Endocrine System
) activate or inactivate enzyme
- Along with the Nervous System, it coordinates
and directs the activity of the body’s cells
- Acts more slowly by using chemical
messengers called hormones, which are
released into the blood to be transported
throughout the body.
- Reproduction, growth and development,
mobilizing body defenses against stressors,
maintaining electrolyte, water and nutrient
balance of the blood
- Endocrinology, study of hormones and
endocrine glands
An Overview
- Organs of endocrine system are small and
unimpressive
- Lacks the structural or anatomical continuity
typical of most organ system
- In terms of function, ES are impressive
because they maintain body’s homeostasis
Hormones
- Chemical substances secreted by the
endocrine cells into the extracellular fluids
that regulate the metabolic activity of other
cells in the body
- Can be classified as either Amino Acid-based
molecules (protein, peptide, amine) or
steroids (made from cholesterol)
- Steroid hormones include sex hormones
made by the gonads and the hormones
produced by the adrenal cortex
- Prostaglandins, hormones that act locally,
third chemical class and made from highly
active lipids released from nearly all cell
membranes.
Hormone Action
- Target cells or target organs, affects only
certain tissue or cell
- Receptor, point of attachment
- Hormone -> to arouse (greek word), or to
bring about their effects on by altering cellular
activity
- Hormones can:
a.) change plasma membrane permeability or
membrane potential by opening or closing ion
channels
b.
c.) stimulate or inhibit enzymes
d.) promote or inhibit cell division
e.) promote or inhibit secretion of a product
f.) turn off/on transcription of a certain genes
Direct Gene Activation
- 2 mechanisms by w/c the hormones trigger
changes in cells:
a.) steroid hormones can use the mechanism
of DGA due to its lipid-soluble molecules. It
can diffuse through the plasma membranes of
their target cells
SH enter nucleus -> binds to specific hormone ->
hormone receptor complex binds to specific site on
DNA -> activate certain genes to transcribe RNA ->
translation of mRNA in the cytoplasm -> synthesis of
new proteins
Second Messenger System
- Protein and peptide hormones, not water
soluble and are unable to enter target cells
directly. They bind to hormone receptors
situated on the target cells plasma membrane
and use a second-messenger system.
H binds to the receptor protein on the membraine ->
activated receptor sets off a series of reaction ->
enzyme catalyzes reaction produce second-
messnegr molecules (cAMP, oversee additional
intracellular changes that promote the typical
response of the target cells to the H) -> many
possible target cell responses
Stimuli for Control of Hormone Release
- Negative feedback, chief means of regulating
blood levels of nearly all hormones
- 3 major categories of stimuli that activate EG:
a.) hormonal
 Most common stimulus
 Prodded into action by other H
 H release promoted by this
mechanism tends to be rhythmic, with
H blood levels rising and falling again
and again
b.) humoral
  Changing blood levels of certain ions
and nutrients may also stimulate
hormone release
 Humor indicates various body fluids
 E.g., decreasing blood calcium ion
level in the release of PTH
 Other H released in response to
humoral stimuli: calcitonin, released by
the thyroid gland, and insulin,
produced by the pancreas.
c.) neural
 Nerve fibers stimulate H release
 Sympathetic NS stimulation of the
adrnal medulla to release
catecholamines norepinephrine and
epinephrine during periods of stress
Major Endocrine Glands
- Hypothalamus, part of the NS but is also
recognized as major EG because it produces
several hormones
- Endo fxns: anterior pituitary, thyroid,
parathyroid, and adrenals
- Both endo and exo fxns: gonads and
pancreas
- Both glands are formed in the epithelial
tissue, EG are ductless glands that produces
hormones that release into the blood or lymph
Pituitary Gland and Hypothalamus
- Pituitary Gland, size of a pea
- Hangs by a stalk from the inferior surface of
the hypothalamus
- Surrounded by sella turcica (Turk’s saddle) of
the sphenoid bone
- 2 functional lobes:
a.) anterior pituitary (glandular tissue)
 Master EG
 Its removal or destruction has a
dramtic effect on the body
 Adrenal, thyroid, gonads atrophy and
results of hypersecretion is obvious
 Not all-powerful because the release
of each of its H is controlled by
releasing and inhibiting H produced by
the Hypothalamus
 Hypothalamus also makes additional
H: oxytocin and antidiuretic H which
are transported along the axons of the
hypothalamic neurosecretory cells to
the posterior for storage
 Growth H and prolactin, exert their
major effects on non E targets
 Follicle stimulating H, Luteneizing H,
Throtropic H, and Adrenocorticotropic
H, all tropic hormones, which means
they stimulate their target organs
 All are proteins, acts through second
messenger system, regulated by the
hormonal stimuli and in most cases
negative feedback.
Growth H
- General metabolic h
- Growth of skeletal muscles and long bones of
the body
- Protein sparing and anabolic H which causes
the building of amino acids into proteins
- Causes fats to be broken down while it spares
glucose, helping to maintain homeostasis
- Pituitary dwarfism, hyposecretion of GH
during childhood
- Gigantism, hypersecretion of GH during
childhood. 8 to 9 feet but body proportions are
normal
- Acromegaly, hypersecretion after long bone
growth has ended. Facial bones (lower jaw
and boy ridges)
Prolactin
- Similar to GH
- Breast
- After childbirth, it stimulates milk prod by the
mother’s breast
- Function in men is unknown
Gonadotropic H
- Regulate the hormonal actrivity of the gonads
Follicle stimulating H
- Development in the ovaries
- Produce estrogen and eggs ready for
ovulation
- Form men, stimulates spem dev. By the
testes
Luteneizing H
 - Triggers ovulation of an egg from the ovary
and causes ruptured follicle to produce
progesterone and some estrogen.
- For men, testosterone prod.
Hyposecretion of FSH and LH leads to sterility, lack
of ability to successfully reproduce
Thyrotropic H
- Thyroid stimulating H
- Influences the growth and activity of the
thyroid gland
Adrenocorticotropic H
- Regulates the E activity of the cortex portion
of the adrenal gland
b.) posterior pituitary (nervous tissue)
 Not an EG in the strict sense because
it does not make peptide H
 Acts as a STORAGE AREA for H
made by hypothalamic neurons
 Oxytocin, released in significant amts.
Only during childbirth and nursing.
Stimulates powerful contraction of the
uterine muscle during sexual relations,
labor and breastfeeding. Causes milk
ejection (let down reflex) in a nursing
woman. This is used to induce labor
that is progressing at a slow pace.
Used to stop postpartum bleeding
 Antidiuretic H (ADH), Diuresis is urine
production. Antiduretic is a chemical
that inhibits or prevents urine
production. It causes the kidneys to
reabsorb more water from the urine;
urine volume decreases and blood
volume increases. Water is a powerful
inhibitor of ADH. It also increases BP
by causing constriction of the
arterioles which is why it’s called as
vasopressin. Alcohol inhibits ADH
secretion. These drugs are used to
manage edema (water retention in
tissues).
 Hyposecretion of ADH leads to
diabetes insipidus, excessive urine
output
Pineal Gland
- Small, cone shaped gland that hangs from the
roof of the third ventricle of the brain
- Fxn is still a mystery
- Only melatonin appears to be secreted in
substantial amounts
- Peak level is at night whih makes us drowsy
- Lowest level is at daylight around noon
- Melatonin is a sleep trigger
- Sleep-wake cycle
- Coordinate the hormones of fertility and to
inhibit RS
Thyroid Gland
- Located at the base of the throat
- Inferior to Adam’s Apple
- Easily palpated
- Large consists of 2 lobes joined by isthmus
(central mass)
- Thyroid H and calcitonin
- Follicles, hollow structures which store a
sticky colloidal material
- Thyroid H, Body’s major metabolic H that
contains active iodine containing H, thyroxine
(t4) and triiodothyronine (t3). Controls the rate
at which glucose is burned and converted to
body heat
- Important for normal tissue growth and dev,
esp in RS and NS
- IODINE IS SUPER IMPT
- Goiter, iodine deficiency, enlargement of the
thyroid
- Cretinism = dwarfism, adult body remains
childlike. They are intellectually impaired. Hair
is scanty and skin is dry
- Myxedema, physical and mental sluggishness
- Graves disease, eyes may bulge or protrude
anteriorly called exopthalmus
- Calcitonin, acts antagonistically to
parathyroid. Made by the parafollicular cells
found in the connective tissue between the
follicles
Parathyroid Glands
- Tiny masses of glandular tissue most often
found on the posterior surface of the thyroid G
- 4 parat
- It secretes PTH, most impt, regulator of
calcium ion homeostasis of the blood
 - PTH, hypercalcemic hormone
- Calcitonin, hypocalcemic H
- Stimulates the kidneys and intestine to absorb
more calcium ions
- Blood calcium ion level low = irritable neurons
= muscle spasm (tetany)

Thymus
- Located in the upper thorax, posterior to the
sternum
- Large in infants and children
- It decreases throughout adulthood
- Mostly fibrous connective tissue and fat
- Thymosin, essential for dev. Of WBC and
immune response

Adrenal Glands
- Curve over the top of the kidneys like
triangular hats.