Construction and Building Materials 211 (2019) 617–628

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Construction and Building Materials

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/conbuildmat

Comparative study on the mechanical behavior and durability

of polypropylene and sisal fiber reinforced concretes
Raylane de Souza Castoldi a, Lourdes Maria Silva de Souza b,⇑, Flávio de Andrade Silva a
a
Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Pontifícia Universidade Católica (PUC-Rio), Rio de Janeiro, RJ, Brazil
b
Tecgraf Institute, Pontifícia Universidade Católica (PUC-Rio), Rio de Janeiro, RJ, Brazil

h i g h l i g h t s

The behavior of concretes with polypropylene and sisal fibers was investigated.

Both fibers could provide similar residual strength, if at equivalent dosages.

Evaluation of fiber-matrix interface showed a similar behavior for both fibers.

The use of low alkaline matrix resulted in no degradation after ageing tests.

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: This investigation aims to compare the mechanical behavior of concretes reinforced with polypropylene
Received 6 November 2018 and sisal fibers. Both fibers were 51 mm long and were incorporated in fractions of 3, 6 and 10 kg/m3 into
Received in revised form 18 February 2019 the matrices. The composites were tested under three-point monotonic and cyclic flexural loads. Pullout
Accepted 22 March 2019
tests were performed to study the fiber-matrix interaction. It was observed that the sisal fiber could pro-
vide the same level of residual strength as the polypropylene fiber, as long as the equivalence of the
dosages of the fibers is taken into account. The composites were classified according to fib Model Code
Keywords:
2010 based on parameters obtained from flexural tests. The durability of the composites was studied
Fiber reinforced concrete
Polypropylene fiber
by assessing the flexural behavior after wetting and drying cycles. Concrete reinforced with both fibers
Sisal fiber did not present mechanical losses after the cycles.
Flexural behavior Ó 2019 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction
The large-scale use of concrete in construction is mainly due to
its various advantages, which include high mechanical strength,
easy production and molding, with relatively low cost [1]. How-
ever, concrete is considered a brittle material, with low deforma-
tion capacity and rapid propagation of cracks when subjected to
tensile stresses [1,2]. In this context, the use of dispersed fibers into
the cementitious matrix appears as an alternative to minimize this
limitation. Fibers act as bridges in the region of the crack, transfer-
ring the stresses and making the fiber reinforced concrete more
efficient after the appearance of the first crack. Consequently, there
is an increase in the energy absorption capacity and reduction of
the propagation and expansion of the formed cracks [2–4]. Besides
that, the incorporation of fibers results in higher flexural tough-
ness, fatigue resistance and impact strength [3,5].
⇑ Corresponding author.
E-mail address: lmsilvadesouza@tecgraf.puc-rio.br (L.M.S.d. Souza).
Fibers may be incorporated into the concrete in the form of fab-
rics and textiles, or randomly dispersed in the matrix. Neverthe-
less, the use of dispersed fibers has been more evident for
economic reasons. Among the various types of discrete fibers, the
steel and polypropylene fibers have been widely used [6–9]. Both
are generally used as secondary reinforcement in concrete, control-
ling the opening and propagation of cracks. Steel fibers can also be
used as primary reinforcement. However, they are susceptible to
corrosion degradation. The polymeric macro-fibers are an alterna-
tive to the use of steel fibers due to their advantage in relation to
the chemical resistance and the higher durability in cementitious
matrices [5].
Polymeric fibers are widely used in floor and pavements appli-
cations, sprayed concrete and precast elements [2]. Experimental
studies have shown the suitability of these fibers for structural
applications, such as shear reinforcement in beams [10–16] and
as reinforcement of flat suspended slabs [17] and precast tunnel
segments [18–21]. Despite the possibility of the use of these fibers
in applications with greater structural responsibility, there are

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2019.03.282
0950-0618/Ó 2019 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
618 R.d.S. Castoldi et al. / Construction and Building Materials 211 (2019) 617–628

limitations to their use as primary reinforcement mainly due to the 2. Materials and methods
lack of specific technical standards [22].
In the context of the civil construction, which is considered one 2.1. Fibers
of the industrial sectors with the highest environmental impact
[23], fibers from natural resources, such as sisal fiber, appear as The sisal fibers used in this work are from the city of Valente,
an alternative to synthetic ones. Not only natural fibers are state of Bahia, Brazil. They were extracted from Agave sisalana
obtained from renewable sources and are biodegradable, they also plant by a process called decortication [26–28]. The fibers were
exist in abundance and are available at low cost [24]. However, the received in bundles of long fibers, with approximately one meter
production of elements that incorporate this technology is still in of length. Before cutting them into segments of 51 mm of length,
the process of conquering the market. This is mainly because, in it was necessary to process them to remove impurities. The fibers
order to be able to design safely and economically with natural were submerged in water at 70 ± 5 °C for approximately one hour.
fibers, it is necessary to evaluate and predict the composite After this process, the fibers were air-dried for 48 h and then man-
mechanical behavior. Moreover, these fibers present low resistance ually cut. Fig. 1a presents a typical cross-sectional area of these
in alkaline environments, such as the concrete matrix. This fact is fibers obtained by scanning electron microscopy (SEM).
considered a barrier to the use of these fibers in large scale appli- On the other hand, the polypropylene macro-fibers were
cations [25]. received ready for use as reinforcement. Each fiber was formed
The most important degradation mechanisms involving the by approximately three filaments grouped together, resulting in
incorporation of natural fibers in cementitious matrices include an irregular and non-circular cross-section. In addition, these fibers
the high rate of volume variation due to their high water absorp- had a twisted geometry, which may improve the mechanical
tion, degradation due to alkaline attack and biological attack [5]. anchorage with the cementitious matrix. Fig. 1b presents the
There are two main methods for improving the durability of natu- cross-sectional area of these fibers obtained by an optical stereo
ral fibers in a cementitious matrix: application of coating to the microscope. Table 1 presents the main physical and mechanical
fibers and modification of the matrix. The application of coating characteristics of these fibers.
to the fibers seals them, protecting them against the degradation
caused by the alkaline pore fluid of the matrix [13]. Alternatively, 2.2. Matrix
matrix modification aims at reducing the content of calcium
hydroxide, responsible for the matrix alkalinity. The replacement The concrete matrix design used in the present research was
of cement by pozzolanic materials has been studied by several adapted from the one developed by Marangon [29]. The matrix
researchers [14–16], and has been acknowledged as a good alter- was developed based on the concepts of the Compressible Packing
native to guarantee the integrity of these fibers. Synthetic fibers, Model (CPM), and it was designed using the software Beton-
on the other hand, are known for their good behavior in the alka- labPro2. In order to obtain a low alkaline matrix and minimize
line environment and for being chemically inert [5]. Therefore,
the evaluation of the application of natural fibers is important to
encourage its use and make it competitive in relation to synthetic Table 1
ones. Fibers properties. Standard deviation values are presented in parentheses.
The main objective of this work is the study of polypropylene
Properties Polypropylene fiber Sisal fiber
and sisal fibers as discrete reinforcement in concrete. In order to
Length (mm) 51 51
evaluate and compare the mechanical behavior, the composites
Cross-sectional area (mm2) 0.63 (0.13) 0.03 (0.01)
were tested under monotonic and cyclic flexural loads. The Equivalent diametera (mm) 0.89 (0.09) 0.19 (0.03)
interface characteristics were investigated by means of pullout Aspect ratio 57.77 (6.07) 269.67 (39.26)
tests. Finally, the durability of the composites is discussed based Tensile strength (MPa) 260.72 (13.15) 383.88 (49.88)
on the flexural behavior after 10 and 25 cycles of wetting and Elastic modulus (GPa) 2.29 (0.56) 8.77 (3.53)

drying. a
Diameter of a circle with the same area as the non-circular fiber.

Fig. 1. Cross-sectional area of (a) sisal fiber and (b) polypropylene fiber.
 R.d.S. Castoldi et al. / Construction and Building Materials 211 (2019) 617–628
Table 2
Proportions of concrete composition. All values in kg/m3.
Coarse aggregate Fine aggregate Cement Fly ash
S1 S2
492.0 826.7 99.6 180.0 240.0
the degradation process of sisal fibers, 50% by mass of Portland
cement was replaced by 30% of metakaolin and 20% of fly ash.
Table 2 reports the matrix composition.
The cementitious materials used in the concrete production
were Brazilian cement type CP II F-32, fly ash, silica fume, silica
flour (quartz powder) and metakaolin. Two classes of fine aggre-
gates were used. The S1 type presented particle size ranging from
0.15 to 0.85 mm while the S2 type, from 0.85 to 4.80 mm. The
adopted coarse aggregate presented maximum diameter of
12.50 mm. To obtain a more fluid matrix with low water content,
superplasticizer was included in the mix. The resulting water/
cement ratio was 0.5. The compressive strength after 28 days
was 57 ± 1 MPa and the slump spreading was 479 ± 2 mm. For
pullout samples, the matrix was produced without coarse
aggregate.
2.3. Preparation of specimens
2.3.1. Flexural tests
In order to analyze the effects of the fiber addition on the con-
crete flexural behavior, seven different mixtures were produced.
One of the mixtures was the matrix without fibers and three mix-
tures of polypropylene fiber with dosages of 3, 6 e 10 kg/m3 (i.e.,
Vf = 0.32%, Vf = 0.65% and Vf = 1.08%) named, respectively, as
CPP3, CPP6 and CPP10. The same dosages were used for sisal fibers
that were named CSI3, CSI6 and CSI10. For each mixture, three
replicates were produced, resulting in 21 specimens. For the cyclic
tests, only the composites CPP6 and CPP10 were evaluated, with
three replicates for each composite. These composites were chosen
for analysis under cyclic loading since they presented similar load
levels when subjected to monotonic bending tests.
The concrete mixture for flexural specimens was carried out in a
concrete mixer with a total capacity of 400 L following this
procedure:
(i) the aggregates (S1, S2 and coarse aggregate) and 70% of the
water were mixed for 1 min;
(ii) the mineral additions (silica fume, fly ash, powder silica and
metakaolin) were added to the mix and blended for 1 min;
(iii) the cement was incorporated and mixed for 1 min;
(iv) the remaining water and superplasticizer were added and
blended for 10 min;
(v) the fibers were added and mixed for 5 min.
The specimens for the flexural tests were prismatic, with
dimensions of 550  150  150 mm. Following the recommenda-
tions of the standard EN 14651 [30], notches with 25 mm of length,
centered on the bottom side of the prism, were made using a 3 mm
thick diamond saw. The specimens were cured for 28 days at room
temperature of around 24 °C and 65% of relative humidity before
testing.
2.3.2. Pullout tests
Pullout tests were conducted with embedded lengths
of 15, 25 and 30 mm for each fiber. Ten specimens were
produced for each fiber at each embedded length, resulting in 60
specimens.
619
Metakaolin Silica fume Silica flour Water Super-plasticizer
108.0 45.0 70.0 155.7 21.6
Fig. 2. Schematic configuration of the casting process of the pullout samples.
The concrete mixture for pullout specimens was carried out in a
cement mixer with capacity of 5 L. The casting procedure consisted
in:
(i) fixing the 25 mm diameter PVC molds into the base acrylic
plate;
(ii) fixing the fiber in the center of each mold;
(iii) pouring the matrix;
(iv) fixing the upper acrylic plate and aligning the fibers.
The schematic configuration of the pullout specimens cast is
shown in Fig. 2. The specimens were cured for 28 days in a fog
chamber with temperature of 21 °C and 100% of relative humidity
before testing.
2.3.3. Durability tests
The specimens for the durability tests were prismatic, with
dimensions of 400  100  100 mm with a notch of 15 mm of
length at the center of the span. The composites evaluated were
reinforced with 6 kg/m3 of polypropylene fiber (CPP6) and with
10 kg/m3 of sisal fiber (CSI10). These dosages were chosen for
durability analysis due to the performance similarity when evalu-
ated under flexural loading.
The concrete mixture was prepared in a concrete mixer with
capacity of 30 l, following the same procedure presented for the
flexural tests (Section 2.3.1). The specimens were cured for 28 days
in a fog chamber with temperature of 21 °C and 100% of relative
humidity before being submitted to the wetting and drying cycles.
In this study, 10 and 25 wetting and drying cycles were performed.
For each composite and each amount of cycles (0, 10 and 25
cycles), three specimens were tested, resulting in 18 specimens.
2.4. Testing methods
2.4.1. Flexural tests
Three-point flexural tests were carried on an MTS servo-
controlled hydraulic testing machine with closed-loop control
and a load cell of 100 kN. Three rollers of 37 mm of diameter were
used: two support rollers with a distance of 500 mm between
them and a superior roller on the midspan for load application. A
clip gage was fixed on the region of the notch to measure the crack
mouth opening displacement (CMOD). The details of the setup
used in monotonic and cyclic flexural tests are presented in Fig. 3.
2.4.1.1. Monotonic flexural tests. The monotonic flexural tests were
performed in accordance with the standard EN 14651 [30]. The
620 R.d.S. Castoldi et al. / Construction and Building Materials 211 (2019) 617–628
Fig. 3. Three-point bending tests in accordance to EN 14651: (a) schematic configuration and (b) pictures of three-point flexural test setup. All dimensions are in mm.
tests were controlled by the CMOD at a constant rate of 0.1 mm/
min until reaching 4 mm of opening. As result, it was possible to
obtain the typical stress-CMOD curves for each composite. The
residual flexural tensile strength was obtained by Eq. (1), where
fR,j is the flexural strength corresponding with CMOD ranging from
0 to 4 mm, Fj the corresponding load, l the span length, b the width
of the specimen and hsp the distance between the tip of the notch
and the top of the specimen.
3F j l
f R;j ¼ 2
ð1Þ
2bhsp
The fib Model Code 2010 [31] recommends the determination
of some parameters from these curves in order to classify the fiber
reinforced concretes for structural uses. The parameters are based
on two post-cracking residual strengths at certain CMOD values,
which characterize the material behavior at the serviceability limit
state (CMOD1 = 0.5 mm; fR,1) and at the ultimate limit state
(CMOD3 = 2.5 mm; fR,3). Besides that, the limit of proportionality
fL, important to the composite classification, is obtained from Eq.
(1) by considering the load FL at the LOP. The composite toughness
classification is performed by checking two parameters: the fR,1
value and the ratio fR,3/fR,1. The fR,1 value may vary from 1 to
8 MPa, while the ratio fR,3/fR,1 is classified in letters a, b, c, d, e
according to the fib Model Code 2010 [31]. In addition, the rein-
forcement with discrete fibers can partially or completely replace
the conventional reinforcement in the ULS if the ratios fR,1/fL  0.4
and fR,3/fR,1  0.5 are satisfied.
2.4.1.2. Cyclic flexural tests. The cyclic flexural tests were performed
in accordance with RILEM TC 89-FMT [32]. Loading was also con-
trolled by the CMOD. Up to CMOD of 0.18 mm, the loading rate
was 0.05 mm/min. After 0.18 mm, the loading rate was 0.2 mm/
min until reaching CMOD of 1.00 mm, the test end. The cyclic tests
consisted of unloading at pre-defined CMOD levels of 0.02, 0.04,
0.06, 0.10, 0.14, 0.18, 0.30, 0.50 and 1.00 mm. Unloading was con-
trolled by load at a rate of 8 kN/m for all cycles performed. Fig. 4
shows the loading and unloading procedure and a typical cycle
with some parameters obtained from the curve.
The Pmax value refers to the maximum flexural load obtained
from the specimen with d  t cross-sectional area, span defined
as S and initial length notch a0. The apparent modulus of rupture
(MOR) is obtained by the correlation of these parameters (Eq. (2)).
3Pmax S
MOR ¼ 2
ð2Þ
2tðd  a0 Þ
Eq. (3) was used to obtain the elastic modulus (E). The param-
eter Ci is defined as the initial compliance and the parameter V
(a) is obtained by Eq. (4), where a0 is the normalized notch length,
defined as a0/d.
6Sa0 V ða0 Þ
E¼ 2
ð3Þ
Cid t
0:66
V ðaÞ ¼ 0:76  2:28a þ 3:87a2  2:04a3 þ ð4Þ
ð1  aÞ2
 R.d.S. Castoldi et al. / Construction and Building Materials 211 (2019) 617–628 621

Fig. 4. The cyclic test protocol: (a) cyclic loading-unloading procedure and (b) a typical curve after one cycle.

Another important parameter is the critical crack length, effective crack length [32]. The critical intrinsic fracture toughness
defined as ac. After this value, the crack becomes unstable [33]. (GIC ) is the critical level of toughness against crack initiation [34]
Eq. (5) obtains this parameter at any unloading cycle. The term and is obtained from Eq. (9). The term b0 is equivalent to the rela-
Cu is the compliance corresponding to the unloading cycle, while tion ac/a0.
the term ac is the normalized critical crack length, defined as ac/ qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
 
6Pmax Sac V ðac Þ
d. The critical stress intensity factor (KIC) is defined as the stress CTODc ¼ 2
ð1  b0 Þ2 þ ð1:081  1:149ac Þ b0  b0 2
intensity factor obtained at the critical effective crack tip using Ed t
the measured maximum load [32] and is obtained by Eq. (6). ð8Þ

2
EC u d t K IC 2
ac ¼ ð5Þ GIC ¼ ð9Þ
6SV ðac Þ E
pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
S ðpac ÞF ðac Þ 2.4.2. Pullout test
K IC ¼ 3Pmax 2
ð6Þ
2d t The pullout tests were performed using an MTS 810 servo-
controlled hydraulic-system, with 250 kN capacity. A load cell of
 
1:99  ac ð1  ac Þ 2:15  3:93ac þ 2:7ac 2 1 kN was attached to the arrangement. The load was controlled
F ðac Þ ¼ pffiffiffiffi ð7Þ by the displacement of the internal LVDT at a rate of 1.5 mm/min.
pð1 þ 2ac Þð1  ac Þ3=2
The specimens were clamped in a fixed boundary system. Fig. 5
The critical crack tip opening displacement (CTODc ) represent shows the setup configuration for pullout tests.
the CTOD at the original notch tip of the specimen. It is obtained The average interfacial shear stress (s) was obtained by Eq. (10),
by Eq. (8), using the measured maximum load and the critical where Pmax is the load immediately before the initiation of

Fig. 5. The fiber-matrix pullout test: (a) pullout test setup and (b) detail of the fixing system.
622 R.d.S. Castoldi et al. / Construction and Building Materials 211 (2019) 617–628

debonding, r is the equivalent radius obtained from the fiber cross-

sectional area and Lc the embedded length.

P max
s¼ ð10Þ
2prLc

2.4.3. Durability tests

The durability was evaluated through three-point flexural tests
that were performed before and after controlled cycles of wetting
and drying. Flexural tests were performed following the procedure
presented in the Section 2.4.1. The span between the support roll-
ers was modified to 350 mm.
For the drying cycles, a forced air flow chamber was used
(Fig. 6). In order to define the duration of the cycles, three speci-
mens were firstly completely dried in a hot chamber (35 ± 5 °C)
then saturated in water and finally left to dry in the forced air
chamber. The mass variation, in relation to the initial mass, was
monitored and is presented in Fig. 7. Considering that after 24 h
of water immersion the specimens absorbed around 85% of its total
saturation capacity and that after 72 h lost about 93% of the gained
mass, a four-day cycle was chosen: one day immersed in water fol-
lowed by three days of drying in the air flow chamber. A total of 10 Fig. 7. Mass variation during a cycle of water immersion until saturation followed
and 25 wetting and drying cycles were performed. After the end of by drying in the forced air flow chamber, in order to determine the duration of the
wetting and drying cycles.
each aging period, three-point flexural tests were performed as
described in Section 2.4.1.
The behavior of plain concrete in Fig. 8 is typical of brittle mate-
3. Results and discussion rials. It is possible to note a linear elastic zone before cracking fol-
lowed by a rapid stress decrease with the CMOD increase, as
3.1. Monotonic flexural tests confirmed by different research papers [35–37]. The flexural ten-
sile strength of the unreinforced matrix was approximately 5% of
Fig. 8 shows the flexural responses obtained from the reference the compressive strength at 28 days. The presence of fibers as rein-
matrix and from the concretes reinforced with 3, 6 and 10 kg/m3 of forcement changes the concretes flexural behavior. All the compos-
polypropylene and sisal fibers. The flexural parameters obtained ites presented a linear behavior until the appearance of the first
from these curves and the classification of the composites accord- crack, followed by a decrease in stress with the increase of CMOD.
ing to the fib Model Code 2010 [31] are given in Table 3. Each result This behavior is known as deflection-softening, and is character-
is the average of three specimens. As prescribed in EN 14651 [30], ized by the development of a single crack, common in composites
the stress at LOP (limit of proportionality) fL was calculated by tak- reinforced with the proposed dosages of discrete fibers [2,35–39].
ing FL as the highest load value between 0 and 0.05 mm of CMOD. For all composites, the occurrence of the first crack was related
The parameter fR,j is the flexural residual stress corresponding to to the matrix tensile strength and the fibers absorb the tensile
CMODj with j = 1, 2, 3 and 4 corresponding to CMOD = 0.5, 1.5, stresses only in the post-cracking region. Moreover, for both fibers,
2.5 and 3.5 mm, respectively. The toughness (T4mm) values were the higher was the fiber content, the lower was the post-cracking
calculated as the total area under the load-CMOD curves. stress reduction, with higher levels of residual stresses. This is

Fig. 6. The aging test setup: (a) picture and (b) schematic configuration of the forced air flow chamber.
 R.d.S. Castoldi et al. / Construction and Building Materials 211 (2019) 617–628 623

Fig. 8. Results from monotonic three-point flexural tests performed on concrete reinforced with (a) polypropylene and (b) sisal fibers.

Table 3
Experimental results for three-point flexural tests and classification according to fib Model Code 2010 [31]. Standard deviation values are presented in parentheses.

Mix FL (kN) fL (MPa) fR,1 (MPa) fR,2 (MPa) fR,3 (MPa) fR,4 (MPa) fR,1/fL fR,3/fR,1 fib Model Code 2010 T4mm (J)
Ref. 10.77 (0.34) 3.45 (0.11) – – – – – – – –
CPP3 11.95 (0.60) 3.82 (0.12) 0.79 (0.05) 0.77 (0.06) 0.85 (0.07) 0.90 (0.09) 0.21 (0.01) 1.08 (0.06) 1c 11.66 (0.79)
CPP6 10.99 (0.19) 3.52 (0.06) 1.32 (0.21) 1.31 (0.19) 1.42 (0.20) 1.46 (0.18) 0.38 (0.05) 1.08 (0.03) 1c 18.19 (2.37)
CPP10 11.53 (0.30) 3.69 (0.09) 1.84 (0.06) 2.18 (0.22) 2.48 (0.29) 2.68 (0.42) 0.50 (0.02) 1.35 (0.11) 2e 29.56 (3.06)
CSI3 11.21 (0.42) 3.59 (0.14) 0.37 (0.11) 0.23 (0.14) 0.14 (0.13) 0.10 (0.09) 0.10 (0.03) 0.33 (0.27) – 3.78 (1.53)
CSI6 10.97 (0.73) 3.51 (0.23) 0.80 (0.14) 0.70 (0.12) 0.54 (0.10) 0.42 (0.10) 0.23 (0.02) 0.68 (0.01) 1a 8.72 (1.43)
CSI10 10.37 (0.58) 3.32 (0.19) 1.28 (0.25) 1.25 (0.25) 0.93 (0.22) 0.73 (0.20) 0.38 (0.05) 0.73 (0.13) 1b 13.97 (2.75)

related to the pullout of the fibers, which depends on the bonding
properties between fiber and matrix. Significant performances
were provided by both fibers, but the specimens reinforced with
polypropylene fibers exhibited higher residual flexural tensile
strengths. It is not expected that polypropylene fiber present a
chemical bond in a concrete matrix, but bonding has been shown
to occur by mechanical interaction [40,41]. The mechanical
anchorage provided by the twisted geometry of the polypropylene
fibers and the reduced interface degradation due to its hydropho-
bic characteristic result in higher interfacial performance. On the
other hand, the interface region of sisal fiber composites is porous
and rich of random portlandite crystals, due to the high moisture
absorption of these fibers, which reduce the interfacial bond [42].
The same behavior was observed by different researchers for con-
cretes reinforced with discrete polypropylene [6,35,36,38,43] and
sisal [39] fibers.
A toughness gain was observed with the increase of the fiber
dosage, for all composites. Despite this progressive increase, it
was not observed a proportional relation between them. It has
been reported that higher dosages of fibers may lead to less effec-
tiveness due to the interaction between them [2,44]. Consequently,
the gain in toughness did not follow the same proportion of the
increase of fiber content.
For the concrete reinforced with 3 kg/m3 of polypropylene fiber,
the stress remained at the same level of around 0.85 MPa in the
post-cracking region. However, for higher dosages, there was an
increase on the residual stress with the crack development, more
evident for the dosage of 10 kg/m3. For the composite CPP6, for
example, the residual stress at 4 mm of CMOD represented an
increase of 11% in relation to the stress at 1 mm while for the
composite CPP10 this increase was 46%. This higher performance
is mainly because more fibers are acting on the cracked zone,
enhancing the load capacity of the composite even after cracking.
On the other hand, concrete reinforced with 3 kg/m3 of sisal
fiber presented stress-CMOD curves with considerable reduction
in residual stress with the CMOD increasing, reaching values near
zero at the end of the test. For higher dosages, an increase in resid-
ual stress was observed up to CMOD equal to 1 mm, followed by a
subsequent reduction. The composite CSI6 presented 0.8 MPa of
residual stress in 1 mm of CMOD and a reduction in stress to
0.42 MPa in 4 mm. For the composite CSI10, the stress ranged from
1.28 MPa in 1 mm to 0.73 MPa in 4 mm. This behavior can be
attributed to the swelling behavior of sisal fibers. The interface
degradation leads to a reduction in the post-cracking load capacity
with the increase of the crack due to the lower adhesion with the
matrix.
By the curves presented in Fig. 8 it is possible to observe that
the flexural behavior of composites with successive dosages of
polypropylene and sisal fibers are similar. The stress values are
comparable, reaching similar levels mainly up to a crack opening
of 1 mm. It means that, concretes with the dosage of 3 kg/m3 of
polypropylene have behavior comparable to reinforced concrete
with 6 kg/m3 of sisal and concrete reinforced with 6 kg/m3 of
polypropylene fibers are comparable to concretes with 10 kg/m3
of sisal. Although both fibers presented equivalent densities, the
aspect ratio was different, due to the reduced cross-sectional area
of the sisal fiber. In consequence, for the same fiber dosage, there
are more sisal fibers than polypropylene fibers. Therefore, the
amount of fibers in a cracked section increased sufficiently to com-
pensate the lower efficiency of its fiber-matrix interface.
624 R.d.S. Castoldi et al. / Construction and Building Materials 211 (2019) 617–628
For CMOD wider than 1 mm, the development of stress was dif-
ferent for each fiber. This difference is associated to the fiber effi-
ciency as reinforcement. It occurs because of the dependence of
the post-cracking behavior on the characteristics of the fiber and
the characteristics of the fiber-matrix interface. Thus, up to a crack
opening of 1 mm, the use of sisal fibers in higher dosages may be
an alternative to the use of polypropylene fibers in concrete rein-
forced with discrete fibers.
From the classification in fib Model Code [31], it was observed
that only the composite CSI3 did not satisfy fR,3/fR,1  0.5. All other
composites met this criterion, which means that the residual resis-
tance at the ultimate limit state (fR,3) is at least half of the residual
resistance at the service end state (fR,1). In the case of polypropy-
lene fiber, this ratio is always greater than 1, as expected for syn-
thetic fibers [6]. Therefore, according to this relation, the use of
polypropylene and sisal fibers as reinforcement of concrete for
structural purpose can be considered appropriate, except in the
case of dosages of sisal fiber lower than 3 kg/m3. However, the ratio
fR,1/fL  0.4 was only fulfilled by the composite CPP10. In addition,
according to Cuenca et al. [10], a fR,3 higher than 2 MPa, as pre-
Fig. 9. Results from cyclic three-point flexural tests for (a) CPP6 and (b) CSI10 composites. (c) Comparison between the representative curves for each composite.
sented by the composite CPP10 (2.48 MPa), should lead to a shear
strength increment of about 50% in fiber reinforced concrete ele-
ments. Thus, this is the only case that the fiber reinforcement
can substitute or partially substitute conventional reinforcement
at ULS for structural purposes.
3.2. Cyclic flexural tests
Fig. 9a and b present the load-CMOD curves obtained for the
composites CPP6 and CSI10, respectively. Each curve corresponds
to one specimen tested. Fig. 9c shows the mean curves for the com-
posites CPP6 and CSI10.
All the composites investigated presented a similar behavior:
linear region until the appearance of the first crack, followed by
a decrease in the load with the CMOD increase. In addition, in all
cases the compliance of the cycles did not coincide and was not
parallel to the initial compliance. It was observed that there is a
decrease of the slope with the increase of the crack mouth opening
displacement [24,25,32,34]. This progressive reduction in the
cycles slopes indicates that there is a degradation of stiffness,
 R.d.S. Castoldi et al. / Construction and Building Materials 211 (2019) 617–628 625

which is related to the release of energy with the loading and obtained means that the fibers did not influence the matrix tensile
unloading process [45]. With the increasing load, cracks develop strength. The other parameters evaluated, such as the modulus of
and damage is gradually accumulated, while the stiffness elasticity, critical effective crack length, critical intensity factor
decreases. From Fig. 9c it is possible to notice that the slope and CTODc did not present considered discrepancy between the
decrease was more evident for the composite CPP6. Even though two evaluated composites. The only exception was for the critical
loading levels were similar for both composites, the lower amount strain energy release rate. However, it may be associated with
of polypropylene fibers resulted in higher loss of stiffness with the the non-uniform dispersion of the fibers in the matrix, resulting
crack development, mainly for CMOD equal to 4 mm. in variation in the amount of fibers on the cracked section.
The change in compliance and inelastic deformation at each
loading and unloading cycle are indicators of crack increase and
were used to calculate parameters of fracture mechanics [32,33], 3.3. Pullout tests
presented in Table 4. The similar values for modulus of rupture
The Fig. 10 shows the typical load versus slip curves obtained
Table 4 for both fibers (PP and SI) with different embedded lengths (15,
Summary of cyclic fracture parameters. Standard deviation values are presented in 25 and 30 mm). The curve of each type of composite corresponds
parentheses. to the one that best represented the behavior obtained after 10
Parameters CPP6 CSI10 tests. In addition, the experimental values of maximum load (Pmax),
maximum displacement (dmax) and average interfacial shear stress
Number of cycles 8 8
Apparent MOR (MPa) 3.7 (0.3) 3.2 (0.3) (s) are presented in Table 5.
Elastic modulus (GPa) 19.6 (1.5) 20.2 (0.9) It can be observed from the curves that the complete fiber pull-
Critical crack length ac (mm) 41.3 (4.3) 41.0 (2.0) out occurred for all fiber lengths. This fact is an indicator that the
Critical stress intensity factor K IC (MPa mm0.5) 30.1 (3.9) 25.9 (0.9)
adhesion between the fiber and the matrix at the interface is
Critical CTOD (lm) 20.9 (5.1) 17.0 (0.9)
Critical strain energy release rate GIC (N/mm) 46.7 (9.8) 33.2 (3.8)
weaker than the strength of the matrix or of the fiber. In other
words, the transfer length is higher than the longest embedded

Fig. 10. Pullout curves for different embedded lengths: (a) 15 mm, (b) 25 mm and (c) 30 mm.
626 R.d.S. Castoldi et al. / Construction and Building Materials 211 (2019) 617–628

Table 5 which leads to an increased shear stress between fiber and matrix.
Pullout results for different embedded lengths. Standard deviation values are The different physical/chemical interactions that takes place in the
presented in parentheses.
interface of both fibers with the cementitious matrix also plays an
Embedded length Fiber Pmax (N) dmax (mm) s (MPa) important role in the development of shear stresses.
15 mm PP 14.07 0.79 0.33 Sisal fibers present a weak chemical bond to the matrix due to
(5.38) (0.35) (0.13) the weak interactions – Van der Waals forces and AOH interactions
SI 4.82 1.12 0.52 from cellulose and calcium hydroxide [46]. In addition to a low
(1.64) (0.36) (0.18)
chemical bond, the high water absorption capacity leads to a loss
25 mm PP 21.15 1.03 0.30 of physical contact with the matrix and a formation of a very por-
(3.91) (0.18) (0.06)
SI 3.85 1.06 0.25
ous region [49,50]. Polypropylene fibers also have poor adhesion to
(1.27) (0.47) (0.08) the matrix due to their mechanical inertness. However, the twisted
30 mm PP 46.26 0.80 0.55
geometry of these fibers results in higher mechanical interlock,
(6.39) (0.08) (0.08) enhancing the matrix interface shear resistance [40,41]. The case
SI 4.07 1.82 0.22 of 15 mm of embedded length was the only example in which
(1.12) (0.47) (0.06) the average interfacial shear stress for sisal fiber was higher
(56.5%) than polypropylene fiber. For the other embedded lengths,
the interfacial shear stress was lower for sisal fiber.

length considered in this study. In all cases, the pullout load ini-
tially increases linearly until the beginning of the debonding pro-
cess. The indication of the beginning of the debonding is the
non-linearity of the curve up to the load Pmax. After this point,
the behavior is governed by frictional shear strength and continues
until the complete fiber pullout.
For sisal fiber, the load after the beginning of the debonding
remains considerably constant, similar to the results obtained by
Ferreira et al. [46]. On the other hand, for polypropylene fiber, in
the majority of cases, an increase in resistance was observed with
fiber slip (PP 15 mm was the only exception). This behavior is
known by slip hardening and it can be explained by the phe-
nomenon of abrasion of the outer surface of the fiber during pull-
out, increasing resistance to frictional shear and mechanical
anchorage. Previous studies [47,48] also obtained the slip harden-
ing behavior for polypropylene fibers embedded with different
lengths in a cementitious matrix.
Another important point to notice is that, although the pullout
loads of sisal fibers are considerably lower than those exhibited by
the polypropylene fibers, the interfacial shear stress did not follow
the same behavior. It is well known that the pullout process of the
fiber is mainly controlled by the interfacial shear mechanism.
Therefore, it is expected that higher values of aspect ratio promote
a stronger bond with the matrix [9]. The sisal fiber cross-sectional
area (0.03 mm2) is smaller than polypropylene fiber (0.63 mm2),
3.4. Durability tests
The stress versus CMOD curves of the composites submitted to
the drying and wetting cycles are presented in Fig. 11. It can be
observed that there was no change in flexural behavior after the
accelerated aging procedure for polypropylene fiber reinforced
concrete (Fig. 11a). This indicates that these fibers behave effi-
ciently in a low alkaline cement matrix, without degradation of
the interface between the fiber and the matrix due to the wetting
and drying process.
The same was observed for the sisal fiber reinforced concrete
(Fig. 11b). These results indicate that the use of 50% of pozzolanic
materials as partial replacement of cement resulted in a matrix
with low content of CH that promoted an adequate environment
for the sisal fiber reinforcement. The variation of the behavior in
the region between the CMOD values of 0 and 1 mm can be attrib-
uted to the fact that sisal fibers are susceptible to volume variation
with the moisture presence, promoting a swelling behavior
(Fig. 12). Consequently, an interface degradation occurs due to
the stress development in the region, leading to the formation of
microcracks around the fibers. On the other hand, the drying pro-
cess leads to the volume reduction of the fiber, resulting in a bond
weakening mechanism, which may explain the behavior variation
observed after the wetting and drying cycles.

Fig. 11. Results from three-point flexural tests performed on aged and non-aged concrete reinforced with (a) polypropylene and (b) sisal fibers.
 R.d.S. Castoldi et al. / Construction and Building Materials 211 (2019) 617–628
Fig. 12. Effect of sisal fiber swelling: (a) the original fiber, (b) volume increase due to moisture presence followed by the formation of micro cracks and (b) fiber-matrix
interface degradation.
4. Conclusion
Concretes reinforced with synthetic (polypropylene) and natu-
ral (sisal) fibers were investigated by means of flexural tests, under
monotonic and cyclic loads. Pullout tests were also carried out to
evaluate the differences between the interfaces of both fibers.
Moreover, durability tests were performed to assess the influence
of wetting and drying cycles on the mechanical behavior of these
composites. Based on the results, the following conclusions can
be drawn:
– The presence of both fibers in any dosage provided ductility to
concrete, resulting in a deflection-softening behavior. Similar
flexural performances under monotonic and cyclic loads were
presented for the composites tested, where the increase of
fibers volume ratio led to a gain in concrete toughness.
– Sisal fiber could provide the same level of residual strength as
the polypropylene fiber, as long as the equivalence of the
dosages of each fiber is considered. The high water absorption
of sisal fibers must be the reason for the worse performance
in comparison to the same dosage of polypropylene fibers in a
cementitious matrix, evidenced from the pullout tests. There-
fore, at higher dosages of sisal fibers, the amount of fibers in a
cracked section increased sufficiently to compensate the lower
efficiency of its fiber-matrix interface.
– The evaluation of the composites according to recommenda-
tions of the fib Model Code 2010 showed that, except for the
concrete reinforced with 3 kg/m3 of sisal fiber, all other com-
posites satisfied the criterion that the residual strength in the
ultimate limit state (fR,3) should be at least half the residual
resistance in the service limit state (fR,1). However, only the
composite CPP10 fulfill all the requirements to partially or
totally substitute conventional reinforcement in structural
applications.
– From the accelerated aging tests by means of wetting and dry-
ing cycles, it was evident that the polypropylene fiber is resis-
tant to this degradation process. Besides that, the degradation
of sisal fiber was also avoided by the use of a low alkaline
matrix.
Therefore, the use of sisal fibers as concrete reinforcement is
viable from a mechanical point of view and in relation to its dura-
bility, taking into account the need for larger dosages and a the use
of an adequate matrix.
Conflict of interest
We wish to confirm that there are no known conflicts of interest
associated with this work and there has been no significant finan-
cial support for this study that could have influenced its outcome.
627
Acknowledgements
Funding: This work was supported by the Conselho Nacional de
Desenvolvimento Científico e Tecnológico – CNPq and Coor-
denação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior – CAPES
(Brazilian National Science Foundations).
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