Biological Science Modules

Prepared by: Dr. Eduardo M. Lorico

MODULE 1

The Methods of Biology

After going through the module, you are expected to be able to:

1. identify a problem

2. formulate a hypothesis

3. design a procedure to test the hypothesis

4. collect data and present them in appropriate format

5. observe trends and patterns

6. make generalizations and conclusions

Observing and Hypothesizing

Even though biologists and other scientists study many differenttypes of things, they all use the
same basic steps. The commonsteps they use to do research and answer questions are
calledscientific methods. Scientists often figure out questions to askand answer just by
observing the world around them.

What is a hypothesis?

Forming a hypothesis (hi PAHTH us sus) is a researchmethod scientists use often. A hypothesis
is an explanation for aquestion or problem that can be tested. For example, imagine thatthe
number of birds in an area decreased after snakes came intothe area. A scientist might make
the hypothesis that the snakeswere the reason the number of birds decreased.A scientist who
forms a hypothesis must be certain that it canbe tested. Before testing a hypothesis, scientists
make observations and do research. The results of the experiment will help thescientist answer
whether or not the hypothesis is supported.
Experimenting

To a scientist, an experiment is a test of a hypothesis by collectinginformation under controlled

conditions.

What is a controlled experiment?

Controlled experiments involve two groups—the controlgroup and the experimental or test
group. The control is thepart of an experiment that represents the standard conditions.In other
words, the control receives no experimental treatment.The experimental group is the test group
that receives experimentaltreatment.For instance, imagine an experiment to learn how
fertilizeraffects plant growth. Fertilizer would be used in the experimentalgroup but not in the
control group. All other conditions—soil, light, and water—would be the samefor both groups.In
this experiment, using fertilizer is the independentvariable. The independent variable isthe one
condition in an experiment that is tested.How much the plants grow is the dependent variable.

The dependent variable is the conditionthat changes because of a change in the

independentvariable.Safety is another important factor that scientiststhink about when carrying
out investigations and

experiments. It is important to know about dangersthat may exist from doing an experiment
before

you begin it. Anyone doing an experiment has aresponsibility to follow safety procedures.
Theymust keep themselves and others out of danger.
MODULE 1 WORKSHEET

METHODS OF BIOLOGY

ACTIVITY 1

CAN YOU SPOT THE SCIENTIFIC METHOD CRITICAL THINKING/PROBLEM SOLVING

Each sentence below describes a step of the scientific method. Match each

sentence with a step of the scientific method listed below.

A. Recognize a problem

B. Form a hypothesis

C. Test the hypothesis with an experiment

D. Draw conclusions

____ 1. Stephen predicted that seeds would start to grow faster if an electric

current traveled through the soil in which they were planted.

____ 2. Susan said, “If I fertilize my geranium plants, they will blossom.”

____ 3. Jonathan’s data showed that household cockroaches moved away

from raw cucumber slices.

____ 4. Rene grew bacteria from the mouth on special plates in the

laboratory. She placed drops of different mouthwashes on bacteria on

each plate.

____ 5. Kathy used a survey to determine how many of her classmates were

left-handed and how many were right-handed.

____ 6. Jose saw bats catching insects after dark. He asked, “How do bats

find the insects in the dark?”

____7. Justin wondered if dyes could be taken out of plant leaves, flowers,

and stems.

____ 8. Alice soaked six different kinds of seeds in water for 24 hours. Then

she planted the seeds in soil at a depth of I cm. She used the same

amount of water, light, and heat for each kind of seed.

____9.. Bob read about growing plants in water. He wanted to know how

plants could grow without soil.

____ 10. Kevin said, “If I grow five seedlings in red light, I think the plants will

grow faster than the five plants grown in white light.”

____ 11. Angela’s experiment proved that earthworms move away from light.

____ 12. Scott said, “If acid rain affects plants in a particular lake, it might

affect small animals, such as crayfish, that live in the same water.”

____ 13. Michael fed different diets to three groups of guinea pigs. His

experiment showed that guinea pigs need vitamin C and protein in

their diets.

____ 14. Kim’s experiment showed that chicken eggshells were stronger

when she gave the hen feed, to which extra calcium had been added.
ACTIVITY 2MODULE 1 WORKSHEET

METHODS OF BIOLOGY

Performing an Experiment

Read the following statements and then answer the questions.

1. A scientist wants to find out why sea water freezes at a lower temperature

than fresh water.

2. The scientist goes to the library and reads a number of articles about the

physical properties of solutions.

3. The scientist also reads about the composition of sea water.

4. The scientist travels to a nearby beach,and observes the conditions there. The

scientist notes the taste of the sea water and other factors such as waves, wind,

air-pressure, temperature, and humidity.

5. After considering all this information, the scientist sits at a desk and writes, “My

guess is that sea water freezes at a lower temperature than fresh water because

sea water has salt in it.”

6. The scientist goes back to the laboratory and does the following:

a. Fills each of two beakers with I liter of fresh water.

b. Dissolves 35 grams of table salt in one of the beakers.

c. Places both beakers in a refrigerator whose temperature is - 1degree C.

d. Leaves the beakers in the refrigerator for 24 hours.

7. After 24 hours, the scientist examines both beakers and finds the fresh water to

be frozen. The salt water is still liquid.

8. The scientist writes in a notebook, “It appears as if salt water freezes at a lower

temperature than fresh water does.”

9. The scientist continues, “Therefore, I suggest that the reason sea water freezes at

a lower temperature is that sea water contains dissolved salts while fresh water

does not.”

Questions

A. Which statements contain conclusions? ___________________________

B. Which statements refer to research? ______________________________

C. Which statement contains a hypothesis?___________________________

D. Which statements contain observations? __________________________

E. Which statements describe an experiment? ________________________

F. Which statement supports the hypothesis? _________________________

G. In which statement is the problem defined? _________________________

H. Which statement contain data? __________________________________

I. Which is the variable in the experiment?____________________________

J. What is the control in the experiment? _____________________________

K. Which statement includes an inference? __________________________

MODULE 2:

Characteristics of Life

Is this picture a colorful work of abstract art, or is it something else? Imagine

shrinking down to a tiny size, so small you could enter a blood vessel. The picture
shows what you might see rushing toward you. Do you know what the red objects are?
If you guessed red blood cells, you are right. What about the knobby green objects?
Watch out for these! They are viruses that have invaded the blood. When you read this
book, you will take an exciting journey into the realm of blood cells, viruses, and just
about everything else that is related to life. You will learn how your own body works,
what makes living things unique, and what you and viruses have in common.

Lesson Objectives

1. Explain the characteristics of life common to all organisms.

2. Identify the parts that all cells have in common.
3. Compare and contrast prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells.
Introduction
In this lesson, you will learn about one particular branch of science, the branch called
biology. Biology is the science of life. Do you know what life is? Can you define it? Do
you know the characteristics of life common to all organisms? Can you describe the
characteristics of life that are shared by prokaryotes and eukaryotes?

CHARACTERISTICS OF LIFE

To be classified as a living thing, an object must have all of the following characteristics:
1. It responds to the environment.
2. It grows and develops.
3. It goes through reproduction: produces offspring (asexually or sexually).
4. It maintains homeostasis.
5. It obtains and uses energy to power all life processes through metabolism
6. It consists of cell(s) that are organized.
7. It has the ability to change over time (evolution).
8. It as a universal genetic code (DNA).

Response to the Environment

All living things detect changes in their environment and respond to them. What
happens if you step on a rock? Nothing; the rock doesn’t respond because it isn’t alive.
The rock is only a stimulus that elicits a response from you. But what if you think you
are stepping on a rock and actually step on a turtle shell? The turtle is likely to respond
by moving—it may even snap at you! In this case you are the stimulus that the turtle
responds to.
Some of an organism’s responses are instinctive behaviors and others are learned
behaviors. Instinctive behavior is inborn behavior that does not depend on experience, it
happens on instinct, or automatically. Some examples of this are; frightened animals will
either flee the situation or stand and fight, or newly hatched sea turtles on a beach
automatically move toward the ocean. Learned behaviors depend on experience or
observing other organisms. For example, you can teach a dog to roll over by giving it a
treat or children whining until they get what they want.

Growth and Development

All living things grow and develop. Growth is the physical change in an organism’s size
and weight, while development is the gene-directed process by which an organism
matures. Growth occurs through cell division and enlargement of cells, development
occurs though cell differentiation (cell becoming different from each other; i.e. some
cells become blood cells and others become bone cells) and specialization (adaptation
of a cell to perform a specific function). For example, a plant seed may look like a
lifeless pebble, but under the right conditions it will grow and develop into a plant.
Animals also grow and develop. Look at the animals in Figure 2.2. How will the tadpoles
change as they grow and develop into adult frogs? This process of change is called
metamorphosis.

Figure 2.2: Tadpoles go through many changes to become adult frogs.

Reproduction
All living things are capable of reproduction. Reproduction is the process by which living
things give rise to offspring and transmit hereditary information (coded in DNA,
deoxyribonucleic acid). In sexually reproducing organisms hereditary information
recombines from two organisms of the same species, producing genetically different
offspring. In asexually reproducing organisms hereditary information does not come
from different organisms to the offspring, the offspring is genetically identical to the
parent.
Reproduction is not essential for the survival of an individual organism but it is essential
in order for a species to continue and survive as a whole. Reproducing may be as
simple as a single cell dividing to form two daughter cells. Generally, however, it is
much more complicated. Nonetheless, whether a living thing is a huge whale or a
microscopic bacterium, it is capable of reproduction.

Maintaining Homeostasis
All living things are able to maintain a more-or-less constant internal environment. They
keep things relatively stable on the inside regardless of the conditions around them. The
process of maintaining a stable internal environment is called homeostasis, without
homeostasis maintenance an organism could die. In human beings, homeostatic
mechanisms, regulatory mechanisms that contribute to maintaining a state of
equilibrium help us maintain a stable internal body temperature (thermoregulation),
regulate our body’s water content (water regulation), and uptake of nutrients by our
cells. For example, if you go outside when the air temperature is below freezing, your
body doesn’t freeze. Instead, by shivering and other means, it maintains a stable
internal temperature.
Homeostasis, or keeping things constant, is not just a characteristic of living things. It
also applies to nature as a whole. Consider the concentration of oxygen in Earth’s
atmosphere. Oxygen makes up 21% of the atmosphere, and this concentration is fairly
constant. What keeps the concentration of oxygen constant? The answer is living
things. Most living things need oxygen to survive, and when they breathe, they remove
oxygen from the atmosphere. On the other hand, many living things, including plants,
give off oxygen when they make food, and this adds oxygen to the atmosphere. The
concentration of oxygen in the atmosphere is maintained mainly by the balance
between these two processes. A quick overview of homeostasis can be viewed at
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=DFyt7FJn-UM

Obtaining and Using Energy/ Metabolism

All living things have an ability to acquire materials for energy to power life processes;
such as, cellular repair, growth, and movement. Metabolic processes are the sum of all
chemical reactions that take in and transform energy and materials from an organism’s
environment. In other words, metabolism is the sum of the chemical reactions through
which living things break down or build up materials. Most of us call this eating! We
have to be able to convert our food; a form of energy, to chemicals our cells can use
through metabolism. Some organisms like plants, algae, and some microorganisms are
autotrophs (self-feeders, producers). The autotrophs we are most familiar with are the
green plants that use photosynthesis to make their own "food"; energy. Animals and
fungi are heterotrophs (consumers) and capture their food for energy in a variety of
ways.
The ability to acquire and use energy is extremely important. Keep in mind without a
constant input of usable energy, organisms would quickly become "disorganized" and
die.

Cells and Organization

All forms of life are built of cells. A cell is the basic unit of the structure and function of
living things capable of performing all the activities of life. Living things may appear very
different from one another on the outside, but their cells are very similar. Compare the human
cells in Figure 2.3and onion cells in Figure 2.4. How are they similar? You should view the
animation titled Parts of an Animal Cell at: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Fzj6TRnXmps.
 Figure 2.3: Human Cells. If you looked Figure 2.4: Onion Cells. If you looked at

at human cells under a microscope, this onion cells under a microscope, this is what

is what you might see. you might see.

Some organisms are made up of only one cell and are called unicellular; others are
composed of two or more cells and are called multicellular. Complex multicellular organisms
have levels of organization as shown in Figure 2.5 below. Organism is the highest level of
organization, made up of organ systems (groups of specialized parts that carry out a certain
function in an organism). Organ systems are made up of organs; structures that carry out
specialized jobs within an organ system. Organs are made up of tissues; groups of cells that
have similar abilities and allow an organ to function. Tissues are made up of cells; these are
covered by a membrane, contain genetic information needed for replication, and carry out all
cell functions. Within cells we find organelles, tiny structures that carry out functions necessary
for a cell to stay alive. Organelles contain biological molecules, chemical compounds that
provide physical structure, fuel movement, organize energy use, and other cellular functions.
Biological molecules are made up of atoms; which are the simplest particle of an element.
Ability to Change Over Time (Evolution)

Evolution is a change in the characteristics of populations of living things over time;

which creates genetic variations enabling a population to adapt to changes in their
environments and survive. Evolution occurs by a process called natural selection. In natural
selection, some populations of living things produce more offspring than others, so they pass
more genes to the next generation than others do. Over many generations, this can lead to
major changes in the characteristics of the population of living things. Evolution explains how
populations living things are changing today and how modern living things have descended from
ancient life forms that no longer exist on Earth. As populations of living things evolve, they
generally become better suited for their environment. This is because they evolve adaptations.
An adaptationis a characteristic that helps a population of living thing survive and reproduce in a
given environment. Look at the mole in Figure 2.6. It has tentacles around its nose that it uses
to sense things by touch. The mole lives underground in the soil where it is always dark.
However, by using its touch organ, it can detect even tiny food items in the soil in total darkness.
The touch organ is an adaptation because it helps the mole survive in its dark, underground
environment. A cartoon depicting the evolution of Homer (Simpson) can be viewed at:
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=faRlFsYmkeY.

Figure 2.6: This mole uses its star-shaped nose organ to sense food by touch in the dark.

Universal Genetic Code (DNA)

Living things are based on a universal genetic code, with very small differences between
different living things. All organisms store the information they need to carry out life processes
and reproduce in this universal genetic code contained in a DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid)
molecule. The genetic code information stored in DNA is copied and passed from parent to
offspring during reproduction.
MODULE 2

WORKSHEET

Characteristics of Life

1. Determine if each object is living or non-living

2. A motor car needs petrol and air in order to move. It produces waste gases.

a Which characteristics of living organisms are similar to those of a motor car?

 b Why is a car not a living organism?

MODULE 3

CELLS—ORGANIZATION

OVERVIEW:

Cells are the basic unit of living things. The student should demonstrate a knowledge of
the structure and function of cells as well as a detailed knowledge of the cell organelles.
This area includes the waythat cells divide and produce the next generation of cells.
The student should be able to compare and contrast mitosis and meiosis with ease,
including the phases of the cell cycle. A brief discussion of the regulatory mechanisms
involved in the life of the cell is included. To begin with, we define the cell and discuss
the cell organelles.

What you are expected to learn

After going through this module you should be able to:

• State two tenets of the cell theory.

• Describe the structure of a prokaryotic cell, and give a function for each part
mentioned

• Describe the structure of a eukaryotic cell,

• Contrast the structures of prokaryotic cells, eukaryotic animal cells, and
eukaryotic plant cells.

Formulation of the Cell Theory

In 1838, Theodor Schwann and Matthias Schleiden were enjoying after-dinner coffee

and talking about their studies on cells. It has been suggested that when Schwann
heardSchleiden describe plant cells with nuclei, he was struck by the similarity of these
plant cellsto cells he had observed in animal tissues. The two scientists went
immediately toSchwann's lab to look at his slides. Schwann published his book on
animal and plant cells(Schwann 1839) the next year, a treatise lacking of
acknowledgments of anyone else'scontribution, including that of Schleiden (1838). He
summarized his observations into threeconclusions about cells:

1. The cell is the unit of structure, physiology, and organization in living things.

2. The cell retains a dual existence as a distinct entity and a building block in the

construction of organisms.

3. Cells form by free-cell formation, similar to the formation of crystals

(spontaneous

generation).

We know today that the first two principles are correct, but the third is clearly wrong.The
correct interpretation of cell formation by division was finally promoted by others
andformally announced in Rudolph Virchow's powerful statement, "Omnis cellula e
cellula"..."All cells only arise from pre-existing cells".

The modern principles of the Cell Theory include the following:

1. All known living things are made up of cells.

2. The cell is the structural and functional unit of all living things.

3. All cells come from pre-existing cells by division. (Spontaneous generation doesnot
occur).
4. Cells contain hereditary information which is passed from cell to cell during
celldivision.

5. All cells are basically the same in chemical composition.

6. All energy flow (metabolism and biochemistry) of life occurs within cells.

Cell: The Basis of Life

WHAT ARE THE DIFFERENT TYPES OF CELLS?

For centuries, scientists have known about cells. However, it wasn't until the
development of the electron microscope that scientists were able to figure out what cells
do. We now know that there are two distinct types of cells: eukaryotic cells and
prokaryotic cells. A eukaryotic cell contains a membrane- bound structure called a
nucleus and cytoplasm, filled with tiny structures called organelles (literally "little
organs"). Examples of eukaryotic cells are fungi, protists, plant cells, and animal cells.

Cells Have Structures

Imagine that you could become smaller, down to the size of one micron (1 micron
=1/1000 inch). Your whole body would be smaller than the typical animal cell .Imagine,
that you could step inside this cell and explore it. Find out some structures inside a cell.
Be able to explore how bacterial cells are different from other cells such as plant and
animal cells.

Prokaryotes

A prokaryotic cell, which is a lot smaller than a eukaryotic cell, lacks both a nucleus and
membrane- bound organelles. Examples of prokaryotic cells are bacteria and
Rickettsiae. The genetic material in a prokaryote is one continuous, circular DNA
molecule that lies free in the cell in an area called the nucleoid. In addition to a plasma
membrane, most prokaryotes have a cell wall composed of peptidoglycan. Prokaryotes
may also have ribosomes (although smaller than those found in eukaryotic cells) as well
as a flagellum, a long fiber that helps them move.

Eukaryotes

Eukaryotic cells contain some or all of the components listed below and are found in or
compose all of the non-prokaryotic living things.Evolutionarily, they are “younger” than
the prokaryotes.

While cells differ in size and shape, most of them have common structures. The cells

of animals, plants, and related organisms have three basic structures:

􀂃 Cell membrane – the outer boundary of the cell.

􀂃 Nucleus – the control center of the cell.

􀂃 Cytoplasm – the material between the cell membrane and the nucleus.

The first thing you see as you approach this cell is a thin sac-like membrane. Thecell
membrane covers the entire surface of the cell. As you take the imaginary step through
the cell membrane, you immediately come in contact with the cytoplasm. Moving
through the cytoplasm would be like moving through a jar of jelly.

A large, round nucleus is found somewhere in the cytoplasm. As the “control center”of
the cell, the nucleus contains coded instructions for all of the cell’s activities.
Thesecoded instructions are stored on special structures called the chromosomes.

Chromosomes are seen when a cell is reproducing.Just as the cell membrane covers
the cell, a nuclear membrane covers the nucleusof the cell. It regulates the passage of
materials in and out of the nucleus.

Cytoplasmic Structures

As you walk through the cytoplasm, you might bump into sausage-shaped bodiescalled
mitochondria. They are commonly called the “power houses” of the cell. They trap the
energy that results when food is broken down. Just as a power plant supplies energy
toa business, mitochondria provide energy for the cell. Some types of cells are more
activethan others, that’s why they can have more mitochondria.

Muscle cells are always undergoing some type of movement. Muscles are also the
onesexposed to strenuous activities like doing some household chores, running,
walking, etc.

Ever since you entered the cell, you have been walking on a network of canals calledthe
endoplasmic reticulum. The endoplasmic reticulum extends from the nucleus to the

cell membrane and takes up quite a lot of space in some cells. It moves material from
oneplace to another place inside the cell.

Ribosomes are the tiny dots you see on the edges of some of the
endoplasmicreticulum. Some cells may contain millions of ribosomes. The actual
building blocks of thecell (proteins) are made on the surfaces of these very tiny
structures.In a manufacturing business, products are made, packaged, and moved to
loadingcenters to be carried away. Structures called golgi bodies are the packaging and
releasingstructures of the cell. When something is released, it is given off by the cell.

Do you know that cells also produce wastes? In the cytoplasm, structures
calledlysosomes contain chemicals that digest wastes and worn-out/damaged cell parts.
When acell dies, chemicals in the lysosomes act to quickly break down the cell. In a
healthy cell, themembrane around the lysosome keeps it from breaking down the cell
itself. Plant cells donot have lysosomes.
Many businesses have warehouses for storing products until they are sold.

Vacuoles are storage areas in cells. They may store water, food, or waste products. In,
plant cells, vacuoles are big. In animal cells, vacuoles are small. Why do you think so?

Feedback: Plants are said to be the producers of food in the environment. They
mayproduce sugar, oil, nectar, etc. They are in need of bigger vacuoles to store such
materials.You have just looked at the inner workings of an animal cell. Imagine now that
youare taking a microscopic tour through the green plant cell below. You will find that
somestructures in this cell are quite different from the structures in an animal cell. Take
note ofthem.

The outer covering of the plant cell is not soft and thin. Instead, it is surrounded by
arigid/tough structure called the cell wall that supports and protects the plant cell.Once
you pass through the cell wall, you see the same structures you saw in theanimal cell.

Hold on! Something new appears. The dark green bodies you see around you
arechloroplasts. Substances inside the chloroplast help a green plant cell trap the
sun’senergy and then produce food.

MODULE 3 WORKSHEET
CELLS—ORGANIZATION

1. Compare and contrast characteristics of prokaryotes and eukaryotes using the

Venn diagram

Prokaryotes Eukaryotes.

Fill in this chart.

Cell Part Function Found in?

 (plant, animal, fungi…)

Endoplasmic
reticulum

Mitochondrion

Chloroplast

Ribosomes

Golgi apparatus

Vacuole

Cell membrane

Nucleus

Cytoplasm

Lysosomes

Cell wall

Cytoskeleton

3. Label the animal cell.

4. Label the plant cell.
MODULE 4

CLASSIFICATION OF LIVING THINGS

When you have studied this unit, you should be able to:

• outline the use of a hierarchical classification system for living organisms

• classify living organisms into kingdoms, orders, classes, families, genera

and species

• define and describe the binomial system of naming species

• construct dichotomous keys

• use simple dichotomous keys based on easily identifiable features.

Classification of living organisms

If you have ever been to a library, you will know how much easier it is to find a book on a
particular subject if the books are arranged in subject groups. When the librarian has a new
book to add to the library, he or she will group it with books on a similar topic, according to a
classification system.

The use of the hierarchical classification system

CLASSIFICATION helps us to impose order and a general plan on the diversity of living things.
Scientists have always tried to organize and classify the objects, including living organisms,
around them. Classification can be defined as grouping organisms according to their structural
similarities. This means that organisms that share similar features are placed in one group.
These groups are arranged from the largest group of organisms to the smallest group of
organisms. The groups, from largest to smallest, are arranged as follows: kingdom, phylum
(plural phyla), class, order, family, genus (plural genera) and species. The species is the
smallest group of organisms. As you go through the classification hierarchy, you will see that
scientists have used broader features to put organisms into kingdoms, which are the largest
groups of organisms. When you move down towards the species, which are the smallest groups
of organisms, features are becoming specific. In other words, two organisms that belong to the
same species share more features than those in the same kingdom but in different species. A
species can be defined as a group of organisms with similar features, and these organisms are
capable of breeding and produce fertile offspring. You are probably aware of the fact that horses
and donkeys belong to the same kingdom, phylum, class, order, family as well as genus but
they are from different species. Therefore, if a donkey and the horse happen to breed, they
produce an offspring called a mule. The mule is infertile, meaning that it cannot reproduce
offspring because it is a product of organisms of different species. Classification hierarchy has
many uses. First, it helps scientists to sort organisms in order. Second, it helps them to identify
new organisms by finding out which group they fit. Third, it is easier to study organisms when
they are sorted in groups.

The hierarchical classification system

There are various sizes of groups into which living organisms are put. The largest group is the
kingdom. There are five kingdoms: prokaryotes (which includes bacteria), protoctista, fungi,
plants and animals. Each kingdom is further divided into smaller groups called phyla, based on
a few features that are shared by some organisms. For example, the arthropod phylum contains
all the animals without a backbone that also have jointed legs and a hard covering over their
body, such as insects, crustaceans and spiders. A phylum is then subdivided into classes,
orders, families, genera, and finally species. In this system of classification the various groups
are called taxa (singular: taxon). This chart shows the hierarchical system of classification.
kingdom phylum class order family genus species
 Table 1 shows how this system can be used to classify a human being.

Binomial system of naming species

Carl Linnaeus, a Swedish botanist who lived from 1707 to 1778, introduced the hierarchical
classification system that we have discussed so far. In addition to that, he gave each and every
species a scientific name in Latin. The binomial system of naming species
means giving organisms two names in Latin (scientific names). The term binomial literally means
two names – ‘bi’ means two and ‘nomial’ means name. Linnaeus derived scientific names from the
genus and the species to which organisms belong. When writing a scientific name, the genus name is
written first and starts with a capital letter, and the species name is written second and starts with a
small letter. The scientific name ought to be printed in italics when typed and underlined separately
when handwritten. The tiger belongs to the genus called Pantheraand the species called tigris,
therefore its scientific name will be typed as Pantheratigris, or handwritten as Pantheratigris.
Scientific names are universal because, for instance, every biologist will understand that
Feliscatusmeans ‘house cat’ without resorting to the dictionary, no matter what language they speak.

ƒ Phylum (Division for Plants) – Groups of classes with shared characteristics;

members of a phylum share a common structure and organization; Chordate

Phylum (animals with backbones).

ƒ Class – Members share common structure; made up of several Orders; Class

Mammalia (have mammary glands).

Order – Share common structure and traits; made up of several Families; Order

Primate (flexible hands and feet).

ƒ Family – Share common characteristics; made up of several Genera; Family

Homindae (bipedal – walks on two feet).

ƒ Genus – Have common characteristics, structures, and organization; made up of

several Species; Genus Homo (large brain).

ƒ Species – Most basic; members resemble each other; can produce fertile

offspring; sapiens (knowing, knowledge, thinking).

o The scientific name for human beings is Homo sapiens.

ƒ Homo – Latin for “man.”

ƒ sapiens – Latin for “wise; to be wise.”

ƒ Homo sapiens – The Wise Man.

MODULE 4 WORKSHEET

CLASSIFICATION OF LIVING THINGS

1. The Five kingdoms

Cut and paste the following organisms in the boxes below. Then, write the main characteristics
of each kingdom.
MODULE 4 WORKSHEET

CLASSIFICATION OF LIVING THINGS

ACTIVITY 1. The Five kingdoms

Cut and paste the following organisms in the boxes below. Then, write the main characteristics
of each kingdom.

KINGDOM MONERA Main characteristics

KINGDOM PROTISTS Main characteristics
KINGDOM FUNGI Main characteristics

KINGDOM PLANTS Main characteristics

KINGDOM ANIMAL Main characteristics
MODULE 4 WORKSHEET

CLASSIFICATION OF LIVING THINGS

ACTIVITY 2

A Tale of Two Elephants

1. What organisms are shown?

2. Do they look the same?

3. Do the pictures show the same species?

4. How are they elephants similar?

5. How are they different?

MODULE 5

ECOLOGY AND THE ECOSYSTEM

What you are expected to learn

After going through this module you should be able to:

1. Differentiate natural (managed) and man-made (unmanaged) ecosystems.

2. Identify the kinds of interaction in the ecosystem.

3. Describe some preventive measures to some ecological problems.

Lesson 1 Ecology and The Ecosystem

What is ecology?

The branch of biology that developed from natural history is known as ecology. Ecology
is the study of relationships between organisms and their environment. Ecologists use
both qualitative and quantitative research. They gather qualitative information by
observing organisms. They gather quantitative data by making measurements and
doing experiments. Ecologists study organisms both in the lab and

where the organisms naturally live.

The Biosphere

The biosphere is the portion of Earth that supports living things. It includes the air,
land, and water where organisms can be found. The biosphere supports a wide variety
of organisms in a wide range of conditions. Climates, soils, plants, and animals can be
very different in different parts of the world. All over the world, though, living things are
affected by both the physical, nonliving environment and by other living things.

How is the environment organized?

The nonliving parts of the environment are called abiotic factors. Some examples are
temperature, moisture,light, and soil. Ecology includes the study of abiotic
factorsbecause they are part of an organism’s life. Living things also are affected by
biotic factors. Bioticfactors are all the living organisms in an environment. Even
goldfish in a bowl are affected by fishes, plants, or other organisms that share their
bowl. All organisms depend on others directly or indirectly for food, shelter,
reproduction, or protection.

Levels of Organization

Ecologists study individual organisms. They study relationships among organisms of the
same species and connections among organisms of different species. They also study
the effects of abiotic factors on species that live together. To make it easier to examine
all of these biotic and abiotic interactions, ecologists have organized the living world into
levels. The levels are the organism by itself, populations, communities, and
ecosystems.

What is a population?

A population is a group of organisms that belongs to the same species. Population

members breed with each other and live in the same area at the same time. How
organisms in a population
share the things that they need in their environment is important. It may determine how
far apart the

organisms live and how large the population becomes. Members of the same population
may compete with each other for food, water, mates, or other resources. Some species
have adaptations that reduce competition within a population. For instance, frogs have a
life cycle in which the young tadpoles and adult frogs look very different and have
different diets. Tadpoles eat algae and frogs eat insects; therefore, they are not
competing with each other for food.

How do communities interact?

No species lives entirely alone. Every population shares its environment with other
populations. This creates what is called a biological community. A biological
community is made up of different populations in a certain area at a certain time. In a
biological community, changes in one population may cause changes in other
populations. For instance, if the number of mouse-eating hawks in a community
increases slightly, the number of mice in that community will decrease slightly. Other
changes can be more extreme. For example, one population may grow so large that it
threatens the food supply of another population. In a healthy forest community, there
are many populations that depend on each other. These might include birds eating
insects, Monkeys eating nuts from trees, mushrooms growing from decaying leaves or
bark, and birds fishing in a stream. While these populations are connected to each
other, they are all affected by abiotic factors. These relationships between different
populations made of all of the different populations in a biological community and the
community’s abiotic factors. There are two major kinds of ecosystems—terrestrial and
aquatic. Terrestrial ecosystems are those located on land. Examples include forests,
fields, and a rotting log. Aquatic ecosystems are found in both freshwater and salt
water. Freshwater ecosystems include ponds, lakes, and streams. Oceans are a type of
saltwater, or marine, ecosystem.

Organisms in Ecosystems

Different types of organisms make their homes in different places. Some species of
birds live in only one type of forest. In these areas, they find food, avoid enemies, and
reproduce. Prairie dogs make their homes underground in grasslands. The place where
an organism lives out its life is known as a habitat.
What place does a species have in its habitat? Though several species may share a
habitat, the food, shelter, and other needed items in that habitat are often used in
different ways by each species. For example, if you turn over a log, you may find a
community of millipedes, centipedes, insects, slugs,

and earthworms. At first it might seem that the members of this community are
competing for the same food because they all live in the same habitat, but each
population feeds in different ways,

on different things, and at different times. Each species has its own niche. A niche
(neesh) is all strategies and adaptations a species uses in its environment. It is how the
species meets its

specific needs for food and shelter. It is how and where the species survives and
reproduces. A species’ niche includes all its interactions with the biotic and abiotic parts
of its habitat.

Two species cannot exist for long in the same community if they both have the same
niche. There is too much competition. In the end, one species will gain control over the
resources in the community. The other species will either die out in that area, move
somewhere else, or change in some way to fill another niche.

Symbiosis

People once thought that animals in the same environment fought each other for
survival. In reality, most species survive because of the relationships they have with
other species. A relationship in which there is a close and permanent association
between organisms of different species is called symbiosis

. Symbiosis means living together. There are three major kinds of symbiosis—
mutualism, commensalism, and parasitism.

Mutualism

Mutualism is a relationship between two species that live together in which both
species benefit. The relationship between ants and an acacia (uh KAY shuh) tree is a
good example of mutualism. The ants protect the tree by attacking any animal that tries
to feed on the

tree. The tree provides nectar as a food for the ants. The tree also provides a home for
the ants. In an experiment, ecologists removed the ants from some acacia trees.
Results showed that the trees with
ants grew faster and lived longer than the trees with no ants.

Commensalism

Commensalism is a relationship in which only one species benefits and the other

species is not harmed or helped. For example, mosses sometimes grow on the
branches of trees. This does not help or hurt the trees, but the mosses get a good
habitat.

Parasitism

Parasitism is a relationship in which a member of one species benefits at the expense

of another species. For instance, when a tick lives on a dog, it is good for the tick but
bad for the dog. The tick gets food and a home, but the dog could get sick. The tick is a
parasite. A parasite is the organism that benefits from the relationship. The dog is a
host. The host is the organism that is harmed by the relationship. What relationship do
predators and prey have? Another type of relationship is that between a predator and its
prey. Predators are organisms that seek out and eat other organisms.

The organisms that are eaten are called prey. Predators are found in all ecosystems.
Some eat animals and plants. Some eat only animals. Lions and birds that eat insects
are predators.

How Organisms Obtain Energy

One of the most important things about a species’ niche is how the species gets its
energy. Ecologists study the flow of energy through communities to discover nutritional
relationships

between organisms.

Autotrophs

The ultimate source of energy for all life is the sun. Plants use the sun’s energy to make
food. This process is called photosynthesis . This makes plants autotrophs. Autotrophs
(AW tuhtrohfs), or producers, are organisms that use light energy or energy stored in
chemical compounds to make energy-rich compounds. Grass, trees, and other plants
are the most familiar autotrophs, but some one celled organisms, such as green algae,
also make their own food.
Heterotrophs

Some organisms cannot make their own food. They must eat other organisms to get
their food and energy. These organisms are called consumers, or heterotrophs

. Some heterotrophs, such as rabbits, feed only on autotrophs. Other heterotrophs, such
as lions, feed only on other heterotrophs. Still other heterotrophs, such as bears and
humans, feed on both autotrophs and heterotrophs.

Decomposers

There are other organisms called decomposers. They break down the complex
compounds of dead and decaying plants and animals. They change these compounds
into simpler forms that they can use for fuel. Some protozoans, many bacteria, and
most fungi are decomposers.

Flow of Matter and Energy in Ecosystems

When you eat food, such as an apple, you consume matter. Matter, in the form of
carbon, nitrogen, and other elements, flows through the levels of an ecosystem from
producers to consumers. Scientists call this flow of matter cycling. The apple is more
than matter, though. It also contains some energy from sunlight. This energy was
trapped in the apple as a result of photosynthesis. As you cycle the matter in the apple
by eating it, some trapped energy is transferred from one level of the ecosystem to the
next. At each

level, a certain amount of energy is also transferred to the environment as heat.

What are food chains?

Ecologists study feeding relationships and symbiotic relationships to learn how matter
and energy flow in ecosystems. These scientists sometimes use a simple model called
a food chain. Food chains show how matter and energy move through an ecosystem. In
a food chain, nutrients and energy move from autotrophs to heterotrophs to, in the end,
decomposers. A food chain is drawn using arrows. The arrows show the direction in
which energy is transferred. An example of a simple food chain in a forest ecosystem is
shown below.
Most food chains are made up of two, three, or four transfers, or steps. Each organism
in a food chain represents a feeding step, or trophic level, in the transfer of energy and
matter.

The amount of energy in the last transfer is only a small part of what was available at
the first transfer. At each transfer, some of the energy is given off as heat.

What is a food web?

A food chain shows only one possible path for the transfer of matter and energy through
an ecosystem. Many other paths may exist because many different species can be on
each trophic level.

For instance, in the food chain example, there are many animals in the forest other than
mice that eat grasses. Also, many different kinds of organisms eat more than one type
of food. This means that a single species may feed at several different trophic levels.
The snake, for instance, does not eat only mice. It also eats berries. There also are
other animals in the forest that eat berries and mice. For these reasons,

ecologists also use food webs. Food webs are models that show all possible feeding
relationships at each trophic level in a community. A food web is a more realistic model
than a food chain because most organisms depend on more than one type of organism
for food.
How does energy flow through an ecosystem?

Food chains and food webs deal with both matter and energy. When ecologists want to
focus only on energy, they use another type of model—an ecological pyramid. An
ecological pyramidNshows how energy flows through an ecosystem. There are different
types of ecological pyramids. Each pyramid has the autotrophs, or first trophic layer, at
the bottom. Higher trophic layers are thenlayered on top of one another.

The pyramid of energy shows that the amount of available energy becomes less from
one trophic level to the next. The total energy transfer from one trophic level to the next
is only about ten percent because organisms do not use all the food energy in the
trophic level below them. An organism uses energy to do all the things necessary for
life. Organisms use energy to move, to interact with their environment, and to digest
their food. They also use energy to build body tissue. Some of this energy is given off as
heat. The law of conservation of energy states that energy is neither lost nor gained.
Even though some of the energy transferred at each trophic level enters the
environment as heat, it is still energy. It is just in a different form. A pyramid of numbers
shows the number of organisms eaten by the level above it. In most cases, the number
of organisms decreases at each higher trophic level.
The pyramid of energy shows that the amount of available energy becomes less from
one trophic level to the next. The total energy transfer from one trophic level to the next
is only about ten percent because organisms do not use all the food energy in the
trophic level below them. An organism uses energy to do all the things necessary for
life. Organisms use energy to move, to interact with their environment, and to digest
their food. They also use energy to build body tissue. Some of this energy is given off as
heat. The law of conservation of energy states that energy is neither lost nor gained.
Even though some of the energy transferred at each trophic level enters the
environment as heat, it is still energy. It is just in a different form. A pyramid of numbers
shows the number of organisms eaten by the level above it. In most cases, the number
of organisms decreases at each higher trophic level.

Major Terrestrial and Aquatic Biomes

 Geography has a profound impact on ecosystems because global circulation patterns and
climate zones set basic physical conditions for the organisms that inhabit a given area. The
most important factors are temperature ranges, moisture availability, light, and nutrient
availability, which together determine what types of life are most likely to flourish in specific
regions and what environmental challenges they will face. Earth is divided into distinct climate
zones that are created by global circulation patterns. The tropics are the warmest, wettest
regions of the globe, while subtropical high-pressure zones create dry zones at about 30°
latitude north and south. Temperatures and precipitation are lowest at the poles. These
conditions create biomes— broad geographic zones whose plants and animals are adapted to
different climate patterns. Since temperature and precipitation vary by latitude, Earth's major
terrestrial biomes are broad zones that stretch around the globe (Fig. 2). Each biome contains
many ecosystems (smaller communities) made up of organisms adapted for life in their specific
settings.

a) Biosphere

The whole of the region of the earth’s surface, the sea, and the air where living organisms are
found is

termed as Biosphere. It is the highest unit of biological or ecological organisation.

b) Ecosystem is the basic, functional, self sustaining unit of biosphere. It consists of all living
and

non living components of a particular area that interact and exchange materials with each other.
MODULE 5

ECOLOGY AND THE ECOSYSTEM

ACTIVITY 1

SYMBIOTIC RELATIONSHIPS
MODULE 5

ECOLOGY AND THE ECOSYSTEM

ACTIVITY 2

ENERGY FLOW IN AN ECOSYSTEM

A Food Web

1. List the producers, consumers, and decomposers shown in the food web above.

a. Producers
___________________________________________________________________________

b. Primary Consumers
__________________________________________________________________

c. Secondary Consumers
_________________________________________________________________

d. Tertiary Consumers
__________________________________________________________________
c. Decomposers
________________________________________________________________________

2. What autotrophs are found in this food web?

__________________________________________________

____________________________________________________________________________
_________

3. What Heterotrophs are found in this food web?

_______________________________________________

____________________________________________________________________________
_________

4. List one food chain.

____________________________________________________________________

5. List a second food chain.

_________________________________________________________________

6. Add one organism to this food web. What is it?

_______________________________________________

What other organisms in the food web will it eat?

_____________________________________________

What other organisms in the food web will eat it?

_____________________________________________

7. Remove one organism from this food web. What was it?
_______________________________________

What organisms will benefit from this removal?

______________________________________________

What organisms will suffer from this removal?

_______________________________________________

8. Why is a complex food web better than a simple food chain for the survival of the community?

____________________________________________________________________________
_________

____________________________________________________________________________
_________
Energy through Ecosystems Worksheet

The amount of available energy at each trophic (feeding) level decreases as it moves through
an ecosystem. As little as 10 percent of the energy at any level is transferred up to the next
level.In the energy pyramid below, calculate the amount of energy that is passed up from one
trophic level to the next, assuming only 10% of the energy from the previous level is available
for the next level. For each trophic level, circle all the words that apply to identify each organism
as either a producer or consumer and as either an autotroph or a heterotroph. If the organism
could be considered a predator and/or prey, circle those words also.

Questions

1. Assume that the grasshopper in the food pyramid above must eat half its body weight in
grass each day. If an average-size grasshopper weighs 2 grams, and 1 blade of grass weighs
0.1grams (one tenth of a gram), how many blades of grass does the grasshopper need to eat
each day?
2. Assume a snake must eat 5 grasshoppers per day, while an eagle must eat 2 snakes per
day. Use this information along with your answer from Question #1 to calculate how many
blades of grass are needed to keep an eagle alive for a day?

3. How many blades of grass are needed to support a family of four eagles for a week?

4. If only 10% of the energy from one trophic level passes up to the next level, what happens to
the 90% energy that is not passed on?

5. Do you think a pyramid is a good shape to represent how matter and energy transfer in an
ecosystem? Why or why not?
MODULE 5

ECOLOGY AND THE ECOSYSTEM

ACTIVITY 3

ENDANGERED SPECIES OF THE PHILIPPINES

Objective: Students will investigate causes of endangerment and efforts being taken to
conserve species and create a poster, or pamphlet to raise awareness about the species.

These sites can help you get started if you aren't sure what Endangered Philippine animal to
focus on.
www.bagheera.com/ | www.worldwildlife.org/

Your product should contain the following information. (Print this page out to answer these
questions as you conduct research). You are also free to include any other interesting
information that is relevant to your animal.

Questions (answer in your publication)

1. What is the common and scientific name of the animal?

2. Where does it live, what is it's natural habitat?

3. What does it eat? What is it's role in the ecosystem?

4. Describe the features of the animal, and include a photo. Remember to give credit if you
attach a photo to the location of the original photo (such as wikipedia)

5. Describe the causes of endangerment.

6. Propose ways that the animal can be helped, include any laws or projects that are already in
existence to help the animal.

As you design your publication, imagine that you want to convince others to donate to the cause
or help the animal in some way. Treat it like a persuasive essay, your goal is to get people
interested and to get them involved.

How Will You Present Your Information?

Your publication should be created digitally so that it can be shared with others. Check with your
instructor for all options, but here are common ways to present information to an audience.

MODULE 5

ECOLOGY AND THE ECOSYSTEM

ACTIVITY 4

ADAPTATION

What Does a Bird's Beak Tell You About Its Diet?

Analysis

1. What features of a hummingbird make it adapted for its style of feeding?

2. Imagine an ideal flying predator. What type of beak and feet would it have?

3. Different birds may have similar beaks and diets. Loons, herons, and kingfishers, for
instance, all have long sharp pointed beaks for spearing fish. Their feet, however, are quite
different. Describe how the loon, heron, and kingfisher differ in the method by which they hunt
for fish (using their feet to help you answer.)

4. Owls have large eyes that enable it to see well at night. Both the hawk and the owl hunt
similar things: small rodents or snakes. How do the hawk and the owl avoid competing with
each other?
MODULE 5

ECOLOGY AND THE ECOSYSTEM

ACTIVITY 5

BIOMES

Biomes Worksheet

1. Define the following terms:

a. Biosphere -

b. Climate -

c. Macroclimate -

d. Microclimate –

2. Look at the following diagram on Latitudinal Variation in Sunlight Intensity. What is the point
of the diagram? What is it trying to tell us about sunlight intensity?
3. Define a biome. What are the two types of biomes?

. Terrestrial Biome. For each biome, list some general characteristics, temperature range, and
some species of organisms found within the biome.
For each of the aquatic biomes, list defining characteristics and animals that might be found in
each biome: