spontaneous voltage

A positive voltage that forms across the electrodes of a voltaic cell indicates that the oxidation-
reduction reaction is a spontaneous reaction for reduction at the cathode and oxidation at the
anode.

 Conversely, if the potentials of the half-cells are known, then it is possible to predict
whether a given redox reaction will be spontaneous (i.e. result in a positive voltage)
 A negative voltage indicates that the reverse reaction is spontaneous (i.e. oxidation at the
cathode, and reduction at the anode; by convention you would need to swap the labels on
the electrodes)
 Basically, any current flow indicates that there is a spontaneous redox reaction occurring
in a voltaic cell. The sign of the voltage indicates at which electrode the reduction or
oxidation is occurring. (electrons flow towards the half-cell where reduction is occurring
- by convention, the cathode)

As long as we can identify the actual reduction and oxidation processes that will occur in a redox
reaction, the general description of the standard reduction potential for any redox reaction (and
not just one occurring in a voltaic cell) would be:

E0 = E0red (reduction process) - E0red (oxidation process)

 Thus, E0 will be positive for the case where the reaction is spontaneous
 E0 will be zero for a redox reaction at equilibrium
 E0 will be negative for the case where the reaction is spontaneous in the reverse direction
 Note that there is no reference here to what is the cathode and what is the anode

conductor velocity

In physics a drift velocity is the average velocity attained by charged particles, such as electrons,
in a material due to an electric field. In general, an electron in a conductor will propagate
randomly at the Fermi velocity, resulting in an average velocity of zero. Applying an electric
field adds to this random motion a small net flow in one direction; this is the drift.
Drift velocity is proportional to current. In a resistive material it is also proportional to the
magnitude of an external electric field. Thus Ohm's law can be explained in terms of drift
velocity. The law's most elementary expression is:

where u is drift velocity, μ is the material's electron mobility, and E is the electric field. In
the MKS system these quantities' units are m/s, m2/(V·s), and V/m, respectively.
 When a potential difference is applied across a conductor, free electrons gain velocity in the
direction opposite to the electric field between successive collisions, thus acquiring a
velocity component in that direction in addition to its random thermal velocity. As a result
there is a definite small drift velocity of electrons, which is superimposed on the random
motion of free electrons. Due to this drift velocity, there is a net flow of electrons opposite to
the direction of the field.

ROTATION

The phase angle shift of 120° is a function of the actual rotational angle shift of the three
pairs of windings. If the magnet is rotating clockwise, winding 3 will generate its peak
instantaneous voltage exactly 120° (of alternator shaft rotation) after winding 2, which will
hit its peak 120° after winding 1. The magnet passes by each pole pair at different positions
in the rotational movement of the shaft. Where we decide to place the windings will dictate
the amount of phase shift between the windings’ AC voltage waveforms. If we make
winding 1 our “reference” voltage source for phase angle (0°), then winding 2 will have a
phase angle of -120° (120° lagging, or 240° leading) and winding 3 an angle of -240° (or
120° leading).

ANGULAR VELOCITY

Rotation Angle

When objects rotate about some axis—for example, when the CD (compact disc) in Figure
1 rotates about its center—each point in the object follows a circular arc. Consider a line from
the center of the CD to its edge. Each pit used to record sound along this line moves through the
same angle in the same amount of time. The rotation angle is the amount of rotation and is
analogous to linear distance. We define the rotation angle Δθ to be the ratio of the arc length to
the radius of curvature: Δθ=ΔsrΔθ=Δsr
Figure 1. All points on a CD travel in circular arcs. The pits along a line from the center to the
edge all move through the same angle Δθ in a time Δt.

Figure 2. The radius of a circle is rotated through an angle Δθ. The arc length Δs is described on
the circumference.

The arc length Δs is the distance traveled along a circular path as shown in Figure 2 Note
that r is the radius of curvature of the circular path.

We know that for one complete revolution, the arc length is the circumference of a circle of
radius r. The circumference of a circle is 2πr. Thus for one complete revolution the rotation
angle is

Δθ=2πrr=2πΔθ=2πrr=2π.

This result is the basis for defining the units used to measure rotation angles, Δθ to
be radians (rad), defined so that 2π rad = 1 revolution.

A comparison of some useful angles expressed in both degrees and radians is shown in Table 1.

Table 1. Comparison of Angular Units

Table 1. Comparison of Angular Units

Degree Measures Radian Measure

30º π6π6

60º π3π3

90º π2π2

120º 2π32π3

135º 3π43π4

180º π

Figure 3. Points 1 and 2 rotate through the same angle (Δθ), but point 2 moves through a greater
arc length (Δs) because it is at a greater distance from the center of rotation (r).

If Δθ = 2π rad, then the CD has made one complete revolution, and every point on the CD is
back at its original position. Because there are 360º in a circle or one revolution, the relationship
between radians and degrees is thus 2π rad = 360º so that

1 rad=360∘2π≈57.3∘1 rad=360∘2π≈57.3∘.
Angular Velocity
How fast is an object rotating? We define angular velocity ω as the rate of change of an angle. In
symbols, this is ω=ΔθΔtω=ΔθΔt, where an angular rotation Δθ takes place in a time Δt. The
greater the rotation angle in a given amount of time, the greater the angular velocity. The units
for angular velocity are radians per second (rad/s).

Angular velocity ω is analogous to linear velocity v. To get the precise relationship between
angular and linear velocity, we again consider a pit on the rotating CD. This pit moves an arc
length Δs in a time Δt, and so it has a linear velocity v=ΔsΔtv=ΔsΔt.

From Δθ=ΔsrΔθ=Δsr we see that Δs = rΔθ. Substituting this into the expression
for v gives v=rΔθΔt=rωv=rΔθΔt=rω.

We write this relationship in two different ways and gain two different insights:

v=rω or ωvrv=rω or ωvr.

The first relationship in v=rω or ωvrv=rω or ωvr states that the linear velocity v is proportional to
the distance from the center of rotation, thus, it is largest for a point on the rim (largest r), as you
might expect. We can also call this linear speed v of a point on the rim the tangential speed. The
second relationship inv=rω or ωvrv=rω or ωvr can be illustrated by considering the tire of a
moving car. Note that the speed of a point on the rim of the tire is the same as the speed v of the
car. See Figure 4. So the faster the car moves, the faster the tire spins—large v means a large ω,
because v=rω. Similarly, a larger-radius tire rotating at the same angular velocity (ω) will
produce a greater linear speed (v) for the car.

Figure 4. A car moving at a velocity v to the right has a tire rotating with an angular velocity
ω.The speed of the tread of the tire relative to the axle is v, the same as if the car were jacked up.
Thus the car moves forward at linear velocity v = rω, where r is the tire radius. A larger angular
velocity for t
PERIODIC TIME

A time period (denoted by 'T' ) is the time taken for one complete cycle of vibration to pass a
given point.[1] As the frequency of a wave increases, the time period of the wave decreases. The
unit for time period is 'seconds'. Frequency and time period are in a reciprocal relationship that
can be expressed mathematically as: T = 1/f or as: f = 1/T.

 Orbital period is the time for something to go round (orbit) something else.
 The period of a pendulum is the time it takes from one side to the other and back.
 An electron moving in a helical orbit that has an axis at right angles to the magnetic field has
a period given by T=2πm/qB, where m is the mass of the electron, q is the charge of the
electron and B is the magnetic field in the region.

Frequency
in physics, the number of waves that pass a fixed point in unit time; also, the number of cycles
or vibrations undergone during one unit of time by a body in periodic motion. A body in periodic
motion is said to have undergone one cycle or one vibration after passing through a series of
events or positions and returning to its original state. See also angular velocity; simple harmonic
motion.

If the period, or time interval, required to complete one cycle or vibration is 1/2 second, the
frequency is 2 per second; if the period is 1/100 of an hour, the frequency is 100 per hour. In
general, the frequency is the reciprocal of the period, or time interval; i.e., frequency = 1/period
= 1/(time interval). The frequency with which the Moon revolves around Earth is slightly more
than 12 cycles per year. The frequency of the A string of a violin is 440 vibrations or cycles per
second.
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The symbols most often used for frequency are f and the Greek letters nu (ν) and omega (ω). Nu
is used more often when specifying electromagnetic waves, such as light, X-rays, and gamma
rays. Omega is usually used to describe the angular frequency—that is, how much an object
rotates or revolves in radians per unit time. Usually frequency is expressed in the hertz unit,
named in honour of the 19th-century German physicist Heinrich Rudolf Hertz, one hertz being
equal to one cycle per second, abbreviated Hz; one kilohertz (kHz) is 1,000 Hz, and one
megahertz (MHz) is 1,000,000 Hz. In spectroscopy another unit of frequency, the wave number,
is sometimes used.
Definition: The maximum value attained by an alternating quantity during one cycle is called its
Peak value. It is also known as the maximum value or amplitude or crest value. The sinusoidal
alternating quantity obtains its peak value at 90 degrees as shown in the figure below. The peak
values of alternating voltage and current is represented by Em and Im respectively.

Average Value
Definition: The average of all the instantaneous values of an alternating voltage and currents
over one complete cycle is called Average Value.

If we consider symmetrical waves like sinusoidal current or voltage waveform, the positive half
cycle will be exactly equal to negative half cycle. Therefore, the average value over a complete
cycle will be zero. The work is done by both, positive and negative cycle and hence the average
value is determined without considering the signs.

So the only positive half cycle is considered to determine the average value of alternating
quantities of sinusoidal waves. Let us take an example to understand it.

Divide the positive half cycle into (n) number of equal parts as shown
in the above figure

Let i1, i2, i3…….. in be the mid ordinates

The Average value of current Iav = mean of the mid ordinates

R.M.S Value
Definition: That steady current which, when flows through a resistor of known resistance for a
given period of time than as a result the same quantity of heat is produced by the alternating
current when flows through the same resistor for the same period of time is called R.M.S or
effective value of the alternating current.

In other words, the R.M.S value is defined as the square root of means of squares of
instantaneous values.

Amplitude,
in physics, the maximum displacement or distance moved by a point on a vibrating body or wave
measured from its equilibrium position. It is equal to one-half the length of the vibrationpath.
The amplitude of a pendulum is thus one-half the distance that the bob traverses in moving from
one side to the other. Waves are generated by vibrating sources, their amplitude being
proportional to the amplitude of the source.

For a transverse wave, such as the wave on a plucked string, amplitude is measured by the
maximum displacement of any point on the string from its position when the string is at rest. For
a longitudinal wave, such as a sound wave, amplitude is measured by the maximum
displacement of a particle from its position of equilibrium. When the amplitude of a wave
steadily decreases because its energy is being lost, it is said to be damped.

oscilloscope
A test instrument that is used to measure and analyze electronic signals (waves and pulses)
displayed on its screen. The x-axis represents time, and the y-axis represents an instantaneous
view of the voltage of the input signal. To allow viewing signals across a wide frequency range,
the rate and speed at which the sweep of the x-axis occurs is configurable. The sensitivity of the
inputs can also be configured to accept signals from microvolts peak-to-peak to many thousands
of volts peak-to-peak.

Both analog and digital oscilloscopes are available. In an analog scope, the x-axis is controlled
by an internal time base, and the y-axis is directly controlled by the input signal. In a digital
model, the input voltage is sampled at a preset frequency. The x-axis represents the samples
along a timeline, and the y-axis shows the voltage levels of each sample. See spectrum analyzer.