Related Literature and studies:

Most of the developing countries consist of mainly two Systems of handling waste. The first is a

formal system which is managed by the government. It normally involves the cities’

municipalities whereby the municipality has the responsibility to ensure safe, reliable and cost

effective collection and final disposal of solid waste. This often requires large financial resources

than in most cases allocated on the public budget therefore making it almost impractical to deal

with the extent of the problem of waste management.(Gombya, 2000) In addition this type of

system is frequently characterized as inefficient and expensive. The second is the informal

system which engages mainly private dealers such as communities of scavengers and private

associations, they represents a significant part of the economy as they recognize the potential

part of certain materials such as plastic, bottles, paper and cans for domestic purposes. In some

areas this operation includes charging some amount of money to residents for picking up their

garbage. The involvement in municipal waste includes collecting, sorting, recycling and selling

waste. (UNIDO, 2003) The two systems however are subjected to having very little interference

and cooperation in all aspects of waste handling making the problem of waste management even

worse and persistent. ( Mungure, 2008)

A master’s Thesis by Julianne Mungure entitled Governance and community participation in

Municipal Solid Waste management, case of Arusha and Dar es Salaam Tanzania, the author

cited a study from World Bank, According to the World Bank estimates of (1992), between 0.7

and 1.8 Kg per capita of waste is produced every day in developed countries’ urban areas and

approximately 0.4 to 0.9 kg is produced in the cities of developing countries. Waste generation

therefore tends to increases with an increase in population and economic growth which together

add up to the problem of waste management posed not only on the environment but also on the
public health. While environmental problems are mostly related to the effect of waste pollution,

open landfills and blocked drainage systems exposes severe health problems to the population

and especially the children in many developing countries. Most municipalities lack the efficient

collection techniques as a result not all of the waste generated is collected. This is further

evidenced by the increasing dumpsites and abandoned wastes and deposit in the city streets and

open places in residential areas. The uncollected waste piling up then becomes a breeding ground

for disease carrying organisms leading to diseases such as cholera and malaria. ( Mungure, 2008)

Solid waste management is generally considered a local issue, however the central government

and national institutions play a big role and carry considerable responsibility in the whole system

of municipal waste management.The central and local government relationship has an important

implication in the governance of municipal solid waste management in terms of approval of laws

and policies related to waste management and funds allocation. It is here where decentralization

of power from the central governments to local authorities and within local authorities

themselves becomes viable (Kironde, 1999). Waste management benefits the whole community

in a particular area. Everyone can enjoy the benefit of the service without causing additional cost

to anyone else. Since it is a shared service and everyone is part of it, it therefore can be viewed as

a public commodity. The community then expects the authorities responsible for waste

management to be responsible and keep the environment clean. The success of municipalities in

waste management is in most cases likely reflected on the availability of resources as well as

presence of good governance. (Kironde L and Yhidego M, 1997)

[Governance and community participation in Municipal Solid Waste management, case of

Arusha and Dar es Salaam Tanzania. Mungure, Julianne, 2008. Master’s Thesis at Department of

Development and Planning] http://vbn.aau.dk/files/14465580/Final_Thesis.pdf

Countries have to build the capacities to take on, at competitive levels, more complex activities

that use emerging technologies and sustain rising wages. This entails building the institutions and

providing the support to create new skills, information and capabilities. These ingredients of

success are hardly a secret. - In all this, countries need consciously to build their technological

capabilities through concerted innovation and learning. To get the productivity gains promised

by such efforts they need, in addition, to put in place the institutions to support their proactive

integration into the global flows of trade, capital and technology. (UNIDO, 2003)

To fully understand the fundamental problems in the management of solid waste it is important

to scrutinize on the governance atmosphere in connection with the policies structure,

implementation strategies as well as the economic framework of a country. Moreover some key

elements in the process of governance which are essential for the performance of the

management systems in use have to be considered these include the effectiveness of the

managerial and organizational structure, accountability and transparency in decision making.

Furthermore the degree of participation with informal structures such as community based

institutions, the public and private organizations and the coordination between formal and

informal structures for collection, transportation and disposal of waste (Onibokun et al, 1999).
[Onibokun, A.G. and A. J. Kumuyi, 1999: Governance and waste management in Africa. In:

Managing the Monster: Urban Waste and Governance in Africa, A.G. Onibokun (ed.),

International Development Research Center, Ottawa, ON, Canada]

http://vbn.aau.dk/files/14465580/Final_Thesis.pdf

Responses when applied individually have been able to handle the issue of waste

management only partially. Thus it becomes imperative to integrate efforts in a planned manner.

Integrated waste management implies that decisions on waste handling should take into account

economic (including technical in relation to its costs), environmental, social, and institutional

dimensions. Economic aspects may include the costs and benefits of implementation, the

available municipal budgets for waste management, and spin-off effects for other sectors in the

economy in terms of investments.[ Waste Management, Processing, and Detoxification, M.K.C.

Sridhar, Joe Baker et. Al, Chapter 10]

Waste management problems are closely associated with society, its beliefs, and its

attitudes. The flow of waste from the place of origin to the site of disposal has human dimensions

besides the application of technology, given the concept of a city or region functioning as an

anthroposphere. Effective resource management must be prescribed to closely fit particular

societal norms and values, since governance is in constant flux and operates in an ‘‘established

milieu’’ even in epistemic societies, with the ultimate aim of exercising power in the

management of a country’s economic and social resources for development. Human rights and

individual liberty, within the limits imposed by democratic principles, must also be respected

(Nsirimovu 1995). Knowledge and attitudes govern the practices. There is need to motivate
change toward more environmentally sound attitudes at various levels, for example, home,

school, and workplace. Education plays a key role. When developing educational programs to

motivate changes in behavior, it is important for their success to include stakeholder input and to

understand in-depth behavioral aspects (Okpala 1996). Obviously, the methodology options will

differ with sociocultural value content of each community and nation. Generally, but particularly

in developing countries, there are two sets of options for educating about waste clearance: formal

and informal, these being the incorporation of waste management into the curriculum on

environment and sustainable development (for the formal) and the establishment of environment

and conservation clubs (for the informal) (Okpala 1996)

[ Waste Management, Processing, and Detoxification, M.K.C. Sridhar, Joe Baker et. Al, Chapter

10]

http://www.millenniumassessment.org/documents/document.315.aspx.pdf

There are two serious failures that arise in the management of solid waste. The first

relates to the existence of negative externalities in the individual decision-making over waste

generation and disposal. When individuals decide on how much to consume and what to

consume, they do not take into account how much waste they produce. Because the external

costs of waste generation (such as air and water pollution) are ignored by individuals, more

waste is produced and disposed of than is socially optimal. The second serious failure relates to

the ways in which waste collection services are typically financed. More often than not,

individuals pay for waste disposal in lump sums through general taxes or flat payments to local

governments or private collectors. Hence, waste disposal costs are not fully reflected in the

prices households face at the margin. Even if these flat charges included both the private and
external costs of waste production and disposal, individuals would still face zero prices for

additional waste produced, and would thus tend to produce (and dispose of) more waste than if

they were to pay for the additional garbage according to its social marginal cost. (OECD 2008)

The literature review also revealed that “the provision of an adequate infrastructure for

recycling system that does not represent high opportunity costs to households, are stronger

influences on behaviour than environmental awareness” (OECD, 2002). Environmental pressure

from households is projected to significantly increase by 2030 (OECD, 2008a). One of the key

determinants of household consumption patterns is economic growth, with the relative economic

importance of countries such as China and India increasing. Steep growth in the world

population (from approximately 6 billion in 2000 to over 8.2 billion in 2030) will also be an

important driver of consumption. The trend towards ageing of the population, urbanization and

changing lifestyles will influence the structure of consumption as well. A mixture of “public”

and “private” considerations is likely to enter into households’ decision-making processes.

Individuals’ actions can bring about benefits that will be enjoyed by individuals collectively (e.g.

improved air quality), in addition to private interests (e.g. considered best for themselves). In the

scope of this volume, individual choices where both “public” and “private” benefits can be

considered include the following types of decision: to recycle or not; to buy a fuel-efficient

vehicle or not; to consume organic foods or not. For instance, by recycling, households may

reduce waste-related environmental impacts (public benefits) and reduce their expenditures on

waste collection (private benefits) at the same time. In a similar way, purchasing organic food

products may result in lower use of pesticides (public benefits) and improved personal health

(private benefits); purchasing of a fuel-efficient vehicle may reduce emissions of greenhouse

gases (public benefits) and reduce life-cycle vehicle costs (private benefits). The purchase of
energy and/or water efficiency appliances may as well reduce pressure on the environment

(public benefits) and expenditures and water and/or energy use (private benefit).

[Household Behaviour and the Environment Reviewing the Evidence, OECD. ]

https://www.oecd.org/environment/consumption-innovation/42183878.pdf