Definition of pavement:

Pavement is the actual travel surface especially made durable and serviceable to withstand the
traffic load commuting upon it. Pavement grants friction for the vehicles thus providing comfort
to the driver and transfers the traffic load from the upper surface to the natural soil.

In earlier times before the vehicular traffic became most regular, cobblestone paths were much
familiar for animal carts and on foot traffic load.

Pavements are primarily to be used by vehicles and pedestrians. Storm water drainage and
environmental conditions are a major concern in the designing of a pavement. The first of the
constructed roads date back to 4000 BC and consisted of stone paved streets or timber roads. The
roads of the earlier times depended solely on stone, gravel and sand for construction and water
was used as a binding agent to level and give a finished look to the surface. All hard road
pavements usually fall into two broad categories namely.

1) Flexible Pavement
2) Rigid Pavement

Flexible pavement: Definition

Are those pavements which reflect the deformation of subgrade and the subsequent layers to the
surface. Thus, it is a multi-layered system with low flexural strength. The external loads are
largely transmitted to the subgrade through the intervening layers-the base and the sub-base – by
means of interlocking at the grain to grain contacts in the granular structure. Flexible, usually
asphalt, is laid with no reinforcement or with a specialized fabric reinforcement that permits
limited flow or repositioning of the roadbed under ground changes.

 The design of flexible pavement is based on load distributing characteristic of the

component layers. The black top pavement including water & gravel bound macadam fall
in this category.
 Flexible pavement on the whole has low or negligible flexural strength .The flexible
pavement layers transmit the vertical or compressive stresses to the lower layers by grain
transfer through contact points of granular structure.
 The vertical compressive stress is maximum on the pavement surface directly under the
wheel load and is equal to contact pressure under the wheels. Due to the ability to
distribute the stress to large area in the shape of truncated cone the stresses get decreased
in the lower layer.
 As such the flexible pavement may be constructed in a number of layers and the top layer
has to be strongest as the highest compressive stresses.
 To be sustained by this layer, in addition to wear and tear, the lower layer have to take up
only lesser magnitude of stress as there is no direct wearing action die to traffic loads,
therefore inferior material with lower cast can be used in the lower layers.
Rigid pavement: Definition

A rigid pavement, in contrast to a flexible one, derives its capacity to resist loads by virtue of its
flexural strength. Flexural strength allows the pavement to bridge over minor irregularities or
weak spots in the subgrade or other courses such as the base or sub-base upon which it rests.
Thus, the inherent strength of the pavement slab itself plays a major role in resisting the wheel
loads; this, however, cannot under-rate the need for a strong subgrade. The rigid characteristic of
the pavement are associated with rigidity or flexural strength or slab action so the load is
distributed over a wide area of subgrade soil. Rigid pavement is laid in slabs with steel
reinforcement.

 The rigid pavements are made of cement concrete either plain, reinforced or prestressed
concrete.
 Critical condition of stress in the rigid pavement is the maximum flexural stress occurring
in the slab due to wheel load and the temperature changes.
 Rigid pavement is designed and analyzed by using the elastic theory.

Advantages of Rigid Pavement

1. Rigid lasts much, much longer i.e 30+ years compared to 5-10 years of flexible
pavements.
2. In the long run it is about half the cost to install and maintain. But the initial costs are
somewhat high.
3. Less Maintenance cost and Continuous Traffic and Flow.
4. High efficiency in terms of functionality

Comparison of Flexible and Rigid Pavement

SL Flexible Pavement Rigid Pavement

NO.
1 Deformation in the sub grade is transferred
to the upper layers.
2 Design is based on load distributing
characteristics of the component layers
3 Have low flexural strength
Deformation in the subgrade is not
transferred to subsequent layers
Design is based on flexural strength or slab
action
Have high flexural strength

4 Load is transferred by grain to grain No such phenomenon of grain to grain load

 contact
5 Have low completion cost but repairing
cost is high
6 Surfacing cannot be laid directly on the
sub grade but a sub base is needed
7 No thermal stresses are induced as the
pavement have the ability to contract and
expand freely.Thats why expansion joints
are not needed.
8 Have low life span (High Maintenance
Cost)
9 Strength of the road is highly dependent on
the strength of the sub grade.
10 Rolling of the surfacing is needed
11 Road can be used for traffic within 24
hours
13 Damaged by Oils and Certain Chemicals
transfer exists
Have low repairing cost but completion cost
is high
Surfacing can be directly laid on the sub
grade
Thermal stresses are more vulnerable to be
induced as the ability to contract and expand
is very less in concrete.
Thats why expansion joints are needed
Life span is more as compare to flexible
(Low Maintenance Cost)
Strength of the road is less dependent on the
strength of the sub grade
Rolling of the surfacing in not needed
Road cannot be used until 14 days of curing
No Damage by Oils and Greases

Highway Pavement: Layers, Functions, Types, Defects, Rigid and Flexible Pavements!

Pavement design, in general, consists of determining the thickness of the pavement or of the
several layers of which it is composed in order to resist the wheel loads of the traffic and transmit
them safely on to the foundation soil.

Thus, the strength of the pavement must be adequate to resist the contact pressure from the wheel
loads, and the thickness must be sufficient to transmit this pressure on to a larger area of the
foundation soil below to avoid excessive deformation or shear failure of the soil. This will ensure
that the pavement structure is strong and stable during the entire design period to serve traffic
needs.

Functions and Requirements of a Pavement:

The primary functions of a highway pavement are:

1. Provide a strong and smooth surface to resist traffic loads.

2. Distribute the loads safely on to a larger area of the foundation soil through the intermediate
layers/courses

3. Carry traffic loads under repeated application during the anticipated design life without
developing excessive or harmful deformations/strains.

In order to fulfill these functions, the requirements of a pavement are:

1. It should be strong enough structurally to withstand the stresses imposed by the traffic.
2. Its thickness should be adequate to transmit the applied loads and distribute them on to a larger
area of the soil below so that the pressure transmitted is small.

3. It should provide a hard wearing surface so as to resist the abrasion caused by vehicle tyres.

4. It should be smooth enough to provide riding comfort, yet provide enough friction for tractive
effort and to prevent skidding.

5. It should be impervious to water so as to prevent its deteriorating effect on the layers below.

6. It should have adequate durability to serve through its design period.

7. Its initial cost and maintenance cost during its design life should be a minimum.

Some of these requirements may appear to be conflicting; but a judicious compromise should be
struck for good design of a pavement.

Pavement Courses and Their Functions:

A pavement consists of layers or courses, in general, as shown in Fig. 7.1.

The courses/layers from bottom to top are:

i. Surface (or wearing) course

ii. Base course

iii. Sub-base course

iv. Subgrade soil.

The functions of each of these layers are given below in the reverse order:

i. Surface (or Wearing) Course:

This is the topmost layer; its function is to provide a smooth, strong, abrasion-resistant and
reasonably impervious course. Since it is directly in contact with the vehicle tyres, it has to resist
the imposed wheel loads and transmit them safely to the layer below. The material may be
granular, bituminous or cement concrete depending upon the nature of the construction.

ii. Base Course:

This is immediately below the surface course and its function is to distribute the stresses
transmitted through the surface course evenly onto the layers below. Invariably, it consists of
granular or bituminous material, and acts as a structural part of the pavement.

iii. Sub-Base Course:

This comes just below the base course and provides additional help to the courses above it in
distributing the loads. It also helps in preventing soil grains of the subgrade from intruding into
the base course above, and counteracts frost action, if any. It may consist of stabilised soil or soil
aggregate mixes, which facilitate drainage of free water from the pavement.

iv. Subgrade:

It is the compacted natural soil immediately below the pavement layers; this act as a foundation
for the highway. The top surface of the subgrade is called the formation level.

Depending upon the alignment and the nature of the terrain, a roadway may be constructed over
an embankment or a cutting, or at or nearly at the natural ground level. The formation of level,
therefore, has to be properly decided to suit these conditions.

Strength Evaluation of Pavement Courses:

Evaluation of Subgrade Soil:

Subgrade soil, being natural soil compacted to the extent necessary, the criteria which govern its
strength or bearing capacity are its ability to avoid shear failure and prevent harmful settlements
(total as well as differential). At least top 50 cm of the subgrade soil is compacted to achieve the
maximum dry density. The strength properties of the subgrade soil have to be determined for use
in the design.

The common strength tests used for this purpose are:

1. Triaxial compression test

2. Plate bearing test

3. California bearing ratio (CBR) test

4. California resistance value test

The fourth involves the use of Hveemstabilometer and cohesion-meter; since this forms the basis
of an empirical method of the design of what are known as ‘flexible pavements’.

The results from the triaxial compression test, the plate bearing test and the CBR test are used in
some methods of pavement design.

Evaluation of Base and Sub-Base Courses:

These courses may contain primarily soil, or be made up of granular or stone aggregates. The
above discussion relating to subgrade soil will be applicable for these courses also.

Evaluation of Surface Course:

If the surface course is of a bituminous mix, the Marshall Stability test is used. Evaluation of a
cement concrete course may be done making use of a plate bearing test or Benkelman beam test.

Different Layers in a Pavement

1. Surface Course or Wearing Course: The visible part of an asphalt concrete pavement,
the part that directly supports truck and passenger vehicles, is called the surface course or
wearing course. It is typically between about 40 and 75 mm thick and consists of crushed
aggregate and asphalt binder. Surface course mixtures tend to have a relatively high
asphalt content, which helps these mixtures stand up better to traffic and the effects of
sunlight, air, and water. Surface course mixtures also are usually made using maximum
aggregate sizes less than 19 mm, which helps to provide for a quiet ride. Also, using
aggregate sizes larger than 19 mm can make it more difficult to obtain mixtures with
sufficient asphalt binder contents to provide adequate durability for surface course
mixtures, since the lower aggregate surface area of these aggregates results in a lower
demand for asphalt binder. On the other hand, the lower binder content needed for these
mixtures can make them more economical than mixtures made using smaller aggregates.
2. Intermediate Course or Binder Course: Sometimes an intermediate course is placed
between the surface and base courses of a flexible pavement system. This is sometimes
called a binder course. Typically 50 to 100 mm in thickness, it consists of a mixture with
intermediate aggregate size and asphalt binder content.
3. Base Course: Below the surface course or intermediate course of a flexible pavement is
the base course. The base course helps provide the overall thickness to the pavement
needed to ensure that the pavement can withstand the projected traffic over the life of the
 project. Base courses may be anywhere from about 100 to 300-mm thick. In general, the
higher the anticipated traffic level on a pavement, the thicker the pavement must be, and
the thicker the base course. Thicker pavements will deflect less than thinner ones under
traffic loading, which reduces strains within the pavement and makes them more resistant
to fatigue cracking. Traditionally, base course mixtures have been designed using larger
aggregate sizes than surface course mixtures, with maximum aggregate sizes ranging
from about 19 to 37.5 mm. This helps to produce a lean mixture with low asphalt binder
content, which helps keep the cost of these mixtures low.
4. Sub-base: Granular sub-base is crushed stone or gravel, usually 100 to 300 mm in
thickness. The nominal maximum aggregate size varies, but it should always be well
compacted prior to placement of the base course.
5. Sub-grade: The subgrade is the soil on which the pavement is constructed. If the soil is
stable and strong, it may only need compaction prior to placing the granular sub base and
remaining pavement layers. A cross section of the typical flexible pavement has been
shown in below.