MATERIAL SELECTION:

Failures arising from hasty material selection are not uncommon in plastics or any other
industry. In an application that demands high-impact resistance, a high-impact material
must be specified. If the material is to be used outdoors for a long period, an Ultraviolet
resistant (UV) material must be specified. For proper material selection, careful planning,
a thorough understanding of plastic materials, and reasonable prototype testing are
required. Plastics are viscoelastic materials. Viscoelasticity is defined as the tendency of
plastics to respond to stress as if they were are combination of elastic solids and viscous
fluids. This property possessed by all plastics to some degree, dictates that while plastics
have solid-like characteristics such as elasticity, strength, and form stability, they also
have liquid-like characteristics such as flow depending on time, temperature, rate, and
amount of loading. This also means that unlike metals, ceramics and other traditional
materials, plastics do not exhibit a linear stress -strain relationship. Designers accustomed
to working with metals and other materials often make the mistake of selecting and
specifying incorrect plastic materials. It is this non-linear relationship for plastics that
makes an understanding of creep, stress relaxation, and fatigue properties extremely
important.
Typically, for most designers the material selection process begins by reviewing the
plastic material data sheets generally provided by the material suppliers. A
misinterpretation of the data sheets is one of the most common reasons for selecting and
specifying the wrong material, for a given application. First it is important to understand
the purpose of a data sheet. Data sheets are useful only for comparing property values of
different plastic materials such as the tensile strength of nylon versus polycarbonate or
the impact strength of polystyrene versus ABS. Data sheets should be used for initial
screenings of various materials. For example, if a designer is looking for a material that is
strong and tough, he may start out by selecting materials whose reported values are
higher than 7,000 psi tensile strength and impact strength values of better than 1.0 ft-lb/in
and eliminating materials such as general purpose polystyrene, polypropylene, and
polyethylene. Data sheets are never meant to be used for engineering design and final or
ultimate material selections. First, the reported data is generally derived from the short
term tests. Short term tests, as the name suggests, are the tests conducted without
consideration of time, and the values derived are instantaneous. Tensile test, izod impact
test, and Heat Distortion Temperature, are the examples of such short term tests. Data
reported on data sheets are also derived from single point measurements. These tests do
not take into account the effect of time, temperature, environment, and chemicals, etc. A
single number representing one point on a stress-strain curve cannot begin to convey
plastics’ behavior over a range of conditions. The standardized tests used to measure data
sheet properties contain data measured in a laboratory under ideal conditions (as specified
by ASTM or ISO standards) on standardized test specimens that bear little resemblance
to the geometry of real-world parts. These tests likewise take place at temperatures, stress
and strain rates that rarely corresponds to the real-world conditions (1).
The proper use of multi-point data for selecting the most appropriate plastic materials for
the applications cannot be over emphasized. This point is well illustrated in a classic
example of misinterpretation of published test data and the true meaning and usefulness
of Heat Distortion Temperature (HDT) values.
MATERIAL SELECTION USING MULTI-POINT DATA:

Multi-point data is presented in the form of chart and graphs of shear modulus versus temperature,
isochronous stress-strain curves, and creep data at a minimum of three different temperatures and
four stress levels. While designing a product to withstand multiple impact loads, the designer must
take into consideration the data generated from instrumented impact tests which can provide valuable
information such as ductile to brittle transition and behavior of the specimen during the entire impact
event. Modulus values are also often misinterpreted. The flexural modulus values which are
derived from single-point measurement are frequently accepted as the indication of the stiffness of
the material over a long period. Flexural modulus tests are conducted at a very low strain and
generally represent only the linear portion of the stress-strain curve. The reported values do not
correspond well with the actual use conditions and they tend to over predict the stiffness of the actual
part. Plastic parts often fail due to the lack of consideration of creep values in material selection
process. Plastics can creep or deform under a very small load at a very low strain, even at room
temperature. Creep or apparent modulus data for the plastic materials over a long period at several
temperatures should be evaluated.

Mechanical Properties

• Tensile strength and Modulus

• Flexural strength and Modulus

• Impact strength

• Compressive strength

• Fatigue endurance

• Creep

• Stress-relaxation

Both short and long term property date must be evaluated; Short term data for quick comparison and
screening of the candidates and long term data for final material selection. Creep and stress
relaxation data which represents deformation under load over a long period needs to be scrutinized
over the usable range of temperatures. Isochronous stress-strain curves are very useful for comparing
different materials on equal time basis. Multi-point impact data obtained from instrumented impact
test which provide more meaningful information such as energy at a given strain or total energy at
break must be taken into account. Plastic parts often fail due to the lack of consideration of sudden
loss of impact in a very cold environment. Multi-point low temperature impact data, although
generally not found on data sheets, is available from all major material suppliers.
Material Selection for Strength:
Elastic Behavior
Impact Strength
Thermal Properties
Dimensional Stability

ELASTIC BEHAVIOR:

The stress/strain behavior of a plastic differs from that of a metal in

several respects as can be seen in Figure 2.
• The yield stress is lower
• The yield strain is higher
• The slope of the stress/strain curve may not be constant
belowthe yield point
The modulus as determined using standard tests is generally reported
as the ratio of stress to strain at the origin of loading up to 0.2% strain.
The effects of time, temperature and strain rate generally require
consideration due to the viscoelasticity of plastics. Strains below 1%
remain within the elastic limits of most engineering plastics and
therefore allow analysis based upon the assumption the material is
linearly elastic, homogeneous, and isotropic. Another common practice
is to design components so that the maximum working stress is 25% of
the material’s strength. This also minimizes plastics’ time-dependent
stress/strain behavior.

IMPACT STRENGTH:

Although a number of plastics are well suited for high impact applications, most parts
made from rigid engineering plastics require minor design modifications. Sharp interior
corners, thread roots and grooves should be broadly radiused (0.040” min.) to minimize
the notch sensitivity of these materials. The relative notch sensitivity or impact resistance
of plastics is commonly reported using Izod impact strength. Materials with higher Izod
impact strengths are more impact resistant.

THERMAL PROPERTIES:

Two important thermal properties for designing plastic components are:

Continuous Service Temperature -
the temperature above which significant and permanent degradation of the plastic occurs
with long exposure.
Heat Deflection Temperature –
the softening temperature of a plastic as defined by the ASTM test method (D 648). It is
commonly referred to as the maximum service temperature for a highly stressed,
unconstrained component.

DIMENSIONAL STABILITY:

Plastics expand and contract 10 times more than many metals. A material’s dimensional
stability is affected by temperature, moisture absorption and load. Assemblies, press fits,
adhesive joints and machined tolerances must reflect these differences. Certain plastics
such as nylons are hygroscopic – absorbing up to 8% water (by weight, when
submerged). This can result in a dimensional change of up to 3%. Plastics’ inherently
lower modulus of elasticity can also contribute to dimensional change including part
distortion during and after machining.

Tensile strength:
It is the force per unit area required to break material under tension. It is expressed in psi.
The force required to pull a part square inch of plastic range from 1000 to 50000lbs or
higher.

Compressive Strength:

Compressive strength measures a material’s ability to support acompressive force. Figure

4 details a test schematic. Always reported as pounds per square inch (psi), this property
may indicate one of the following:
ultimate compressive strength (the maximum stress to rupture a test sample)
compressive strength at a specific deformation (i.e. 0.1%, 1%, 10% – typically used
for materials like plastics that may not rupture) compressive yield strength (the stress in
psi as measured at the point of permanent yield, zero slope, on stress-strain curve)

Flexural Strength:
Flexural properties measure a material’s resistance to bending under load. The load at
yield is the flexural strength of the material and is typically expressed in psi. For plastics,
the data is usually calculated at 5% deformation/strain (the loading necessary to stretch
the outer surface 5%).

Degradation:

Plastics are durable and degrade very slowly; the molecular bonds that make plastic so
durable make it equally resistant to natural processes of degradation. Since the 1950s, one
billion tons of plastic have been discarded and may persist for hundreds or even
thousands of years.[21] In some cases, burning plastic can release toxic fumes. Burning the
plastic polyvinyl chloride (PVC) may create dioxin. Also, the manufacturing of plastics
often creates large quantities of chemical pollutants. Prior to the ban on the use of CFCs
in extrusion of polystyrene (and general use, except in life-critical fire suppression
systems; see Montreal Protocol), the production of polystyrene contributed to the
depletion of the ozone layer; however, non-CFCs are currently used in the extrusion
process.

By 1995, plastic recycling programs were common in the United States and elsewhere.
Thermoplastics can be remelted and reused, and thermoset plastics can be ground up and
used as filler, though the purity of the material tends to degrade with each reuse cycle.
There are methods by which plastics can be broken back down to a feedstock state.

To assist recycling of disposable items, the Plastic Bottle Institute of the Society of the
Plastics Industry devised a now-familiar scheme to mark plastic bottles by plastic type. A
plastic container using this scheme is marked with a triangle of three cyclic arrows,
which encloses a number giving the plastic type:

Unfortunately, recycling of plastics has proven to be a difficult process. The biggest

problem is that it is difficult to automate the sorting of plastic wastes, making it labor
intensive. Typically, workers sort the plastic by looking at the resin identification code,
although common containers like soda bottles can be sorted from memory. Other
recyclable materials such as metals are easier to process mechanically. However, new
processes of mechanical sorting are being developed to increase capacity and efficiency
of plastic recycling.

While containers are usually made from a single type and color of plastic, making them
relatively easy to be sorted, a consumer product like a cellular phone may have many
small parts consisting of over a dozen different types and colors of plastics. In such cases,
the resources it would take to separate the plastics far exceed their value and the item is
discarded. However, developments are taking place in the field of active disassembly,
which may result in more consumer product components being re-used or recycled.
Recycling certain types of plastics can be unprofitable, as well. For example, polystyrene
is rarely recycled because it is usually not cost effective. These unrecycled wastes are
typically disposed of in landfills, incinerated or used to produce electricity at waste-to-
energy plants.

Research has been done on biodegradable plastics that break down with exposure to
sunlight (e.g., ultra-violet radiation), water or dampness, bacteria, enzymes, wind
abrasion and some instances rodent pest or insect attack are also included as forms of
biodegradation or environmental degradation. It is clear some of these modes of
degradation will only work if the plastic is exposed at the surface, while other modes will
only be effective if certain conditions exist in landfill or composting systems. Starch
powder has been mixed with plastic as a filler to allow it to degrade more easily, but it
still does not lead to complete breakdown of the plastic. Some researchers have actually
genetically engineered bacteria that synthesize a completely biodegradable plastic, but
this material, such as Biopol, is expensive at present.

WEAR RESISTANCE AND FRICTIONAL PROPERTIES:

wear is the erosion of material from a solid surface by the action of another surface. It is
related to surface interactions and more specifically the removal of material from a
surface as a result of mechanical action. The need for mechanical action, in the form of
contact due to relative motion, is an important distinction between mechanical wear and
other processes with similar outcomes.

The definition of wear does not include loss of dimension from plastic deformation,
although wear has occurred despite no material removal, because it may lack the action
of another surface.

Friction is the force resisting the relative motion of solid surfaces, fluid layers,and/or material
elements sliding against each other. It may be thought of as the opposite of "slipperiness".

• Dry friction resists relative lateral motion of two solid surfaces in contact.
Dry friction is subdivided into static friction between non-moving surfaces,
and kinetic friction between moving surfaces.

• Fluid friction describes the friction between layers within a viscous fluid that
are moving relative to each other.[1][2]
• Lubricated friction is a case of fluid friction where a fluid separates two
solid surfaces.[3][4][5]

• Skin friction is a component of drag, the force resisting the motion of a solid
body through a fluid.

• Internal friction is the force resisting motion between the elements making
up a solid material while it undergoes deformation.[2]

'coefficient of friction' (COF), also known as a 'frictional coefficient' or 'friction

coefficient' and symbolized by the Greek letter µ, is a dimensionless scalar value
which describes the ratio of the force of friction between two bodies and the force
pressing them together.
Processing:
Plastic processing is the industry which transforms plastic material to obtain a wide range
of objects such as toys, bottles, packaging, floor coverings or car parts. There are a large
number of processes and techniques for using plastic material such as injection,
compression, extrusion or polystyrene expansion. Processing the plastic used in
production of car equipment, the production of plastic packaging. Plastics are organic
polymeric materials consisting of giant organic molecules. Plastic materials can be
formed into shapes by one of a variety of processes, such as extrusion,
moulding, casting or spinning. Modern plastics (or polymers) possess a number of
extremely desirable characteristics; high strength to weight ratio, excellent thermal
properties, electrical insulation, resistance to acids, alkalis and solvents, to name but a
few.
PLASTIC PROCESSING: BREAKDOWN PER ACTIVITY
1 Technical parts: 38 %
2 Plates, sheets, tubing: 8 %
3 Packaging: 12 %
4 Elements for the building industry: 6 %
5 Miscellaneous items: 36 %
 In ‘western’ countries, plastic consumption hasgrown at a tremendous rate over the past
two or three decades. In the ‘consumer’ societies of Europe and America, scarce
petroleum resources are used for producing an enormous variety of plastics for an even
wider variety of products. Many of the applications are for products with a life-cycle of
less than one year and then the vast majority of these plastics are then discarded. In
most instances reclamation of this plastic waste is simply not economically viable. In
industry (the automotive industry for example) there is a growing move towards reuse
and reprocessing of plastics for economic, as well as environmental reasons, with many
praiseworthy examples of companies developing technologies and strategies for recycling
of plastics.

Plastics for recycling

Not all plastics are recyclable. There are 4 types of plastic which are commonly recycled:
• Polyethylene (PE) - both high density and low-density polyethylene.
• Polypropylene (PP)
• Polystyrene (PS)
• Polyvinyl chloride (PVC)

Costs:
For decades one of the great appeals of plastics has been their low price. Yet in recent
years the cost of plastics has been rising dramatically. A major cause is the sharply rising
cost of petroleum, the raw material that is chemically altered to form commercial plastics.
With some observers suggesting that future oil reserves are uncertain, the price of
petroleum may increase further. Therefore, alternatives are being sought. Oil shale and
tar oil are alternatives for plastic production but are expensive. Scientists are seeking
cheaper and better alternatives to petroleum-based plastics, and many candidates are in
laboratories all over the world. One promising alternative may be fructose.

Mechanical Behavior of Plastics:

Short term tests:

The short term tests. Short term tests, as the name suggests, are the tests conducted
without consideration of time, and the values derived are instantaneous. Tensile test, izod
impact test, and Heat Distortion Temperature, are the examples of such short term test.
These tests do not take into account the effect of time, temperature, environment, and
chemicals, etc. A single number representing one point on a stress-strain curve cannot
begin to convey plastics’ behavior over a range of conditions. The standardized tests used
to measure data sheet properties contain data measured in a laboratory under ideal
conditions (as specified by ASTM or ISO standards) on standardized test specimens that
bear little resemblance to the geometry of real-world parts. These tests likewise take
place at temperatures, stress and strain rates that rarely corresponds to the real-world
conditions (1).
The proper use of multi-point data for selecting the most appropriate plastic materials for
the applications cannot be over emphasized.

Long term testing:

A long term experiment is an experimental procedure that runs through a long period of
time, in order to test a hypothesis or observe a phenomenon that takes place at an
extremely slow rate.

Several agricultural field experiments have run for more than 100 years, but much shorter
experiments may qualify as "long-term" in other disciplines. An experiment is "a set of
actions and observations", implying that one or more treatments (fertilizer, subsidized
school lunches, etc.) is imposed on the system under study. Long-term experiments
therefore contrast with nonexperimental long-term studies in which manipulation of the
system studied is impossible

DESIGN METHODS FOR PLASTICS USING DEFORMATION DATA:

Data gathered during such in-situ deformation is valuable to calibrate, validate and
improve model calculations describing deformation behavior like finite-element or
elasto-plastic and viscoplastic self-consistent models describing deformation. Successful
modeling with constraints from both macroscopic data, such as the flow curve, and
microscopic data, such as lattice plane dependent flow curves and the texture evolution,
provides quantitative insight into the active deformation mechanisms. deformation
studies by diffraction allow studying of deformation mechanisms and provide valuable
data to validate and improve deformation models. 20 sample directions simultaneously,
providing data for strain and texture analysis which can be used to validate various
deformation models and provide required material parameters.

PSEUDO-ELASTIC DESIGN METHOD FOR PLASTICS:

One of the commercial uses of shape memory alloy exploits the pseudo-elastic properties
of the metal during the high-temperature (austenitic) phase. The frames of reading glasses
have been made of shape memory alloy as they can undergo large deformations in their
high-temperature state and then instantly revert back to their original shape when the
stress is removed. This is the result of pseudoelasticity; the martensitic phase is generated
by stressing the metal in the austenitic state and this martensite phase is capable of large
strains. With the removal of the load, the martensite transforms back into the austenite
phase and resumes its original shape.
This allows the metal to be bent, twisted and pulled, before reforming its shape when
released. This means the frames of shape memory alloy glasses are claimed to be "nearly
indestructible" because it appears no amount of bending results in permanent plastic
deformation.

The martensite temperature of shape memory alloys is dependent on a number of factors

including alloy chemistry. Shape memory alloys with transformation temperatures in the
range of 60–1450 K have been made.

THERMAL STRESSES AND STRAINS:

THERMAL STRAINS:
Materials undergo strain when they are subject to stress. The relationship between
stress and strain is different for different materials, and can be appreciated by plotting
stress against strain.
A rise in temperature causes materials to expand. In simple cases, the increase in length is
simply proportional to the temperature rise, via a constant of proportionality , the
coefficient of expansion. The temperature rise multiplied by gives the increase in strain
caused by the temperature – the thermal strain. For an initial temperature To and an
operating temperature T, the thermal strain is (T – To). These strains are simply added
to the strains caused by the stresses.

THERMAL STRESS:
Thermal stresses is defined as tensile on surface compressive on interior during cooling.
Maximum thermal stress possible on surface is

CAUSES OF THERMAL STRESSES

1.Temperature gradients

Recall that a, the thermal expansion coefficient, is usu. positive Þ solids expand on
heating, contract on cooling.
If Tsurf < Tint, the interior will constrain the surface from Contracting.

2. Thermal expansion mismatch between dissimilar

Materials in Composites and Multiphase microstructures.

3. Anisotropy of α
For a material with crystal symmetry lower than cubic, a can differ along different crystal
directions.

4. Phase transformations ( volume changes)

Example (§10.7): austenite ® martensite DV>0 Þ large pcs. of austenitic steel may crack
on quenching
TIME TEMPERATURE SUPERPOSITION:

It has been shown throughout this chapter that the properties of plastics are dependent on
time. In Chapter 1 the dependence of properties on temperature was also highlighted. The
latter is more important for plastics than it would be for metals because even modest
temperature changes below 100°C can have a significant effect on properties. Clearly it is
not reasonable to expect creep curves and other physical property data to be available at
all temperatures. If information is available over an appropriate range of temperatures
then it may be possible to attempt some type of interpolation. For example, if creep
curves are available at 20°C and 60°C whereas the service temperature is 40°C then a
linear interpolation would provide acceptable design data.
If creep curves are available at only one temperature then the situation is a little more
difficult. It is known that properties such as modulus will decrease with temperature, but
by how much? Fortunately it is possible to use a time-temperature superposition approach
as follows:It was shown earlier that the variation of creep or relaxation moduli with time
are as illustrated in Fig. 2.9. If we now introduce temperature as a variable then a series
of such curves will be obtained as shown in Fig. 2.58. In general the relaxed and
unrelaxed modulus terms are independent of temperature. The remainder of the moduli
curves are essentially parallel and so this led to the thought that a shift factor, UT, could
be applied to move from one curve to another. Fig. 2.58 It may be seen from Fig. 2.59
that the two modulus curves for temperatures TI and T2 are separated by a uniform
distance (IogaT). Thus, if the material behaviour is known at T I ,in order to get the
modulus at time, t, and temperature T2, it would be necessary to use a time UT) as shown
in Fig. 2.59, in relation to the T1 data. This means that

where T2 > T I . Log (UT) is negative and so UT e 1.

Williams, Landel and Ferry developed an empirical relationship for this type of shift factor. This has the form

where C1 and C2 are constants and Tref is a reference temperature.

FRACTURE BEHAVIOR:

A fracture is the (local) separation of an object or material into two, or more, pieces under the
action of stress.

Fracture strength, also known as breaking strength, is the stress at which a specimen
fails via fracture.[1] This is usually determined for a given specimen by a tensile test,
which charts the stress-strain curve (see image). The final recorded point is the fracture
strength.

Ductile materials have a fracture strength lower than the ultimate tensile strength (UTS),
whereas in brittle materials the fracture strength is equivalent to the UTS.[1] If a ductile
material reaches its ultimate tensile strength in a load-controlled situation,[Note 1] it will
continue to deform, with no additional load application, until it ruptures. However, if the
loading is displacement-controlled,[Note 2] the deformation of the material may relieve the
load, preventing rupture. Fracture strength, also known as breaking strength

If the stress-strain curve is plotted in terms of true stress and true strain the curve will
always slope upwards and never reverse, as true stress is corrected for the decrease in
cross-sectional area. The true stress on the material at the time of rupture is known as the
breaking strength. This is the maximum stress on the true stress-strain curve, given by
point 3 on curve B.

Stress vs. strain curve typical of aluminum

1. Ultimate tensile strength 2. Yield strength 3. Proportional limit stress 4. Fracture
5. Offset strain (typically 0.2%)

CREEP BEHAVIOR:
Today, plastics are used in applications that demand high performance
and extreme
reliability. Many components, conventionally made of metals, are now
made of plastics. The pressure is put on the design engineer to design
the plastic products more efficiently. An increasing number of
designers have now recognized the importance of thoroughly
understanding the behavior of plastics under long-term load and
varying temperatures. Such behavior is described in terms of creep
properties. When a plastic material is subjected to a constant load, it
deforms quickly to a strain roughly predicted by its stress–strain
modulus, and then continues to deform slowly with time indefinitely or
until rupture or yielding causes failure. This phenomenon of
deformation under load with time is called creep. All plastics creep to a
certain extent. The degree of creep depends upon several factors, such
as type of plastic, amount of load, temperature, and time. The short-
term stress–strain data is of little practical value in actual designing
the part, since such data does not take into account the effect of long-
term loading on plastics. Creep behavior varies considerably among
types of plastics; however, under proper stress and temperature
conditions, all plastics will exhibit a characteristic type of creep
behavior. One such generalized creep curve is shown in Fig. 4. The
total creep curve is divided into four continuous stages. The first stage
(OP) represents the instantaneous elastic deformation. This initial
strain is the sum of the elastic and plastic strain. The first stage is
followed by the second stage (PQ) in which strain occurs rapidly but at
a decreasing rate. This stage, where creep rate decreases with time, is
sometimes referred to as creep or primary creep. The straight portion
of the curve (QR) is characterized by a constant rate of creep. This
process is called ‘‘cold flow.’’ The final stage (RS) is marked by
increase in creep rate until the creep fracture occurs. If the applied
load is released before the creep rupture occurs, an immediate elastic
recovery, substantially equal to elastic deformation followed by a
period of slow recovery is observed. The material in most cases does
not recover to the original shape and a permanent set remains. The
magnitude of the permanent set depends upon length of time, amount
of stress applied, and temperature. The creep values are obtained by
applying constant load to the test specimen
in tension, compression, or flexure and measuring the deformation as
a function of time. The values are most commonly referred to as
tensile creep, compressive creep, and flexural creep.

Tensile Creep:
Tensile creep measurements are made by applying the constant load to a tensile test
specimen and measuring its extension as a function of time. The extension measurement
can be carried out several different ways. The simplest way is to make two gauge marks
on the tensile specimen and measure the distance between the marks at specified time
intervals. The percent creep strain is determined by dividing the extension by initial
gauge length and multiplying by 100.The percent creep strain is plotted against time to
obtain a tensile creep curve.
Flexural Creep:

Flexural creep measurements are also made by applying a constant load to the standard
flexural test specimen and measuring its deflection as a function of time. A typical test
setup for measuring creep in flexure is shown in Fig. 6. As illustrated, the deflection of
the specimen at midspan is measured using a dial indicator gauge. The electrical
resistance gauges may also be used in place of a dial indicator. The deflections of the
specimen are measured at a predeterminedtime interval.

IMPACT BEHAVIOR:
The impact properties of the polymeric materials are directly related to
the overall toughness of the material. Toughness is defined as the
ability of the polymer to absorb applied energy. The area under the
stress–strain curve is directly proportional to the toughness of a
material. Impact strength is a measure of toughness. The higher the
impact strength of a material, the higher the toughness and vice versa.
Impact resistance is the ability of a material to resist breaking under a
shock loading or the ability to resist the fracture under stress applied
at high speed. The theory behind toughness and brittleness of the
polymers is very complex and therefore difficult to understand. The
molecular flexibility plays an important role in determining the relative
brittleness or toughness of the material. For example, in stiff polymers
such as polystyrene and acrylics, the molecular segments are unable
to disentangle and respond to the rapid application of mechanical
stress and the impact produces brittle failure. In contrast, flexible
polymers such as plasticized vinyls have high-impact strength due to
the ability of the large segments of molecules to disentangle and
respond rapidly to mechanical stress.
Impact properties of the polymers are often modified simply by adding
an impact modifier such as butadiene rubber or certain acrylic
compounds. The addition of a plasticizer also improves the impact
strength at the cost of rigidity. Material such as nylon, which has
relatively fair impact strength, can be oriented by aligning the polymer
chains to improve the impact strength substantially. Another way to
improve the impact strength is to use fibrous fillers that appear to act
as stress transfer agents.
Most polymers, when subjected to the impact loading, seem to fracture
in a characteristic fashion. The crack is initiated on a polymer surface
due to the impact loading. The energy to initiate such a crack is called
the crack initiation energy. If the load exceeds the crack initiation
energy, the crack continues to propagate. A complete failure occurs
when the load has exceeded the crack propagation energy. Thus, both
crack initiation and crack propagation contribute to the measured
impact strength. There are basically four types of failures encountered
due to the impact load.

Brittle Fracture:
In this type of failure the part fractures extensively without yielding. A
catastrophic mechanical failure such as the one in the case of general-
purpose polystyrene is observed.

Slight Cracking:
The part shows evidence of slight cracking and yielding without losing
its shape or integrity. Yielding. The part actually yields showing
obvious deformation and stress whitening but no cracking takes place.

Ductile Failure:
This type of failure is characterized by a definite yielding of
material along with cracking. Polycarbonate is considered a ductile
material.
The distinction between the four types of failures is not very clear and
some
overlapping is quite possible.