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Data Structure and Algorithm by Y. Narahari
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Code 1 Code 2
0 1 0 1
1
0 1 0 1
0
0 1 b
0 1 0 1
c c
0
a b c d a d
e
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Example
1) Initial state 2) Merge a and d
0.12 0.40 015 0.08 0.25 0.20 0.40 015 0.25
0 0 0 0 0
a b c d e
0 0 0
d a b c e
3) Merge {a,d} with c 4) Merge {a,c,d} with e 3) Merge
0.35 0.60 1.00
0.40 0.25 0.40
0 0 0
c e b
b e b
d c e
a
d a c
d a
"!$#&%'7(+*, / ( -A
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O|04C^A*jx0:AS2I]B*0:B(«CfLR3aS:I7.Z.10:3GIUABC^A*j@^0457>{_
weight root
1 .12 1 1 a .12 1 1 0 0 0
2 .40 2 2 b .40 2 2 0 0 0
3 .15 3 3 c .15 3 3 0 0 0
4 .08 4 4 d .08 4 4 0 0 0
5 .25 5 5 e .25 5 5 0 0 0
Forest Alphabet lchild rchild parent
(Dynamic) (Static) (Dynamic)
Shrinks grows
as many elements as the number as many elements as the number
of trees in the forest currently of nodes in all the current trees
of the forest
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P
.12 .40 .15 .08 .25 1 a .12 1
0 0 0 0 0 2 b .40 2
a b c d e
3 c .15 3
Inintial Forest d .08 4
4
5 e .25 5
Alphabet
weight root
1 .12 1 1 0 0 0
2 .40 2 2 0 0 0
3 .15 3 3 0 0 0
4 .08 4 4 0 0 0
5 .25 5 5 0 0 0
last node
last tree Forest lchild rchild parent
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e.
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!
Step 2
1 0 0 6
weight root 2 0 0 0
0.20 0.40 015 0.25 1 .25 5 3 0 0 0
0 0 0
2 3 5 2 .40 2 4 0 0 6
d a 3 .15 3 5 0 0 0
i = least = 4
4 1 j = second = 1 .20 6 6 4 1 0
4
last tree Forest last node lchild rchild parent
Tree
Step 3
lchild rchild parent
1 0 0 6
0.35 weight root 2 0 0 0
7 1 .25 5 3 0 0 7
0.40 0.25
6 0 0 2 .40 2 4 0 0 6
c b e
3 2 5 3 0.35 7 5 0 0 0
d a 6 4 1 7
4 1 i = least = 3 last tree
j = second = 4 3 6 0
7
last node Tree
"! #9%')(]*-,$. / ;=(
A ;)(
.
Step 4 lchild rchild parent
1 0 0 6
2 0 0 0
weight root
0.60 0.40 3 0 0 7
1 0.60 8
0 4 0 0 6
b 2 .40 2
2 5 0 0 8
e
5 last tree 6 4 1 7
i = least = 1 Forest
c j = second = 3
3 7 3 6 8
d a 5 7 0
4 8
1
last node
Step 5
lchild rchild parent
1 0 0 6
1.00 weight root
2 0 0 9
1 1.0 9
3 0 0 7
b last tree
4 0 0 6
e 5 0 0 8
6 4 1 7
c
7 3 6 8
d a
8 5 7 9
9 2 8 0
last node
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13
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1 4 18
2 12
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5 11
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*
17
17
13 21
delete 4 13 21
10 15 24
10 15 24
4 11 16 23 27 /* delete leaf */
11 16 23 27
25
25
26
26
delete 10
17
/* delete a node with no left
13 subtree */
21
15 24 17
11
delete 27
16 23 25
13 21
/* delete node with no
26 15 24
right subtree */ 11
16 23 27
delete 13
25
/* delete node with both
26
left and right subtrees */
17
17
Method 1. Method 2
15 21
11 21 Find highest valued element 24 Find lowest valued element
among the descendants of 11 16 among the descendants of
15 24
left child right child
23 25
16 23 25
26
26
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-
m~26@ $¨ ª
-.LEF3H&12G@ .0EF3 ¡2z:¶@}(j@ ¤¥* ,R>F:1&)3`K+2/E #¨ K :1<?`K+2©fUdPª
@ - $ (
C*L@Q2§@}>J.|@ $¨ ªR $¨ ªj.LK+2¹¡*L@q > $¨ %ª LU^%'(Q(+Fr¢2§@q>`2zK+2;(+F&=@j@}* ¡2±@QKQ`2
$ (
s{*0K .0EF3 U S 2(+>J.0&)& (+>F*P¤ @q>`2±K+2;(+F&¶@9:)(j@QKQ`2¹s{*0K U
@ @ @
$ (
C*¤
¨ ª $¨ ªo.0EF3
$ $¨ ;ª
¨ Qª $¨ ªo.0EF3 $¨ ;
ª
@ @ @
@ ( @ @
S>`26K+2/s{*0K+20O@q>`2±@QK+262§¤C:=@q> KQ*O*L@ >J.0(9.x@&12;.0(v@ $
o :)E?@Q2/KQEJ.0& EF*O3`2/(
"%$
°v¬
® & ¬ 0 Q¬G¬ »+¼
y x
Right rotate ( T, y)
x T3 T1 y
Left rotate ( T, x)
T1 T2 T2 T3
!?" $'& » ¼'( 3 < , <# 3 1 , !#" 0 , <>!?"2"
¤C>`26K+2P.0(D@}>`2§@QK+262§¤C:=@q> KQ*O*L@ >J.0(9.x@&12;.0(v@ (
o :)E?@Q2/KQEJ.0& EF*O3`2/(
"%$
S>OF( @q>`2¹@qK+262§¤C:=@q> KQ*O*L@ >J.L(9.x@9&12;.0(v@
o o o :1EA@Q26KqEJ.L& EF*f3`2/(
&
"%$
&
"%$
S *$,/*0r &12G@Q2'@q>`2 Kq*O*0s `&12G@ ¡2¹@q>`2±>`2;:=<?>?@9*0sn@q>`2¹@QKQ2620U³S>`2/E
@
¨tKQ*O*L@}ª @
@
S>OF(
o
(
? &1*0<¨ Pª @ &
M V % F B #&%(%( G !%(!
S >F1: &12¢:)EF( 2/K @q:)E`<H.HEF*f3`20n@q>`2¢K+2;(+F&¶@}:1E`<4@QK+2/2-rX.;M¸:)*0&.x@Q2£@q>`2¢K+2;3feh¡J&.0,}i
KQ* 2/K @q:12/(6U S *$K+2;:1EF( @}.x@Q2C@}>`2¹¸:)*d&).x@Q2;3 KQ* 26K @ MdO¤ 2F( 2
V % F .LEF3 x*0K
V " B & ¨t(Q.0r¢2¹.0(:)E %ng±m²@qK+262;(65INO262=K :1<?`K+2©fUP ª
&126s´@
KQ:1<?>?@
3F*d`¡J&=2
S *X:1EF( 2/K @_.EF*f3`2 n ¤ 2 JKQ(v@_:)EF( 2/K @C@q>`2EF*O3`2 .0(C:1s³:)E .0E *0KQ3F:)EJ.LK M jB NfS
.LEF3
,/*0&)*d`K£:¶@£K+2;3~U hs@}>`2 .LK+2/EA@£*0s¥@q>`24:1EF(+26K @Q2;3 EF*f3`2 :)(¡J&).0,}i q@ >`2;E
°v¬
® & ¬ 0 Q¬G¬ »+¼ $
This need not
be the root
k k+1
10 10
k k k
Fig. 1
8 15 8 15
k k
Just y y
inserted 6 x 6 x
Uncle is red
10 10
8 15 8 15
Fig. 2 y y
Just 9 x x 9
inserted
Uncle is red
20 20
Fig. 3
just 10 10
inserted
Uncle is right child of root
k k
10 8
k k-1 Right rotate k k-1
8 15 6 10
k and change k -1
Fig. 4 y x
colours 15
x 6 just
inserted y
Uncle is black
10 9
8 15 Double rotate 8 10
Fig. 5 and change x
just 9 x 15
inserted colours
) !#" $& »'( 1#" !?<> 3 <#!#"2" 1 ( "2!?" J<41 " T,)!? 3 1
Uncle is black
°v¬
® & ¬ 0 Q¬G¬ »+¼
11 11
2 14 2 14 y
( Fig. 1)
1 7 15 1 7 x 15
5 8 5 8
y
4 4
x
(Fig. 5)
2 11
1 5 8 14
4 15
!#" $'& »( 1#"2! <> 3 A!#" 0 , <>!?"2" 1 ( + *, - .0 " »
¤ $2 .LK+2 3F*dE`2$(+:)EF,G2$EF*dE`2$*0s^@q>`2 B KQ* 26K @}:=2;(9¤C:)&1&T¡2 ¸`:1*d&.x@Q2/3~Uhs8@q>`2
.xKQ2/E?@:)(¥K+2/3~@}>`2/E·@q>`2±K+2;34,/*dEF(v@QKq.0:)E?@j:)(j¸:)*d&).x@Q2;3~U NO2/2=K :1<d`KQ2©OU´/`U
Eo(+F,R>o.
,;.L(+20¥¤j2 ¡J`¡F¡J&12u@q>`2 ¸:)*d&).x@q:)*dE @q>`2@QK+2/2 ¡OM K+2 2P.|@q2/3F&=M
. F &=M:)E`<£@q>`2K+2/,/*d&1*d`KQ:)E`<@QKq.0EF( s{*0KQrX.x@q:)*dE¢*0s K :1<?`K+2±*0K K :=<?`K+2££FEA@q:1&
:¶@^EF*z&)*0E`<d2/K . F &1:12/(/U S>F:1(³2/:=@q>`2/K³2;&1:)r:1EJ.x@Q2;(n@q>`2¥¸:)*d&).x@q:)*dE©*0K KQ*O3FF,62/(8.
(+:¶@}J.|@}:1*dE±:)E¤C>F:1,R>*dE`2D*0sf@}>`2I@QKq.0EF( st*LKqr.x@q:)*dEF(:1WE K :1<?`K+2/(º` FAC. F &1:12/(6
+
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%'E-:1EF( 2/K @q:)*dEK+'2 fF:=K+2;( ¢¨t&1*0< nª K+2/,/*0&)*d`KQ:)E`<d(³.LEF3¢.x@ r*d(v@º@ ¤j*§KQ*L@}.x@q:)*dEF(6U
K :=<?`K+2;(COU´ -.0EF3 fU´P:)&1&)F(v@QKq.x@Q2'@ ¤j*£U2 IF.0r &=2;(6U
+
M V % F B #&%(%( G %9F %
NO262=Kº:=<?`K+2;( JU d JU OU
+ +
K :1KQ(v@;`( 2P.LKQ,R>·s{*0K9.0E42/&12/r¢2/EA@D@q*$¡«2©3`2/&12G@Q2;3~U
°v¬
® & ¬ 0 Q¬G¬ »+¼
25
20 30
10 28 35
8 15 y
9
x Just inserted
( Fig. 2) Recolouring
25
20 y 30
x 10 28 35
8 15
( Fig. 4) Right rotate with recolouring
20
10 25
8 30
15
28 35
9
!#" $'& » $ ( 1#"2! <> 3 A!#" 0 , <>!?"2" 1 ( + *, - .0 " ¼
°v¬
® & ¬ 0 Q¬G¬ »+¼
7 !?" $'& »( "20 " <# 3 <>!?"2"21 ( <# T, <> 3 »
!?" '$ & »'( "20 " <# 3 R !?" 0 , <>!?"2" 1 ( <# T, <> 3 ¼
!?" '$ & »( "20 " <# 3 R !?" 0 , <>!?"2" 1 ( <# T, <> 3
!?" $'& »( "20 " <# 3 R !?" 0 , <>!?"2" 1 ( <# T, <> 3
!?" $'& ¼( "20 " <# 3 R !?" 0 , <>!?"2" 1 ( <# T, <> 3 $
°v¬
® & ¬ 0 Q¬G¬ »+¼
!#" $'& ¼/» ( " 0 " <# 3 R R!#" 0 , <#!#"2" 1 ( + *, - .0 " »
°v¬
® & ¬ 0 Q¬G¬ »
!#" $'& ¼R¼'( " 0 " <# 3 R R!#" 0 , <#!#"2" 1 ( + *, - .0 " ¼
°v¬
® & ¬ 0 Q¬G¬ »;»
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EF*O3`2©¤C:¶@}> @q>`2£*dE`2 ,6*dE?@R.L:)EF:)E`<$@q>`2 &.LK+<d2/(v@_2/&12/r¢2/EA@':)E @q>`2 &126s´@§(+`¡`@QK+2/20U
¨tS>F:1(jEF*O3`2>J.L(EF*-KQ:1<?>?@j,R>F:)&13«ªU
hs^@q>`2£2;&=2;r-2;E?@_@q*¡2$3`2;&=26@Q2/3:1(¹:)E].EF*f3`2£¤C:¶@}>*dEF&=MuKQ:=<?>A@_,R>F:1&)3~~( ¤¥.
@q>F:1(©EF*O3`2¤C:¶@q> @q>`2·*dE`2,6*dEA@}.0:1EF:)E`<H@q>`2(+rX.0&1&12/( @2/&12/r¢2;E?@©:)E @q>`2XKQ:1<d>A@
(+`¡`@QK+2/2¨tS>F:1(¥EF*f3`2z>J.0(jEF*¢&126s´@9,R>F:1&)3«ªRU
hs @q>`2©2/&12/r¢2;E?@¥@q*¢¡«23`2/&12G@q2/3 :)(C:)Eu.EF*O3`2¤C:¶@q>4¡*L@q>u.&=2/s´@C,R>F:1&)3u.0EF3 .
KQ:=<?>A@j,R>F:1&)3~@q>`2;E ( ¤¥. :1EH.0E?M·*0sT@q>`2z.L¡*¸d2§@ ¤j*£¤¥.;M`(6U
S >F:1&12±(v¤. F :)E`<J`(v¤¥. *dEF&¶MX@q>`2¹id26M(¥¡J@9EF*L@j@}>`2z,6*d&)*0`Kq(6U
S>`2¢:=@Q2/r @q*H¡2X3`2/&12G@Q2;3 :)(zEF*P¤ :1E. EF*O3`2X>J.;¸`:1E`< *dEF&¶M .H&126s´@,}>F:)&)3 *0K
*0EF&=M . KQ:1<?>?@£,R>F:1&)3~U 2 &).0,62@q>F:1(©EF*O3`2¤C:¶@q> :¶@}(©(Q*0&12,R>F:1&)3~UuS>F:)(rX.;M
¸:)*0&.x@Q2_K+2/3H,6*dEF(v@qKq.0:1EA@j*0K¡J&).0,}i,6*dEF(v@qKq.0:1EA@;UTg¹:1*d&.x@q:1*dE*0sTK+2;34,/*dEF(v@QKq.0:)E?@
,/.0E·¡2±2P.L(Q:1&=M +I2;3~U
hs§@q>`2 3`2;&=26@Q2/3pEF*f3`2 :1(¡J&)*O,}i @q>`2u¡J&.L,}i ,/*0EF( @QKq.0:1EA@¢:)(¢¸:)*d&).x@Q2;3~U S>`2
K+2/r*P¸L.0&T*0s8.·¡J&.L,}iuEF*f3`2 ,/.0F( 2;(±.0E?M .x@q> @q>J.x@±,6*dE?@}.0:)E`2/3 @q*·>J.P¸d2
*0E`2¹s{2G¤ 2/K¥¡J&).0,}iXEF*O3`20U
Sj¤j* ,;.L(+2/(9.LKQ:)( 205
LU S>`2CK+2 &.0,6:)E`<±EF*O3`2C:)( K+2/3~O:1E$¤C>F:1,R>¢,/.0( 2¤j29r¢26K+2;&¶M£,6*d&)*0`K^:=@^¡J&.0,}i
@}*$rX.Li02¹ s{*0Kj@q>`2±&)*0(Q(*Ls *dE`2±¡J&.0,qiXEF*f3`20U
fU S>`2zK+2 &.0,6:)E`<$EF*O3`2±:)(¥¡J&).0,}iU
E¹@q>F:)( ,;.0( 20;¤j2 ¡J`¡F¡J&12 @q>`2 +(+>F*0K @qE`2/(Q( ¥ @q>`2³@QK+262 ¡AM§K+2 2P.|@q2/3F&=M
. F &=M:)E`<z@}>`2'K+2;,6*d&)*0`Kq:1E`<¹@qKq.0EF( s{*0KQrX.x@q:1*dE *0s Kº:=<?`K+2±OU´/zFEA@q:)&«:=@ EF*
&)*dE`<d26K. F &):12/(6U
S>`2/E ¤ 2 2/K+s{*0KQr @q>`2@qKq.0EF( s{*0KQrX.x@q:1*dE4:1E K :1<?`K+2¢fU -:1s^:=@±. F &):12/(6st*0&¶e
&1*P¤j2/3:=sIE`2;,G2;(+(Q.LK M ¡OM*dE`2-. F &1:),/.x@q:)*dE *0/s K :1<?`K+2fU ` Kº:=<?`K+2fU´/ *0K
K :=<?`K+2©fU\ U
.-
B³e3`2;&=26@q:1*dE·K+'2 fF:=K+2;(¦-¨t&1*0<¢E«ª8KQ2/,6*d&)*d`KQ:1E`<?(j.LEF3 .x@9r*0( @ KQ*L@}.x@q:1*dEF(6U
NO26=2 K :1<?`K+2/(CfU\¹.LEF3 fU\0©s{*0K @ ¤j* J2 IF.0r &12/(6U
°v¬
® & ¬ 0 Q¬G¬ »¼
"-#
#¬`®O¯\°+¯ x®
% Pe STK+2/2©:)(_.EfF&1& @QKQ262¨tw626Kq*XEF*O3`2/(Rª¥*0K_.(+:)E`<?&=2EF*O3`2©@QKQ262¨ *0EF&=M *0E`2
EF*O3`2ªD*0K9.$r$F&¶@q: &12'EF*O3`2±@QK+262§¤C:=@q>·@q>`2¹s{*d&)&1*P¤C:)E`< KQ* 26K @q:12/(/5
LUºk8.0,R>4:1EA@Q26KQ:)*0K EF*f3`2z>J.0(j@ ¤¥* *0K @}>`K+262±,R>F:)&13`K+2;E
fUºk8.0,R> .|@}>·s Kq*0r @q>`2¹KQ*O*L@¥@q*¢. &12;.Ls >J.L(j@}>`2z(Q.0r¢2§&12/E`<0@q>~U
K :12/&)3F(j*0s . C*f3`2-5
®L° ¬UQ® . "0 O¬
$ $ ( .( =
$ 5 º*d:)E?@Q2/KD@}*£@q>`2 JKQ( @C,}>F:)&)3
( 5 º*d:)E?@Q2/KD@}*£@q>`2±( 2;,6*dEF3H,R>F:1&)3
= 5 º*d:)E?@Q2/KD@}*£@q>`2§@q>F:1KQ34,R>F:1&)3
$ 5 NfrX.0&1&12/(v@jid2GMX@q>J.x@9:1(9.$3`2/(+,62/EF3`2;E?@C*0sn@q>`2z( 2;,6*dEF3H,}>F:)&)3
( 5 NfrX.0&1&12/(v@jid2GMX@q>J.x@9:1(9.$3`2/(+,62/EF3`2;E?@C*0sn@q>`2¹@q>F:1KQ34,}>F:)&)3
J¬ , . 10A¬
i026M *L@q>`62 K J2;&13F(
2/,6*0KQ3F(9.LK+2 &.0,G2;34.x@¥@q>`2z&12;.;¸?2;(6U³k8.0,R>4&=2P.xs ,/*0EA@}.0:1EF(¥.$K+2/,/*LKq3]¨ .0EF3 i026MJª
=¬ 0¬6¬ ¯+* Q¬
0¬ &
S>`2-¸L.0&)`2/(K+2/,/*0KQ3`2/3.|@©@q>`2:)E?@Q2/KQEJ.0&³EF*f3`2/(,/.0E ¡«2F( 2;3 @q* <?F:13`2¢@q>`2
( 2;.LKQ,R> .|@}>~U
S *( 2P.LKQ,R>s{*0KD.zKQ2/,6*0KQ3¢¤C:=@q>¢id2GM-¸L.L&)`2 nA¤j2 JKQ( @D(v@}.LK @ .x@I@q>`2'KQ*O*L@;Uºm 2G@
$D.LEF3 j¡2±@q>`2§@ ¤j*£¸L.L&)`2/(( @q*0K+2/34>`26K+2dU
.(
°v¬
® & ¬ 0 Q¬G¬ »
7 16
5 - 8 12 19 -
2 5 7 8 12 16 19
7 !?" $'& ¼)( 6 " *, - .0 "%3)5 , ¼ <>!?"2"
L Uº s Fr*P¸?2_@q*£@}>`2 JKQ(v@C,R>F:1&)3
$
fUº s .0EF3@q>`2§EF*O3`2§>J.0(D*dEF&=M$@ ¤j*,R>F:1&)3`K+2/E~fr*P¸?2@q*@q>`2§( 2/,/*dEF3
$
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`Uº s .0EF3 @q>`2·EF*O3`2 >J.L(©@}>`K+262,R>F:)&13`K+2;E~ r*P¸?2-@q* @q>`2( 2/,/*dEF3
$
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( (
k³¸d2;E?@qJ.0&)&¶M??¤j2±K+2P.L,R>4.$&12;.Ls U u:)(:1E·@q>`2¹@QKQ262±:=µ :)(9.|@¥@q>F:)(¥&=2P.Ls U
° J¬/® *°
% Pe$STK+262±¤C:¶@q> &=26¸d2;&1(¥>J.0(¥¡2G@ ¤ 262;E .0EF3H &12;.P¸d2;(
"%$ "%$
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.|@9&12;.0(v@ &)*0< ]&=26¸d2;&1(
& =
.|@9r*d(v@± &)*L< ]&12G¸?2/&)(
& (
M
HG
KF*0K9.LE42UIF.0r &=2df(+262=K :1<?`K+2©fU JU +
®7 ¬ °
xU m *f,/.x@Q2§@q>`2±EF*f3`2«`¤C>F:),R>·(+>F*dF&)34¡«2¹@}>`2 .LK+2/EA@¥*0s
OU hsX>J.0( ,R>F:)&13`K+2;E~
°v¬
® & ¬ 0 Q¬G¬ »
7 16
5 - 8 12 19 -
2 5 7 8 12 16 19
Insert(18)
7 16
5 - 8 12 v 19 -
2 5 7 8 12 16 18 19
Insert(10)
Split v into v and v‘
7 16 w
v‘
5 - 8 - v 12 - 18 19
2 5 7 8 10 12 16 18 19
Split w into w and w‘ and make
a new root
10 - New root
Old root
w 7 - 16 -
v‘
5 - 8 - v 12 - 18 19
2 5 7 8 10 12 16 18 19
!?" $'& ¼3( 1#" !?<# 3 A ¼ <>!#" "21 ( 6 " *,)- .0 "
°v¬
® & ¬ 0 Q¬G¬ » $
10 -
7 - 16 - p
5 - 8 - 12 - v 18 19
2 5 7 8 10 12 16 18 19
delete (12)
10 -
7 - p 18 -
5 - 8 - v 16 - 18 -
2 5 7 8 10 16 18 19
L delete(7).This leads to deletion
of node v
- p 18 - p’
5 8 16 - 18 -
2 5 8 10 16 18 19
leads to deletion of p and p’
and decreases the number of levels by 1
12 18
5 8 16 - 19 -
2 5 8 12 16 18 19
7 !?" $'& ¼ $ ( "20 " <# 3 ¼ <>!?"2" 1 ( 6 *, - .0 "
°v¬
® & ¬ 0 Q¬G¬ »
rX.Lid2 u.LEF*L@q>`2/K,}>F:)&)3·*0s·.0EF3 &.0,G2±:=@C:1E·@q>`2 KQ* 26K*0KQ3`26K
.03vF( @ .LEF3 9.x@9EF*O3`2 @}* K+2J2/,@¥@q>`2E`2G¤!(+:¶@}J.|@}:1*dE
$ .(
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U
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7 F
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*Ls &12G¸?2/&)(j¡AM²LU^hs :)(EF*L@j@}>`2±KQ*O*L@;`&12G@
.LK+2/EA@*0s
s >J.0('.,R>F:)&134¤C:=@q>u,R>F:)&13`K+2;E~F@qKq.0EF( s 26KC.0E . F KQ* KQ:.x@Q2±*dE`2z@}*
:1sn@q>F:)(,}>F:)&)3 :)(.L3 +.L,62/EA@©¨ (+:=¡J&):)E`<Oª @q* U
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C Ut8 ? @ =uw
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C BeBe8FGJ8 A@C <"9bG C G )j @ GK8 @ GJI3B3 GJI
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A GJI3Y9 C E :[I C @ BHGJI3 E f% E E =:dB3 8 @ GJI3 E B3 E8A 8 @ Uj: A@ 9bG ED : G B F
; 7
F 7 ; 7 9
A B A B
C D C D
A Digraph G Strong Components of G
. * % #!D @ # (#!D HD%3B8#
!
0 ! r q ! !
CE F 9 C EJC F & @A <18092I3B F % # 9 F
A E G F C E2C @ F GJI E 9bG9 C E :[I C @ B <08 @ >C E U JE C I C <FU E 8FGJI )v9,F
0 3 !"$#%&(')+* -,W < )j % / . ) A E ' F %d1032 %0 2
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= 9bG E A@ UA< : A@e@ : G B : ) 5 A@ @ G E fYC eB 81U EJC I 809 C ) C 8 ) C < 9G Ef
? E GJ80:d98 @ KIe80:[ILGJI3 E Z809 C S C GJI f E ) EC @ L A@ ? E G G &C @ GJI3 E
? E G 8 @ GJI3k9G@F !e EKC @ eC ) <F 92 ! 81U E # F %65 F
# GD6 8] 7 - 9 _ A C Be81U EJC I F / T: CE@ SC E GJ8FGJ8 A@ 7 8 @ G @ 8 ? C <1 @ :d
:< C 9 9=9-7+: - % y ) 9 :[IjGJI C G ? E GJ80:d9* C @ B ' C>E
@ 8 ? C <1 @ GW8 f GJI3 E
819 C SC G\I f EJ ) *vG ;' CE@ B C SC GJI f E ) ' G * F
# G 9 : - % y ) A kGJI3 9G f C E :=9 K8FGJIhI3 C B C @ BHG C 80< A5 GJIZ8 @ 7+:F
I3 @ GJI3kU EJ C Ie9Y];7<: -9 : _ C E k: C <0<1=B G\I3 9bG E A@ UD: ) m A@ @ GJ9 Ef 6 F
= Be8FU EJ C I K8FGJI A@ < E@ X9G E A@ U?: ) 5 A@ @ Gh809Z9 C 81B G A 9bG EJ E@ Ut<
: A@e@ =:dG =B F
GJI 2 E 9bG 2 9 C E :[IY: C @ A 92=B.G >= :81 @ GJ< B3G E )j8 @ GJI3 9G E A@ Uu: ) 2
5 A@ @ GJ9 EfsC Be81U E\>C I F
9 C EJC @? 9 ] %4 #A _ C <1U E 8gG\ I ) f, E @ Be8 @ Ui9bG EJ E@ UN: ) m E@ @ GJ9 8 @;C U E\C> I ~
% FCB E2f% E ) C ! Ef w CE@ B @ ) A E GJI3 ? E GJ81:=9l8 @H E B3 E Ef : ) <1 2
G\8 A@h f GJI3 E =: E 928 ? i: C <0<0,9 F
; 7
F 7 ; 7 9
A
A B
B
DFS of G
D C
C
G
After Step 1.
%'
) &D %'
B %' *#!D @)# #D
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? E HC E :i8 @ 6 F
. C F B 2E f% E ) C ! A@ 6 9bG C E G\8 @ U(GJI3a9 C E :[I f EJ ) GJI3aIe8FUtI3=9G @ ) 2
A E =B ? E G }C :=: E Be8 @ UZG G\I3 @ ) A E 8 @ U C 929281U @ =B C G;9bGJ % F f
G\I3 ! B =9 @e G E C :[I C <0< ? E G\81:=9 9bG C>E G GJI3 @ G ! f E ) GJI3
Ie81UtI3=9bG @ ) A E =B E ) C 8 @ 8 @ U ? E GJ F
F WC :[IZG E Y8 @ GJI3 E 9 <FGJ8 @ Uv9 SCE@e@ 8 @ U f, E =9bG)819 C 9bG E A@ U : ) 5 A@ @ G
Ef 6 F
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8 @ :uG\I3 E N819 C SC GJI f E ) *DG ;' CE@ B ? 80:d ? E 9 C * CE@ B ' K81<0<5 @ B
8 @ GJI3 9 C )ji9 SCE@e@ 8 @ UDG E =v]%I C@? 8 @ U E G _ F
.K lY92I ~ f * CE@ B ' C E Y8 @ GJI3.9 C )(Y9 SCE@e@ 8 @ UjG E = 8 @ GJI3 '*),+
f 6 GJI3 @ GJI3 HC E k8 @ GJI3k9 C )jk9bG E A@ UD: ) m A@ @ G Ef 6 F
# G A iG\I3 E G Ef G\I3 9 SCE@e@ 8 @ UDG E =k: A@ G C 8 @ 8 @ U* CE@ B ' F
"! *819 C B3=92: @ B CE@ G Ef
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"! I C 9 C Ie81UtI3 E`@ ) A E GJI CE@ *
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"! @ GJI3('*),+ Ef 6 GJI3 E : E 928 ? i: C <1< C G`*vG E )v8 @C G B A f, E NGJI3
E =: E 928 ? i: C <0< C G Be81B FK]%B kG GJI3 @ ) A E 8 @ U;B A@ k8 @ 9bGJ % _
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G m 9 928 A 80<08gGJ81=9 F
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' _ C E :[I E f :=: E 9 A f% E i* ] # F % _
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Iteration 2. U = {1,3}
Iteration 3. U = {1,3,6}
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Iteration 4. U = {1,3,6,4} Iteration 5. U = {1,3,6,4,2}
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c d c d
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All tours
tours with ab tours without
ab
tours with tours with tours with tours without ac
ab and ac ab but not ac ac but not ab and without ab
tours with tours with tours with
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A 17.5
no constraints
B 17.5 C __18.5
ab ab
D __ 20.5
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ac __
ad ae ac ac ac ad ae
pruned
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H I N P
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be ce ce bd ce __ be ce
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abceda abecda acbeda acebda
23 21 19 23
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