Mangrove Ecosystems

Adam Murtadha
February 11, 2018
P.4
 Introduction

The world is a very complex and interconnecting place where several aspects of animal

and plant life coexist to form the biosphere we know today. It’s made up of several biological

communities where many species of organisms are coordinating and interacting with their

physical, surrounding environment. Biological communities deliver the numerous life-

maintaining benefits we get from nature—clean air and water, soil for agriculture, a habitat for

organisms to live in, and keeping our world balanced over. These biological communities are

imperative to natural wellbeing and prosperity, yet they are restricted and regularly

underestimated. A very diverse and unique ecosystem that serves as a prime example for these

characteristics are mangrove ecosystems. They provide a plethora of organisms with the things

needed to survive, reproduce, and live. In this case, we will be talking about the main types of

mangrove trees found here in Florida: Red (Rhizophora mangle) (Fig. 1), Black (Avicennia

germinans) (Fig. 2), White (Laguncularia racemose) (Fig. 3), and Buttonwood (Conocarpus

erectus) (Fig. 4) mangroves. Moreover, mangroves are critical because they allow the several

organisms that call this habitat home to thrive. In this paper we’ll discuss chemical, geological,

physical features, flora, fauna, environmental stressors, human impact, conservation, and

examples of the ecosystem found worldwide and emphasize the importance of this ecosystem.

Fig. 1 Red Mangroves and their Fig. 2 Black mangrove on sandy

intricate root system. beach.
Fig. 3 White mangrove and flower Fig. 4 Buttonwood mangrove with
buds. “buttons” on it.

Chemical

Many chemical aspects are present and required for a fully functioning and sustainable

ecosystem such as mangroves. Both the water and soil composition have their own unique

chemical components to them. Salinity of water is one of the most observable and easily

measurable gradients in mangrove ecosystems. Mangroves grow in areas where freshwater meets

and combines with seawater into a special type of water called brackish water (Fig. 5). Brackish

water contains nutrients from both the sea and fresh bodies of water which benefits both the

plants and animals that live there. The pH of that mangrove water can range anywhere from 7.54

to 7.69 due to the pH of the both types of waters (Alshawafi A, Analla Md, Aksissou M, Triplet

P 2016). The salt water and mud are saturated why hydrogen sulfide (a chemical that produces a

rotten egg smell) and is rich in organic matter (up to 90%) but the roots help in oxygen collection

due to the mud being poor in oxygen (Jeffrey Hays 2008).

Fig. 5 Mangroves and roots absorbing

brackish water.
Geological

Mangrove trees grow on shores of lagoons and estuaries and are protected from strong

tidal action due to them being primarily found in inlets or bay areas (Fig. 6). The trees can grow

on rocky shores and coral reefs, where the roots dig into fractures in the rock and sandy

substrates. Little wave action allows for mangrove areas to be relatively flat and can be situated

on different types of substrates such as rocks, muds (both fine inorganic and with high organic

content), sand, coral, and even man-made structures that allow the plants to anchor their roots

and not worry about being uplifted from the ground. Different species of mangrove trees are

more adapted to growing in different substrates and depending on the location and type of

sediment that is present, mangroves can grow rapidly due to potential high levels of nutrients in

the water and runoff that can be absorbed into the sediment. For instance, Black mangroves grow

more efficiently in soils with high salinity content. Red mangroves grow effectively in areas with

estuarine salinity and White mangroves grow greatly in places with freshwater on sandy soil

types. All three can even grow in places where the soil is entirely anaerobic (FWS).

Fig. 6 Mangroves typically grow in

areas where fresh water and salt
water mix all around the world. This
map of South Florida shows bay/inlet
areas where it’s possible to find
mangroves growing.
Physical Features

Mangroves must be located in tropical regions where there are high amounts of rain and

sunlight during most times of the year. They grow within bay and inlets areas where they receive

protection from harsh waves and winds, so the trees aren’t knocked over (Sungei Buloh Wetland

Reserve). There is an immense amount of variation seen in mangrove forest communities. There

are many different characteristics for mangrove forests, categorized based on features such as

size, location, geomorphic and hydrological processes, substrate, diversity and much more that

help with classification. Specifically, there are 6 general mangrove community types: overwash,

fringe, riverine, basin, scrub/dwarf forests, and hammock are found all around the world (Fig. 7).

Overwash mangrove islands are constantly being washed over or inundated by the tides.

They are controlled by red mangroves and due to the consistent tidal washing, there is a high

amount of organic matter present. Fringe forests are seen on the edge of coastlines and along the

uncovered waters of inlets and tidal ponds. This type of mangrove forest usually has a vertical

profile due to full-sun exposure. Riverine forests happen on seasonal floodplains in locations

where natural patterns of freshwater release stay in place. Salinity causes less nutrients to be

present in the water during the dry season. Supplement accessibility in these frameworks ends up

plainly most noteworthy amid periods when saltiness is least and allowing ideal mangrove

development. This type of forest goes through a constant cycle of wet and dry seasons along with

an “alternating cycle of high runoff/low salinity followed by low runoff/high salinity.” Basin

forest are the most common form of mangrove community type. They are typically controlled by

black mangroves but are seen to have other invasive and exotic plant species. This particular

community are seen to happen in inland recessions and receive nonuniform tidal washing and

results in hypersaline conditions. Dwarf/scrub forests get their name due to the fact any

mangrove species can be considered dwarf, meaning that they won’t grow past a certain height.

This could be caused by the lack of nutrients available or rocky substrates. The forest type is
 most commonly found in South Florida and are in locations where inundation, freshwater and

nutrients are restricted (Smithsonian Marine Station at Fort Pierce). Hammock forests in

locations with highly organic soils along with higher elevation. They are most typically found

encircled by other wetlands as well (FWS).

Riverine Basin

Scrub/ Fig. 7 This diagram show us the 6

Fringe different types of mangrove
Dwarf communities along with showing
how they all share similar
characteristics but also enough
Different differences to be classified into their
Types of own category.
Overwash Mangrove
Hammock
Communities

Flora

Some mangroves have roots are called “stilt roots” which are a type of root that

mangrove trees have and essentially, they are partly above ground and partly submerged and

creates an underground root system in the soft sediment. Their thick jumble of propped up roots

give the trees an impression of being on “stilts” over the water (Fig. 8). This tangle of roots

enables the trees to deal with the day by day rise and fall of tides. The roots additionally

moderate the development of tidal waters, making residue settle out of the water and develop

base for their roots to anchor in. Red mangroves are “broad-leaved evergreen trees” (NWF) and

potentially could grow to 80+ feet in height, including their propped-up roots. Black mangroves

are defined by having special root-like projects called pneumatophores and having lengthy

horizontal roots. They can grow to 65+ feet in special locations, however in the state of Florida

they are typically smaller in size. White mangroves do not have visible aerial roots in

comparison to the black and red mangroves which have prop roots and pneumatophores. The

leaves are a yellow-green color and are wide and flat. The leaves have two special sugar glands
 called nectaries. The buttonwood is often considered a fourth mangrove species; however, it is

classified as a mangrove associate because it lacks any morphological specialization common in

“true mangrove” species, and because it generally inhabits the upland fringe of many mangrove

communities. It’s very cold-sensitive and restricted to South Florida. The leaves have smooth

edges and pointed tips while the rest of the leaf is leathery (Florida Museum of Natural History).

Mangroves are halophytes, meaning they are able to survive in brackish or complete salt or fresh

water. These species have adapted to absorbing brackish water into their tissues and excrete salt

through their leaves or through specialized glands in order to survive (Fig. 9).

Fig. 9 Mangrove
trees are able to
secrete excess salt
either through
their leaves or
through glands.
The salt then
accumulates
around that areas
and forms salt
Fig. 8 These stilt roots provide crystals.
support and anchorage that the tree
needs along with creating a place for
organisms to live in.

Fauna

Numerous estuarine fishes spend their early life in mangroves and after that move as adults to

finish life cycles in seagrass living spaces. The most noteworthy quality seagrass beds are related

with mangrove-bordered shorelines. Creatures related with the mangrove/seagrass groups

incorporate herbivores, such as green turtles, manatees, urchins, blue crabs, fiddler crabs, and

numerous fishes. Numerous creatures related with mangroves waters are in open water by day

but rummage in seagrass beds during the evening (FWS). There an immense amount of

biodiversity made up of algae, mollusk, fish, bugs, reptiles, birds, and warm mammal species.

Saltwater crocodiles, pelicans, egrets, spoonbills, flying foxes and monkeys are generally
inhabitants of mangroves, just to give some examples (Fig. 10). The trees' complex system of

roots gives a place to reside in to numerous salt and freshwater species, and the mangroves are a

source of food for many marine organisms as well. While certain species spend their whole lives

living and traversing in this environment, various fish species utilize the sanctuary of the

mangrove as a nursing ground before going to the vast sea, to the degree that 33% of every

marine species were brought up in mangrove forests around the globe (Ecologic).

Fig. 10 Many different species of

organ call mangrove forests their
home. This diagram shows 23
different species of organisms that
can be located within this ecosystem.
There is a plethora of organisms that
are not shown here that live here
such as spoonbills or pelicans. All
these organisms rely on each other
one way or another and help create a
well maintained and balance
ecosystem.

Environmental Stressors

The increase in sea level world wide is a significant threat towards mangrove ecosystems, due to

the fact they are particular and sensitive about inundation duration as well as wave energy and

salinity passing the tolerance range. Mangroves have overcome this obstacle by becoming more

resilient in changes in sea level by slowly retreating inland over generation time and by surface

elevation change. Storms can greatly impact the overall health and productivity of mangroves

due to potentially extreme weather coming through and destroying the ecosystem. Hurricanes,

Tsunamis (Fig. 11), Earthquakes (Fig. 12), El Niño (Fig.13), La Niña (Fig. 14) all of which can
easily alter and impact mangrove habitats. Another increasingly threatening factor is

temperature. Global warming is a continuous threat for society at this current day. The addition

of more and more greenhouse gases being put into the atmosphere along with worldwide

temperatures to be increasing up to 4.8 ℃ by 2081-2100. Mangroves are already very sensitive

in terms of requirements to thrive and grow so all of these factors together can severely stress out

the ecosystem and potentially have major consequences for the organisms that rely on them.

(Raymond D. Ward, Daniel A. Friess, Richard H. Day, Richard A. MacKenzi 2016). Sea level

rise happens globally due to heating up of ocean water along with ice caps at the poles melting

and making the poles warmer and warmer annually and thus adding more water into the ocean.

For instance, mangrove ecosystems in the tropical and sub-tropical can easily be affected

because the mangroves are located on islands or are their own islands and be overcome by too

much of the surrounding water. As time goes on, global CO2 levels are growing along with how

much is being put into the atmosphere. CO2 impacts plant growth and productivity. Too much

however can result in some species of mangroves to not take to well to the high amounts of CO2.

Along with that, the rise in surface temperature can cause problems as well. While mangroves

normally grow efficiently between 15-25 ℃, global temperature is increasing as every year

passes by, making it increasingly difficult for mangroves to be healthy and productive (Wilson

R. 2017).

Fig. 11 Tsunamis and Hurricanes can Fig. 12 Earthquakes are also another
come through and ravage an threat. They are sporadic and
ecosystem. Leaving nothing but random and cause massive
destruction and chaos behind. destruction as well.
 Fig. 13 During the
weather
phenomenon known
as “El Niño”,
different types of
temperatures in the
world. The west
usually receives the
effects of the
phenomenon and get
warm and wet air
while other parts get
warm and dry air.

Fig. 14 In this
weather
phenomenon known
as “La Niña”, many
parts of the world
receive wet and cool
air while only a very
small percentage of
the world receives
dry or warm
temperatures during
this event.

Human Impact

Humans are the primary source for most the world’s environmental problems. We wreck and

destroy our world without thinking about the consequences that follow it. Mangroves are of

several ecosystems subject to several types of human destruction (Fig. 15). Humans dredge, fill,

pollute, deforest and develop over them and slowly cause them to be destroyed. Dredging kills

off mangrove trees because it prevents oxygen from entering and getting to the root system due

to the aerial roots being flooded by water. This lack of oxygen in the root will substantially cause

many mangroves to die. Water pollution by the use of herbicides/pesticides, oil spills, and runoff
cause mangroves to die as well. They kill the plants and result in organisms of the mangrove

community being susceptible to the pollutants and not have a place to live. Urban sprawl and

development impact water quality, number of mangroves, runoff, erosion, and many more

harmful factors within the ecosystem. Less mangroves means less nursery areas for organisms

and less places for organisms to live. Industrialization pollutes our waters with toxic chemicals

and there is no recourse for mangroves. It’s critical that we take a step back and reflect as to what

can be done to protect these important mangrove ecosystems and what can be done to conserve

and restore them (Florida Museum Impacts: Human and Natural).

Fig. 15 Humans continue to

destroy several of our
planet’s ecosystem and
environment for our own
personal gain without
seeing the consequences
until its too late.
Destruction of this
important ecosystem will
cause detrimental damage
to both the plants and
organisms that benefit from
mangroves.

Conservation

Conservation is a critical point in ensuring that mangrove ecosystems remain healthy and

continue to grow and thrive worldwide. The best way to go about conservation, much like any

other ecosystem, is to create protected areas and reduce human activity and interference along

with reducing other forms of pressure that can negatively impact them. Anthropogenic pressures

such as deforestation, conversion to aquacultures, costal development, cutting for timber, air and

water pollution are main sources for mangrove loss. Conservation includes a restoration aspect of

the ecosystem as well. For instance, when restoring an ecosystem, you typically reforest using

the necessary species, like the red mangroves because it is the most common. This usually occurs
in three phases: sorting propagules, supplying propagules to planters, and planting them.

Propagules are a type of viviparous seed that red and black mangroves have that grow after

detaching from the parent tree. They allow new plants to grow after their dispersed and

eventually grow into a mature plant (Fig. 16). It’s paramount that we do everything in our power

to conserve, restore, and protect mangroves. They provide both us and other organisms with

essential features that helps keep balance and provide us with various resources that we need.

Once they are gone, it’ll be near if not impossible to restore them and cause destruction and

chaos in our environment (Mangrove Conservation and Restoration, 2016).

Fig. 16 Conservation
and restoration is a vital
part of ensuring that
mangroves ecosystems
are not completely
wiped out from our
planet. One way to
restore our forests is by
the replanting and
growth of mangrove
trees. Mangroves have
a “seed” like casing that
enables them to
disperse and allow for
more trees to grow.

Examples

There are various cases where you can see a mangrove ecosystem in the world. They range from

South Florida to parts of Asia to the Caribbean and Mexico. Red mangroves are found southward

all the way through the Keys and from Cedar Key in the Gulf of Mexico along with Daytona

Beach in the Atlantic (Fig. 17) (Florida Museum of Natural History). Mexico has 700,000

hectares of mangroves and has approximately 5% of the worlds mangroves (Fig. 18) (Bertoldi,

2017). There are several locations In Asia where you’re able to see many mangrove forests such

as India (Fig. 19). Mangrove are found variously within India in places such as West Bengal,
Odisha, Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, and Andamans (Top 5 Largest Mangrove and Swamp

Forest in India).

Fig. 17 This map shows mangrove

distribution of mangrove forests in
South Florida. The stretch from the
very tip of the Keys all the way to
Cedar Keys which is past the
midpoint of the state.

Fig. 18 The map shows the dispersal

and distribution of mangroves within
Mexico. They stretch from the west
side of the country, go all the way
along the edge until it reaches the
east coast of the country and stop
towards the middle.

Fig. 19 This map gives us a visual as

to locations where its possible to find
mangroves in India. They are found
in cities as well as islands all around
the outer edge of the country.
Moreover, its possible to encounter
more mangroves in different Asian
countries.
Conclusion
Mangroves can be found in various places around the world, ranging from Florida, to Mexico, to

the Caribbean, India, Africa and many more. They help our marine world with sustainability and

allow many organisms to survive and thrive. Mangrove ecosystems throughout the globe, without

a doubt, are one of the most beneficial and important ecosystems on our planet Earth. Their many

characteristics make them perfect homes for several species of plants and animals. They are truly

a highly diverse and unique ecosystem in our world and we must do everything in our power to

protect this critical ecosystem from destruction. The percentage of them worldwide are decreasing

rapidly from both natural and human activities and if we don’t protect them, they will diminish

until there are none that can be found.

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