculated results will lead to the smallest possible valve size. In fact, if outgassing occurs within
the valve, the valve may be undersized.
Figure 30
Sizing For The Minimum Valve Size

Calculating Maximum Valve Size

Assumption: Upstream Gas/Liquid Fraction = Downstream Gas/Liquid Fraction
The maximum valve size is calculated with the use of a two-phase sizing method - most likely the
gas/liquid method. In order to calculate the maximum valve size, the gas/liquid fraction or the volume
ratio of the gas at downstream conditions must be known. For valve sizing purposes, the gas/liquid
volume ratio at the valve inlet is assumed to be equal to the gas/liquid volume ratio at the valve outlet
as shown in Figure 31.
Assumption: Pv<P2
The two-phase sizing method will make sufficient allowance for fluid expansion that is caused by
outgassing. To ensure that the sizing equations do not make additional allowances for fluid expansion
by calculating the choked flow pressure drop, the value of P v is set to an arbitrary value such as the
value of P2.
Figure 31
Sizing For The Maximum Valve Size

Evaluation Of The Minimum And Maximum C v Calculations

After the minimum and maximum C v’s have been calculated, they are evaluated according the information that
is shown in Figure 32.
Cv min ∼ Cv max - If the minimum calculated Cv (Cv min) and the maximum calculated C v (Cv
max) lead one to the selection of the same valve size, that valve size can be selected with reasonable
confidence.
Broadly Differing Values Of C v max and Cv min - If the results of the calculations indicate valve
sizes that are significantly different, the specifier should consult with the valve vendor or manufacturer.
Difference In Valve Size That Is Confidence In Action

Required By Cv min And Cv max Sizing Method
None High Select Indicated Valve Size
1 Valve Size Medium Select The Larger Valve Size
More Than 1 Valve Size Low Contact The Valve Vendor
Figure 32
Interpreting The Results Of The Sizing Technique
Valve Style Selection Guidelines

Selection Of Replaceable Trim - Because of uncertainties in the sizing calculations, one should select
top-entry valves and cage-style trim in order to allow for field changes of trim size if necessary.
Body And Trim Material Selection - The physical effects of an outgassing fluid are similar to those
of a flashing fluid; i.e., when gasses come out of solution, localized areas of high-velocity flow
increase the potential for erosion damage. Accordingly, the body and trim materials for an outgassing
application should be selected as if the application were flashing; i.e., hardened trim and alloy bodies.
Cavitation Considerations
In a majority of applications where the gas/volume ratio is relatively high, the presence of dissolved
gasses can have a cushioning effect on any cavitation that may be occurring within the valve and
piping. Many specifiers assume that the dissolved gas will absorb most of the energy that is released
during cavitation and the issue of cavitation is ignored. This is the case with many unstabilized crude
oils. However, if the gas/liquid volume ratio is very low (VR < 0.2) and cavitation is predicted,
cavitation resistant trim should be considered.

SIZING CONTROL VALVES FOR HYDROCARBON MIXTURES
Introduction
Many hydrocarbon fluids are mixtures. For example, crude oil may contain several different liquid components
and several different gaseous components. Most natural gasses are actually mixtures of several different
components (methane, ethane, propane, etc.).
Unique Sizing Problems With Liquid Mixtures
Multiple Pressure-Enthalpy Diagrams

Each component of a liquid mixture has a unique saturated liquid line, a unique critical point, and a unique
saturated vapor line. The challenge to the valve specifier is that the valve sizing equations require a single value
for the mixture vapor pressure and a single value for the mixture critical pressure.
Figure 33
Multiple Pressure-Enthalpy Diagrams For A Liquid Mixture

Defining Fluid Properties

In order to establish single values for the fluid properties of mixtures, several different averaging techniques
may be applied.
Bubble Point Versus Vapor Pressure - For a single-species fluid at a specific temperature, the fluid
vapor pressure defines a relatively precise pressure at which the fluid will begin to vaporize. With
mixtures, however, each mixture component may begin to vaporize at a different pressure. The
pressure at which the lightest component of a mixture begins to vaporize is often referred to as the
bubble point. If a vapor pressure for a liquid mixture is given as a single value, that value often is the
bubble point. The bubble point may be determined by testing, with the use of computer simulation
programs, or by calculation. When evaluating liquid mixtures, the saturated liquid line on a pressure-
enthalpy diagram may be replaced with a bubble line as shown in Figure 34.
Figure 34
Pressure-Enthalpy Diagram For A Liquid Mixture

Pseudocritical Pressure and Pseudocritical Temperature - Each component in a liquid mixture has a
unique critical pressure and a unique critical temperature. For a mixture, the critical point is defined by
the intersection of the “pseudocritical” pressure and the “pseudocritical” temperature. Refer to Figure
34. One method of determining the pseudocritical pressure and the pseudocritical temperature is
through the use of a molar averaging technique. The pseudocritical properties are determined by:
1. Multiplying the mole fraction of each component times the values of P c and Tc of each
component. The result is the pseudocritical property of each component.
2. Summing the values of the pseudocritical properties of each component to obtain the
pseudocritical properties of the mixture.
Pseudocritical pressures and temperatures may also be determined by test, by calculation, or with the
use of process simulation software. Although the pseudocritical point may not fall exactly on the phase
line, it does provide information that is reasonably effective in the valve sizing calculations.
Dew Line Vs. Saturated Vapor Line - For mixtures, there is not a single saturated vapor line on the
pressure-enthalpy diagram. Instead, the “dew line” describes the conditions under which the mixture
begins to change from the gaseous to the two-phase state and vice versa. Refer to Figure 34.

Common Anomalies In The Values Of Fluid Properties

P1=Pv - When one is performing valve sizing calculations for mixtures, it is common to receive data
that indicates that P1=Pv. If P1=Pv, then one of two conditions may be present:
1. The fluid includes dissolved gasses which will come out of solution upon any reduction in
pressure. In this situation, the stated vapor pressure is actually the bubble point. Refer to Figure 35.
2. Pressure P1 is at or very near the vapor pressure of the lightest component in the mixture. In this
instance, fluid vaporization rather than outgassing is the result. Depending on the conditions, fluid
vaporization may be accompanied by flashing, by cavitation, and/or by choked flow. Refer to
Figure 35.
3.
Unless a complete thermodynamic analysis is performed, it is difficult to distinguish between the two
conditions that are described above. However, a vapor pressure value that is equal to the valve inlet
pressure is the “classic” indication of the presence of an outgassing fluid.
Pv>Pc - Specifiers may receive data that indicates the fluid Pv is greater than the fluid Pc; however, it
is a physical impossibility for P v to be greater than Pc. When these conditions are given, some of the
mixture components are above their critical temperatures (are not liquid) and they are dissolved in
heavier liquid components. The value that is given for P c is probably the pseudocritical pressure. The
true critical pressure of some of the components will be higher. In addition, the value of the P v that is
given may be the bubble point; i.e., the pressure at which the lightest components begin to vaporize.
Figure 35
Common Anomalies In Fluid Properties

Sensitivity Of Sizing Calculations To Accurate Fluid Properties

Sensitivity Of Valve Sizing Calculations To P c - The valve sizing procedure for liquid flows requires
a value for the critical pressure (Pc) in order to permit calculation of the choked flow pressure drop
(∆Pallow or ∆Pchoked).
∆Pallow or ∆Pchoked = FL2 (P1-rcPv)
where:
rc = 0.96 - 0.28 (pv/Pc).

Recall that rc (the critical pressure ratio) is a measure of pressure reduction below the vapor pressure at
the vena contracta that provides the energy that is required to vaporize an amount of liquid. Fluid
vaporization can have a significant impact on the valve size that is required. In addition, choked flow
may be accompanied by flashing or cavitation. Given the significance of proper valve sizing and of
flashing and cavitation, the determination of useful values of P c and Pv for the purpose of valve sizing
is essential.
Impact of Pc on ∆Pchoked (∆ ∆Pallow) - If all other parameters are fixed and the value of P c is
increased, the choked flow equation will predict that choked flow will occur at smaller and smaller
pressure drops. As a result, the Cv that is calculated will increase. Similarly, if the value of P c
decreases while other parameters remain constant, larger and larger pressure drops may occur before
the flow becomes choked and a smaller value of C v will be calculated.
Sensitivity Of Valve Sizing Calculations To P v - If all other parameters are held constant and the
value of Pv is increased, the equation will predict that choked flow will occur at smaller pressure drops.
If a Pv is given which actually describes the mixture bubble point, the actual liquid Pv may be much
lower. The result is that the choked flow equation will predict total vaporization and choked flow
when, in fact, only a portion of the fluid stream will be vaporizing or outgassing. The result is that the
sizing equation will calculate a conservative C v; i.e., the valve will not be undersized.

Liquid Mixture Sizing Techniques

Many different techniques have been developed in order to address the challenges of sizing control vales for
liquid mixtures. Only a few will be presented in this Module. The techniques that are presented below are
designed to given an estimate of the valve size that will be required. For mixtures and other difficult sizing
problems, specifiers should always seek assistance from valve manufacturers and others who can apply
advanced sizing tools and techniques.
When Pv<Pc<P1
The relative values of Pv, Pc, and P1 that are shown in Figure 36 are what one would expect to find in a normal
liquid sizing situation. Because P v does not equal P1, dissolved gas is not present. And, P v is below the value
of Pc, which is to be expected. Because the fluid is known to be a mixture, the assumption is that the P v is
actually the bubble point and the P c is actually the pseudocritical pressure. This mixture would be sized with
the use of the standard liquid sizing equations. If choked flow or flashing are not indicated, the fluid remains in
the liquid phase and the Cv that is calculated is accurate. If choked flow or flashing are indicated, the C v that is
calculated will be conservative because only a portion of the mixture will actually vaporize. The major problem
is that it is difficult to precisely determine the extent of fluid vaporization.
Figure 36
When Pv<Pc<P1

When P1=Pv<Pc
In this example, because P1=Pv, we know that either (1) dissolved gasses are present, or (2) P 1 is at the vapor
pressure of the mixture component with the highest P v. If dissolved gasses are present, some outgassing will
occur upon any reduction of pressure at the vena contracta. If a fluid component’s vapor pressure is equal to P1,
then some flashing or cavitation could occur. However, the intensity of the flashing or cavitation may not be
significant if only a small fraction of the fluid is vaporizing.
The recommended sizing technique is the bracketing method that was previously discussed, i.e.:
1. Size the mixture as a non-choked liquid by setting the value of P v to 0 or 1.
2. Size the mixture as a two-phase flow after setting the value of P v to the value of P2.
3. Evaluate the results. If the difference in the valve size that is indicated by the two techniques is within one
valve size, select the larger valve size. If the difference in valve size is greater than one valve size, seek
assistance.
Figure 37
When P1=Pv<Pc

When P1>Pv>Pc
In this scenario, the data is defective because no fluid can have a P v that is greater than the Pc. The value that is
given for the critical pressure is actually the pseudocritical pressure. Because some of the components are above
their critical temperatures, they remain dissolved in heavier liquid components. (A fluid at a temperature that is
above its critical temperature cannot exist as a liquid). To calculate a valve size for this situation, the value of
the pseudocritical pressure Pc is set to equal the value of Pv. Then, the calculation is performed with the use of
the standard liquid sizing equations. Increasing the value of the critical pressure has the effect of reducing the
∆Pallow. This is a conservative approach and, in most instances, there is little danger of undersizing the valve.
An alternative is to set the value of P v equal to the value of Pc. However, this method often produces a much
less conservative result.
Figure 38
When P1>Pv>Pc

When P1=Pv>Pc
In this scenario, we know that the data is defective. We assume that the stated P v is actually the bubble point
and that the stated critical pressure is actually the pseudocritical pressure. This is the worst-case state for high
pressure crude oil. The fluid is a solution of light hydrocarbons in heavy, the fluid is at its bubble point when
entering the valve, and any reduction in pressure will result in some outgassing. There are two basic approaches
to sizing:
• Increase the critical pressure to equal the vapor pressure (bubble point) and proceed with the liquid sizing.
The calculated choked flow Cv will be conservative because it assumes that all of the liquid vaporizes
when, in fact, only the lightest components will flash or outgas.
• If the gas/liquid volume ratio of the mixture at the valve outlet is known, assume that two phase flow
occurs at the valve inlet and proceed with a two phase sizing procedure . Also set the value of Pv to the
value of P2 in order to prevent the flashing calculations from over-compensating for fluid expansion. By
assuming two-phase flow at the inlet, the fluid expansion of outgassing or flashing adequately considered.
If the choked flow equations are also applied, the calculated C v will be overly conservative (too large).
Figure 39
When P1>Pv>Pc

Features And Limitations Of The Sizing Techniques

The sizing techniques that have been presented in this Module will generally ensure the calculation of a
conservative Cv; i.e., the techniques will result in adequate or more than adequate valve capacity and they will
generally not undersize a control valve. While the techniques can be useful in estimating the valve size that is
required, specifiers should always remember the following:
• The techniques that have been presented are meant to provide an estimate of valve size only. It is strongly
recommended that specifiers obtain the most accurate data that is available and, then, obtain assistance
valve manufacturers and others who can apply more sophisticated sizing tools and methods.
• Specifiers should provide engineering attention in proportion to the size of the valve. For example, a small
sizing error in a 2-inch valve may not lead to significant sizing problems or significant additional costs.
However, a sizing error in a 12 or 20 inch valve could lead to significant operating problems and
substantial, unnecessary costs.
• Because the sizing techniques that have been presented are conservative, specifiers should remain alert to
problems that can occur with oversized valves. For example, if an oversized valve is located in a header
that feeds a vent valve, the flow rate of the fluid to the vent valve may be much greater than the capacity of
the vent valve and an unsafe situation could easily occur.
• For critical and/or severe service applications, it is highly recommended that specifiers seek assistance from
valve vendors and sizing experts who are employed by valve manufacturers.

Gas Mixture Sizing
Review Of Ideal Gasses And Real Gasses

Ideal Gasses - The ideal gas laws define a constant relationship between pressure, temperature, and
volume. The ideal gas law is expressed as:
PV=RT
where:
P = fluid pressure, psia
V = volume, cu ft
R = gas constant; 10.73(psia x cu
ft)/(degrees R x lb mole)
T = fluid temperature, degrees R
Real Gasses - As the pressure and temperature of the gas approach the critical point (see Figure 40),
the ideal gas laws do not accurately describe the relationships of P, V, and T. In order to more precisely
define the relationship of P, V, and T in real gasses, the compressibility factor, Z, is included in the
equation.
PV=ZRT
Figure 40
Review Of Ideal Gasses Versus Real Gasses

Determining The Value Of Z - The value of Z can be determined by:

1. Performing the calculations to determine the values of the reduced pressure (Pr) and the reduced
temperature (Tr).
2. Using the values of Pr and Tr to determine the value of Z from a compressibility chart.
The values of Pr and Tr are calculated as follows:
T P
Tr = and Pr =
Tc Pc
where:
T = the actual fluid

temperature
Tc = the critical
temperature of the fluid
P = the actual fluid pressure
Pc = the critical pressure of

the fluid
Note: Any units of absolute pressure or temperature may be used provided that T and Tc are in the
same units and P and Pc are in the same units.
Tr and Pr are factors that normalize the actual pressure and temperature of a specific fluid to the critical
pressure and the critical temperature of that fluid. In this context, normalizing means that all fluids with
equal values of Tr and Pr will exhibit the same thermodynamic fluid. The advantage of normalizing the
data is that a single chart (see Figure 41) or a single equation can be used to determine the value of Z
for a broad range of fluids.

Figure 41
Chart That Is Used To Determine The Value Of Z From P r and Tr

Determining The Value Of Z For Gas Mixtures

Multiple Phase Diagrams - As shown in Figure 42, each component in a gas mixture will have a
different critical point (a different value of T c and a different value of Pc). In order to calculate the
value of Z, a means of establishing a single value of T c and a single value of Pc for the mixture must
be defined.
Figure 42
Phase Diagrams For The Components In A Gas Mixture
Determining Pseudocritical Pressures And Temperatures - In order to determine a single value of

Pc and Tc for the gas mixture, the pseudocritical temperature and the pseudocritical pressure are
calculated. The pseudocritical pressure and the pseudocritical temperature are the molar averages of the
critical pressure and the critical temperature, respectively, of all of the components in the gas mixture.
As shown in Figure 43, the pseudocritical values for the mixture are obtained by:
1. Multiplying the mole fraction of each component times the value of T c and the value of Pc of each
component, and, then,
2. Summing the pseudocritical values of T c and Pc for each component.

Component Mole Tc, degrees R Pseudocritical Pc, psia Pseudocritical Pc,

Fraction Tc, degrees R psia
CH4 0.90 343.0 308.7 666.4 599.76
C2H6 .06 549.6 32.9 706.5 42.39
C3H8 .04 665.7 26.6 616 24.64
Pseudocritical values 368.2 666.79
Figure 43
Calculation Of The Pseudocritical Pressure And The Pseudocritical Temperature
Of A Gas Mixture
Determining The Value of Z - The pseudocritical values are used to calculate the pseudocritical
reduced pressure and the pseudocritical reduced temperature. The calculations are:
T P
Tr = and Pr =
Tc Pc
where:
Tr and Pr Pseudocritical reduced pressure and temperature

T and P Actual inlet temperature and pressure
Tc and Pc Pseudocritical temperature and pressure
Note: Any units of absolute pressure or temperature may be used provided that T and Tc are in the
same units and P and Pc are in the same units.
To determine the value of Z, the reduced pseudocritical properties (T r and Pr) are used in conjunction
with a chart such as the one that is shown in Figure 41 on a previous page. The chart that is shown in
Figure 41 is valid for many natural gasses with minor amounts of non-hydrocarbon constituents up to
pressures of approx. 10, 000 psig. The accuracy of the chart decreases if the mixture contains more
than 3 percent CO2 or H2S or if the mixture contains significant amounts of water. The chart is not
valid for two-phase flows.

Computer Sizing
Most valve sizing programs will automatically calculate the value of Z if either the critical pressure and
temperature or the pseudocritical pressure and temperature are entered as inputs to the program.
Real Gas Sizing Methods - A real gas sizing method will produce the most accurate sizing
calculations. The inputs that are required for real gas sizing are:
• The value of Z.
• The value of either the specific heats ratio, k, which is used in the Fisher sizing equations, or the
specific heats ratio factor Fk (Fk = k/1.4) that is included in the ISA sizing equations. If the value
of k is not known, k can be set to 1.25 (F k = .89), which is typical for many gasses that consist
primarily of methane and ethane.
Ideal Gas Sizing - If the values of Z and k (Fk) are unknown, which is often the case with natural gas
mixtures, the valve may be sized by with the use of an ideal gas sizing method. The ideal gas sizing
method assumes that Z=1 and that k = 1.4 (F k=1). Ideal gas sizing methods will typically produce
results that are conservative; i.e., the valve will not be undersized.

Seeking Assistance
Calculation of an accurate valve size for hydrocarbon mixtures can be very challenging and may require
information and resources that are not readily available. Specifiers commonly seek assistance when they size
control valves for hydrocarbon mixtures. Some of the resources that are available to Saudi Aramco Engineers
are discussed below.
Internal Aramco Resources - Within the Saudi Aramco, the Process and Control Systems Department
includes a Process Engineering Division that in turn is segmented into units with responsibilities for
highly specific areas. The units are:
• The Upstream Process Unit (crude, NGL, GOSPS).
• The Refining Unit.
• The Process Engineering Service Unit (which can simulate any process, pipeline, or facility).
The units that are listed above may be able to supply information concerning fluid properties and
service conditions.
Control Valve Vendors - Assistance in control valve sizing is also available through valve
manufacturers and vendors. When communicating with these external resources, it is necessary to
supply as much information as possible concerning the process, the service conditions, the
composition and physical properties of the fluid, and any other fluid and application information that is
available.

WORK AID 1: PROCEDURES FOR THE USE OF THE TWO-PHASE SIZING OPTION OF THE
FISHER SIZING PROGRAM
Work Aid 1A: Procedures That Are Used To Size Control Valves For Vapor/Liquid Flows
Note: The information that is listed in Exercise 1A does not include values for Pc, Pv, or SG. However, because
the fluid is a two-phase water and steam mixture, the properties can be located in various steam table and
other resources. These resources are identified in the step-by-step procedures that are listed below.
1. Launch the Fisher Sizing Program.
2. Select the Vapor/Liquid two-phase sizing option.
3. Enter the sizing inputs as follows:
Vapor Phase Information

a. Enter the vapor name as “steam”.
b. Refer to the Properties Of Saturated Steam table that begins on page 136 of the Fisher
Control Valve Handbook and determine the specific volume of 90 psig steam. Convert the
specific volume to steam density with the use of the equation density = 1/V. Also determine
the temperature of the steam at the inlet pressure and enter the temperature in the appropriate
field in the section of the screen that is titled Mixture Service Conditions.
c. Enter the mass flow rate, W, of the steam. If necessary, change the units by pressing the F8
key and, then, selecting the desired units.

Liquid Phase
a. Place the cursor in name field in the Liquid Phase section of the screen, press the F4 key to
access the fluid database, and select water vapor.
b. The Pc of water will automatically be entered as a result of selecting the fluid from the fluid
database in the previous step.
c. Because some of the fluid enters the valve as a vapor, the fluid vapor pressure is the same as
the inlet pressure. If the inlet pressure is expressed in psig, convert the inlet pressure value to
an absolute pressure value by adding 14.5 to the value of P 1. Enter this value as the vapor
pressure.
d. Refer to the Properties Of Water table on page 135 of the Fisher Control Valve Handbook and
determine the specific gravity of water at the temperature of the steam.
e. Enter the mass flow rate, Q, of the liquid phase. If necessary, change the units by pressing the
F8 key and, then, selecting the desired units.
a. Enter the value of P1.
b. Enter the pressure drop (∆P or dP).
c. Note: The temperature value was entered in a previous step.
Valve Specifications
For the purpose of initial sizing, enter the estimated values of K m and C1.
Note: For non-Fisher valves, convert FL to Km and calculate C1 as follows:
FL2 = Km
C1 = Cv/Cg
4. Calculate the required Cv by pressing the F2 key.
5. Locate the manufacturers catalog page that lists the flow coefficients for the desired valve type and,
then, select a valve that will provide the required C v at less than 90 percent valve travel.

Work Aid 1B: Procedures That Are Used To Size Control Valves For Gas/Liquid Flows
The following procedure describes the steps that are taken to size a gas/liquid two-phase flow.
1. Launch the Fisher Sizing Program.
2. Select the Gas/Liquid two-phase sizing option.
3. Enter the sizing inputs as follows:
Gas Phase Information
a. Place the cursor in name field in the Gas Phase section of the screen, press the F4 key to
access the fluid database, and select air.
b. The SG of air will automatically be entered as a result of selecting the fluid from the fluid
database in the previous step.
c. Enter the volumetric flow rate of the gas phase. If necessary, change the units by pressing the
F8 key and selecting the desired units.
Liquid Phase
a. Place the cursor in name field in the Liquid Phase section of the screen, press the F4 key to
access the fluid database, and select water vapor.
b. The Pc of the water phase will automatically be entered as a result of selecting the fluid from
the fluid database in the previous step
c. The Pv of the water phase is listed on page 135 of the Fisher Control Valve Handbook.
d. The SG of the water phase is listed on page 135 of the Fisher Control Valve Handbook.
e. Enter the flow rate, Q, of the liquid phase. If necessary, change the units by pressing the F8
key and selecting the desired units.


a. Enter the value of P1.
b. Enter the pressure drop (∆P or dP).
c. Enter the fluid temperature.
Valve Specifications
For the purpose of initial sizing, enter the estimated values of K m and C1.
Note: For non-Fisher valves, convert FL to Km and calculate C1 as follows:
FL2 = Km
C1 = Cv/Cg
4. Calculate the valve sizing information by pressing the F2 key.
5. Locate the manufacturers catalog page that lists flow coefficients for the desired valve, and, then, select
a valve that will provide the required C v at less than 90 percent valve travel.

WORK AID 2: PROCEDURES FOR THE USE OF A BRACKETING TECHNIQUE THAT IS USED
TO SIZE CONTROL VALVES FOR FLUIDS WITH DISSOLVED GASSES
To estimate an appropriate valve size for a fluid with dissolved gasses, perform two sizing calculations and,
then, evaluate the results. The procedure is outlined below.
1. Size the valve with the use of a liquid sizing model by setting the value of P v very close to 0.0 and,
then, performing the normal liquid sizing calculations.
If the Liquid Sizing method of the Fisher Sizing Program is selected, press the F3 key and ensure that
all options and warnings are set to OFF. Also ensure that the Input P v option is selected. Note that the
Fisher Sizing Program will not accept a value of 0 for Pv. If Pv is set to 0, the program will raise the
value to 2 psia.
Enter the results of the liquid sizing procedure in the table that is located on the next page.
2. Size the valve with the use of a two-phase sizing model after making the following adjustments and
assumptions:
a. Assume that the gas flow rate and the liquid flow rate at the valve inlet are the same as the gas
flow rate and the liquid flow rate at the valve outlet.
b. By assuming two-phase flow at the valve inlet, the expansion that results from outgassing
within the valve will be sufficiently accounted for. To prevent the choked flow equations from
over-compensating for fluid expansion, set the value of P v equal to the value of P2. If
necessary, change the pressure units.
c. After setting the value of Pv equal to the value of P2, ensure that the value of Pc is equal to or
greater than the value of Pv. If Pc < Pv, the program will halt. If necessary, raise the value of
Pc to the value of Pv and proceed with the calculations.
Note: If the Fisher Sizing Program is used to size non-Fisher valves, convert FL to Km with
FL2 = Km and calculate the value of C1 with Cv/Cg
Enter the results of the two-phase sizing calculation in the table that is located on the following page.

Liquid Sizing Model Two-Phase Sizing Model

Min Flow Max Flow Min Flow Max Flow
Calculated Cv or
Cvr
Assumed Pv, psia
Assumed Pc, psia
Required Valve -inch -inch
Size
3. If the valve size that is determined with the use of the two-phase sizing model is within one valve size
of the valve size that is determined with the use of the liquid sizing model, one may have reasonable
confidence in the sizing technique and the larger valve size should be selected. If the difference is
greater than one valve size, assistance should be sought from the manufacturer or from other sizing
specialists.

WORK AID 3: GUIDELINES FOR ADJUSTING THE VALUES OF FLUID PROPERTIES THAT
ARE USED TO SIZE CONTROL VALVES FOR HYDROCARBON MIXTURES
Work Aid 3A: Guidelines That Are Used To Size Control Valves For Hydrocarbon Liquid Mixtures
Relationship of Comment Sizing Technique

Pv, Pc, and P1
Scenario 1 Normal liquid flow conditions. Normal liquid sizing.
Pv < Pc ; P1>Pv Flashing or cavitation may Sizing ∆P = lesser of ∆Pactual or ∆
occur. Pallow
∆Pallow = Km (P1 - rcPv)

where:
rc = 0.96 - 0.28 (Pv/Pc)1/2
Scenario 2 Pv is probably the bubble point Size with a bracketing technique.

Pv = P1; Pv<Pc and the fluid is outgassing. 1. Set Pv=0 and size as a liquid
2. Set Pv = P2 and size as a 2-
phase flow assuming that the
gas and liquid flow at the inlet
are the same as at the outlet.
3. Evaluate the results and select
the larger valve size.
Scenario 3 Data is defective. Raise Pc to Pv and size with the
Pv > Pc; Pv < P1 1. The Pc is the pseudocritical normal liquid sizing equations.
Pc. The Pc of some Allow for choked flow.
components may be higher.
2. Pv may be the “bubble
point”; i.e., some
components are above their
Tc (cannot exist as liquids)
and are in solution in
heavier liquid components.
Scenario 4 Combination of Scenarios 2 and Size with the use of the dissolved
Pv > Pc; Pv = P1 3. Typical for high pressure gas bracketing technique (see
crude oil. scenario 2).
1. Set Pv=0 and size as a liquid
Data is defective. 2. Set Pv = P2. If Pv is still > Pc,
• Pc is the pseudo-critical raise Pc to Pv, and size as a 2-
pressure. phase flow assuming that the
• Pv is probably the "bubble- gas and liquid flow at the inlet
point" and the fluid will are the same as at the outlet.
outgas. Evaluate the results and select the
larger valve size.

Work Aid 3B: Guidelines That Are Used To Size Control Valves For Hydrocarbon Gas Mixtures
In order to perform accurate sizing calculations for a gas mixture, the real gas equations must be used. When
one is making use of the Fisher Sizing Program, the means by which the sizing calculations are performed
depends upon whether one has selected the Fisher Real Gas method or the ISA/EN Gas Sizing method.
Fisher Real Gas Method
• The values of Tc and Pc must be entered.
• The value of the ratio of specific heats, k, is entered. If the value of k is not known, an estimated value of
1.25 will generally provide reasonably accurate results with most natural gas mixtures.
ISA Sizing Methods
• The values of Tc and Pc must be entered.
• The specific heats ratio factor Fk must is entered. Note that Fk = k/1`.4. If the value of k (and therefore, F k)
is not known, an estimated value of 0.89 will generally provide reasonably accurate results with most
natural gas mixtures.

GLOSSARY
adiabatic A process in which there is no transfer of heat.

binary fluid A fluid that is comprised of two or more unique substances.
bubble point In a solution of two or more components, the conditions of temperature
and pressure at which the first bubbles of gas appear; a conceptual
equivalent to the vapor pressure of a single-species fluid.
critical point The point that is defined by the intersection of the critical temperature and
critical pressure on a phase diagram.
critical pressure The pressure at which the vapor density and the liquid density of a
substance are the same.
critical temperature The temperature at which the vapor density and the liquid density of a
substance are the same.
enthalpy A measure of heat content of a fluid, H, that is typically expressed in terms
of Btu/lb.
entropy A thermodynamic quantity, S, that describes any permanent and
irreversible change in the available energy.
isentropic A process in which there is no change in entropy.
outgassing The phenomenon that occurs when a dissolved gas comes out of solution
as a result of turbulence, agitation, or reduced fluid pressure.
phase diagram A diagram that plots fluid pressure, entropy, enthalpy, specific volume,
and temperature as a function of any two of those parameters. Also
referred to as a Mollier diagram.
Pr The reduced pressure; determined by dividing the actual absolute fluid
pressure by the fluid critical pressure; P/P c.
pressure-enthalpy A phase diagram that plots the values of entropy, temperature, and specific
diagram volume of a specific fluid versus the pressure and enthalpy values of the
same fluid.
pseudocritical The molar average of the critical pressures of each component in a fluid
pressure mixture..
pseudocritical The molar average of the critical temperatures of each component in a
temperature fluid mixture.
quality The weight fraction of vapor in a vapor-liquid mixture; expressed as X

where X(100) = the percent vapor..
single-species fluid A fluid that is comprised of a single component; e.g., water.
specific volume The volume of a substance per a unit of mass. The inverse of fluid density.
supercritical A fluid state in which the fluid exhibits the characteristics of both a liquid
and a vapor; i.e., the state in which there is no distinction between the
liquid characteristics of the fluid and the vapor characteristics of the fluid.
thermodynamics The branch of physics that deals with the transformation of heat into other
forms of energy.

Tr The reduced temperature; determined by dividing the actual absolute fluid

temperature by the fluid critical temperature; T/T c.
two-phase dome A region on a phase diagram, generally in the shape of a modified
parabola, that distinguishes among the liquid, two phase, and gaseous
states of a fluid. It also encloses a region where both vapor and liquid
coexist as a two-phase mixture.
two-phase flow A flow that is comprised of a liquid and a gas or a liquid and a vapor.
vena contracta The point, following a flow restriction, at which the cross-sectional area of
the flowstream is at its minimum value, the fluid velocity is at its
maximum value, and the fluid pressure is reduced.
volume ratio In a two-phase flow, the ratio of the volume of a gas or vapor to the
volume of the total liquid/gas or liquid/vapor mixture.
X see quality

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Sizing Control Valves For

Chapter : Instrumentation For additional information on this subject, contact

BASICS OF FLUID THERMODYNAMIC BEHAVIOR, ASSUMPTIONS FOR

Basics of Fluid Thermodynamic Behavior....................................................................... 1

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SIZING CONTROL VALVES FOR TWO PHASE FLOWS ...................................................... 18

SIZING CONTROL VALVES FOR FLUIDS WITH DISSOLVED GASSES ........................... 30

Mechanics Of Outgassing And Implications For Valve Sizing...................................... 30

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Bracketing Approach To Valve Sizing For Dissolved Gas Applications ....................... 35

SIZING CONTROL VALVES FOR HYDROCARBON MIXTURES ....................................... 39

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WORK AID 2: PROCEDURES FOR THE USE OF A BRACKETING TECHNIQUE

WORK AID 3: GUIDELINES FOR ADJUSTING THE VALUES OF FLUID

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BASICS OF FLUID THERMODYNAMIC BEHAVIOR, ASSUMPTIONS FOR CONTROL VALVE

Basics of Fluid Thermodynamic Behavior

Pressure-Enthalpy Phase Diagrams

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Phase Dome And Fluid States

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Lines Of Constant Temperature

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Lines Of Constant Entropy

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Lines Of Specific Volume

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Assumptions For Control Valve Sizing Models

Importance Of Identifying Conditions At The Control Valve Vena Contracta

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Assumptions Concerning Entropy That Are Used In Control Valve Sizing

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Assumptions Concerning Enthalpy That Are Used In Control Valve Sizing

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Gas Flow Example

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