College Physics SENIOR CONTRIBUTING AUTHORS Paut PETER URONE, CALIFORNIA STATE UNIVERSITY AT SACRAMENTO (EMERITUS) RoGer Hinricus, SUNY CoLLeGe aT OsweGo: = openstax~‘Openstax Rice University {6100 Main Street MS-375 Houston, Texas 77005 To learn more about Openstax, visit httpsi//openstax.org. Individual print copies and bulk orders can be purchased through our website. (©2019 Rice University. Textbook content produced by OpenStax is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License (CC BY 4.0). 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Now mark the center ofthe sting with bright ink or attach a brightly colored Sicker to it and throw again. What happened? Explain your observations. Some aquatic animals such as jllyfish move around based on the principles of conservation of momentum. A jellyfish fils ts ‘umbrella section with water and then pushes the water out resulting in mation in the opposite direction to that ofthe jet of water, Squids propel themselves in a similar manner but, in contrast wth jlyish, are able to contralthe direction in which they move by aiming their nozzle forward or backward. Typical squids can move at speeds of 8 to 12 km/h “The balistocardiograph (BCG) was a dkagnostic tool used in the second half ofthe 20th century to study the strength of the hheart: About once a second, your heart beats, forcing blood ino the aora. force in the opposite direction is exerted on the ‘8st of your body (recall Newton's third law). A balistocardiograph is a device that can measure this reaction force. This ‘measurement is done by using a sensor (resting on the person) or by using a moving table suspended from the celing. This technique can gather information on the strength ofthe heart beat and the volume of blood passing from the heart. However, the electrocarciogram (ECG or EKG) and the echocardiogram (cardiac ECHO or ECHO; a technique that uses ullrasound 10 ‘see an image of the heart) are more widely used inthe practice of cardiology. ‘Making Connections: Conservation of Momentum and Colision ‘Conservation of momentum is quite useful in describing colisions. Momentum is crucial to our understanding of atomic and ‘Subatomic particles because much of what we know about these particles comes from collision experiments Subatomic Collisions and Momentum ‘The conservation of momentum principle not only applies tothe macroscopic objects itis also essential to our explorations of ‘atomic and subatomic particles. Giant machines hurl subatomic particles at one another, and researchers evaluate the results by ‘assuming conservation of momentum (among other things). ‘On the smal scale, we find that particles and their properties are invisible tothe naked eye but can be measured with our instruments, and models of these subatomic particles can be constructed to describe the reuits. Momentum is found to be a ‘property ofall subatomic particles including massless particles such as photons that compose ligt. Momentum being a property ‘f particles hints that momentum may have an identiy beyond the description of an object's mass multiplied by the object's velocity. Indeed, momentum relates to wave properties and plays a fundamental ole in what measurements are taken and how ‘we take these measurements. Furthermore, we find thatthe conservation of momentum principle is valid when considering ‘systems of particles. We use ths principle to analyze the masses and other properties of previously undetected particles, Such ‘as the nucleus of an atom and the existence of quarks that make up particles of nuctei. Figure 8.5 below ilstrates how a PPaticle scattering backward from another implies tha its target is massive and dense. Experiments seeking evidence that "quarks make up protons (one type of particle that makes up nuclei) scattered high-energy electrons aff of protons (nuclei of |nydrogen atoms). Electrons occasionally scattered straight backward in a manner that implied a very small and very dense ppatile makes up the proton—this observation is considered nearly direct evidence of quarks. The analysis was based party on the same conservation of momentum principle that works so well on the lage scale. Macroscopic target es e Proton Figure 8.5 A subatomic parce scars stright bockward Wom a get parte. i experiments seeking evidence for quarks, elecons were observed tw.eccasonaly scate sight backward rom a proton 8.4 Elastic Collisions in One Dimension Let us consider various types of two-object collisions. These collisions are the easiest to analyze, and they ilustrate many of the ‘physical principles involved in colsions. The conservation of momentum principle is very useful here, andit can be used whenever the net extemal force on a system is zero,208 ‘Chapter | Linear Momentum and Colisions We start with the elastic colsion of two objects moving along the same line—a one-dimensional problem. An elastic collision is ‘one that also conserves intemal kinetic energy. Internal kinetic energy isthe sum ofthe kinetic energies ofthe objects in the system. Figure 8.6 ilustrates an elastic colision in which intemal kinetic energy and momentum are conserved, Tiuly elastic cotisions can only be achieved with subatomic partcies, such as electrons striking nucle. Macroscopic colisions can be very nearly, but not quite, elastio—some kinetic energy is always converted ino ather forms of energy such as heat transfer due to fiction and sound. One macroscopic colsion that is nearly eastcis that of two steel blocks on ice. Another nearly elastic colision is that between two carts with spring bumpers on an air track. ley surfaces and air tacks are nearly frictonless, more realy allowing nearly elastic colisions on them. Elastic Collison ‘An elastic collision is one that conserves internal kinetic energy. {ntemal Kinetic Energy Internal kinetic energy is the sum of the kinetic energies ofthe objecis in the system, System of net F = 0 terest ‘System of interest Elastic => KE; + KE; = KE, + KEy ‘Figure 8.5 An las one-dimensional wo-ofet clon Momentum and intemal kines energy are conserved "Now, to solve problems involving one-dimensional elasic colisions between two objects we can use the equations for Conservation of momentum and conservation of internal kinetic energy. Fist, the equation for conservation of momentum for to ‘objects in a one-dimensional colision is Pit p= P'rtP'2 Fa =9) 39 my vy +mgvy = mv +mv'> (Free = Ob 4) Where the primes () indicate values alte the colision. By definition, an elastic colision conserves internal Kinetic energy, and so the sum of kinetic energies before the colision equals the sum after the colision. Thus, Jusvi?+dinara? = dmv’? td's? (wo-bject elastic collision) ea ‘expresses the equation for conservation of intemal kinetic energy ina one-dimensional calision. rn ng an Elasti Calculate the velocties of wo objects folowing an elastic colision, ven thatChapter | Further Appicatons of Neworts Laws: Friction, Drag. aed Elasicty 185 |where 1 is the radius of the object, 1) is the viscosity of the fuid, and v’ isthe object's velocity. ‘Good examples ofthis law are provided by microorganisms, pollen, and dust particles. Because each ofthese objects is so ‘small, we find that many ofthese objects travel unaided only ata constant (teminal) velocty. Terminal velocites for bacteria, (size about | jum) can be about 2 jim/s.. To move ata greater speed, many bacteria swim using fagela (organelles shaped lke ite tis) that are powered by litle motors embedded inthe cell. Sediment ina lake can move ata greater terminal velocty {about 5 jms), soit can take days to reach the bottom ofthe lake ater being deposited on the surface. I we compare animals living on land with those in water, you can see how drag has influenced evolution. Fishes, dolphins, and ‘even massive whales are streamlined in shape to reduce drag forces. Birds are streamlined and migratory species that fy large ‘distances often have particular features such as long necks. Flocks of birds fin the shape of a spear head as the flock forms a ‘streamlined pattern (see Figure 5.10). In humans, one important example of streamlining is the shape of sperm, which need to be efficient in their use of energy. "peg 8 cee yin av lmao ig tng many te. Ti shape ees ga erry conmmpton ncn and ‘abo alows them a beter way to conmunicae (creat duo, Whimedia Commons). Gatleo’s Galileo is said to have dropped two objects of diferent masses from the Tower of Pisa. He measured how long ittook each toreach the ground. Since stopwatches weren't readily available, how do you think he measured thei fal ime? Ifthe ‘objects were the same size, but with different masses, what do you think he should have observed? Would this result be diferent if done on the Moon? PET Explorations: Masses & Springs ‘A realistic mass and spring laboratory. Hang masses from springs and adjust the spring siness and damping. You can ‘even stow time. Transport the lab to ferent planets. chart shows the kinetic, potential, and thermal energy foreach ‘pfng, Click to open media in new browser. (ttps:Iphet.colorado.edulen'simulationlegacylmass-spring-lab) 5.3 Elasticity: Stress and Strain ‘We now move from consideration of forces that affect the motion of an object (such as fiction and drag) to those that affect an ‘object's shape. ita bulldozer pushes a car into a wall, the car wil not move butitwill noticeably change shape. A change in ‘shape due to the application ofa force isa deformation. Even very small forces are known to cause Some deformation. For ‘small deformations, two important characteristics are observed. First, the object returns to its orginal shape when the force is ‘temoved—that is, the detormation is elastic for small deformations. Second, the size ofthe deformation is proportional tothe {orce—that is, for small deformations, Hooke's law is obeyed. In equation form, Hooke's law is given by F=kAL, (626) vivre AL. isthe amount of deformation (the change in length, for example) produced by the force F, and k is a ‘proportionality constant that depends on the shape and composition of the object and the direction ofthe force. Note tha this force is a function of the deformation AL —itis not constant as a kinetic fricton force is. Rearranging this to E @2n Sr ‘makes it clear that the deformations proporiona tthe applied force. Figur 5.11 shows the Hooke’ a rlaonship between the exension AL a sping or ofa human Bone. For metals o springs, the staight ine region n which Hook's lw peti is ‘much ger. Bones are rile and the asic region is small andthe facture abrupt Evertualy a lage enough sess to the106 (Chaptar 5 | Furor Applications of Newior's Laws: Friction, Drag. and Elasticy ‘material wil cause itto break or racture. Tensile strength isthe breaking stress tha will cause permanent deformation or tracture of a material. Hooke's Law. Feil, 628) where AL is the amount of deformation (the change in length, for example) produced by the force F , and k isa ‘proportionality constant that depends onthe shape and composition ofthe abject and the direction ofthe force. at=— (529) “ej Ease regon — owe Sa: Agaolddamatin Al wa anestnce FT srg snpen Peon es nce ie cites ons | Fatanatocs. 2 iced be ron oo AL meno oc eo 2 it rma nabs yt Th yp nse rs tovtatow F Sapien ante pt soph tase Faaag ea tmnt Fi peaeng ee ron L natoomee "popinaty contr k depends pone arth ala Fora, isting ma on ‘stretches when it s tightened, and the elongation AL is proportional to the force applied (at least for small deformations). ‘heer yn sags anos made tse ich he ane api ree npn ty hve alge Fre 5:2). Fealy are ngs tum oer oxmalenghs ene ace emoved, pled he dtoman a Mow ‘materials will behave in this manner ifthe deformation is less than about 0.196 or about 1 partin 10°. on Figure 5.12 The same fre, nhs case a weight (W , ape ote cere guitar sings of eral length produces the tee diferent ‘elormatons shown as shades segments. The sting on the le sth rn, the ane i he mide thicker nylon, and the one on heights toe Streich Yourself a Lite How would you go about measuring the proportionality constant kof a rubber band? ita rubber band stretched 3 cm when 2 100-g mass was attached to it, then how much would t stretch if two similar rubber bands were attached to the same ‘This Opens books avadabe free at hopin orportanieal 3406/2Lee A Pamela Pare ornet, a mee lb nb mp an ime ce ey Nh alle on Pepi deen ge al ge en oe A Shaws i Leng aired Sera or: Tonge Md Conan for ad | Se Tee ere hoe Lee mas, ae were yk firey hid a: Cyne aha in at may oo Sag cbmrre rem nes nr neg ee ae gc Sy ney mn a De cr ce gba ge eh me ere ee ee eddie maces va 1 Sea ere mention. ope cem ol Serres tans cai om dept Bis wale A cee ie ed Le i pk ee a i a Feed ome ern bem Sim drier pee ten ee ertei a ten Aree a Same va lt eR ee oe Eom09 Chapter 5| Further Appcatons of Newtons Laws: Frton, Org, and Easy Table 5.3 Elastic Modif) reals ene perenne) Material poe 8 [compression Brass 0 3 7 Brick 6 [Concrete 2 [class 70, 20 30 [Granite 4% 2 5 Hair (human) 10 Hardwood 15 10 ron, cast 100 40 0 Lead 16 5 50 Marble 60 70 Nyon 5 Polystyrene 3 Sik 6 Spider thread) 3 Steel 210 0 330 Tendon 2 [Acetone o7, Ethanol 08 [Stycenin| 45 Mercury Ed water 22 Young's modulate not sted for liquids and gases in Table 6.3 because they cannot be stretched or compressed in only one direction. Note that there is an assumption thatthe object does not accelerate, so that there are actually two applied forces of magnitude F acting in opposite directions. For example, the stings in Figure 5.13 are being pulled down by a force of ‘magnitude w and held up by the celing, which also exerts a force of magnitude w Enceenee een ee ‘Suspension cables are used to carry gondbolas at ski resorts. (See Figure 5.14) Consider a suspension cable that includes ‘an unsupported span of 3020 m. Calculate the amount of stretch inthe steel cable. Assume thatthe cable has a chameter of 5.6 om and the maximum tension it can withstand is 3.010° N 1. Approximate and average values. Young's modull Y for tension and compression sometimes differ but are averaged here Bone has significantly diferent Young's modul for tension and compression