_________________________________________________________

Fibre Reinforced Polymer (FRP)

Analysis and Design
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SECOND EDITION
NOV 2009

ENGR SREEJIT RAGHU

MEng DIC ACGI MIStructE CEng MIEM

Ove Arup & Partners International Ltd

13 Fitzroy Street, London W1T 4BQ

tel +44 (0) 20 7636 1531

fax +44 (0) 20 7755 2150
email sreejit_raghu@yahoo.co.uk
internet www.arup.com
 Fibre Reinforced Polymer (FRP) Analysis and Design
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TABLE OF CONTENTS

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS .......................................................................................................................................3

1.1 FIBRE REINFORCED POLYMER (FRP) ANALYSIS AND DESIGN ......................................................................4

1.1.1 Introduction ......................................................................................................................................................................................4
1.1.2 The Reinforcement Fibre .................................................................................................................................................................4
1.1.3 The Polymer (Resin) Matrix ............................................................................................................................................................6
1.1.4 The Additives ....................................................................................................................................................................................8
1.1.5 The Composite Laminate Forming Processes.................................................................................................................................9
1.1.6 Modelling and Analyzing Fibre Reinforced Polymer (FRP) Composite Laminates in MSC.NASTRAN ...............................10
1.1.6.1 The Ply.................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 10
1.1.6.2 The Composite Laminate, Sandwich Structures and Structural Members with Attached Laminates ...................................................................... 14
1.1.6.3 Failure Mode and Failure Criteria of the Composite Laminate ............................................................................................................................... 16
1.1.6.4 MSC.NASTRAN Finite Element Modelling of Composite Laminate Summary .................................................................................................... 18

BIBLIOGRAPHY.....................................................................................................................................................20

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 Fibre Reinforced Polymer (FRP) Analysis and Design
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

My humble gratitude to the Almighty, to Whom this and all work is dedicated.

A special thank you also to my teachers at Imperial College of Science, Technology and Medicine, London and my
fellow engineering colleagues at Ove Arup and Partners London and Ramboll Whitbybird London.

Engr Sreejit Raghu

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1.1 Fibre Reinforced Polymer (FRP) Analysis and Design 1

1.1.1 Introduction

A Fibre Reinforced Polymer (FRP) composite laminate is a material composed of plies. Each ply consists of
fibres within a polymer matrix with the addition of additives. The fibres impart strength and stiffness to the
composite and also act as crack stoppers for good fatigue resistance. The matrix binds the fibres together,
transferring loads from fibre to fibre. The matrix also protects the fibres from mechanical abrasion and chemical
reactions with the environment. The mechanical properties are predominantly governed by the fibres; fibre type,
fibre length, fibre volume fraction and fibre orientation. The chemical properties, behaviour in fire and durability
are largely governed by the properties of the matrix polymer. Together, the FRP composite presents a robust
material solution with good stiffness/weight and strength/weight ratios, good fatigue and corrosion resistance and
favorable cost savings in transportation, assembly and construction due to its relatively light weight despite its
unfavorable material cost / weight ratio.

1.1.2 The Reinforcement Fibre

Property Glass Carbon Aramid (Kevlar TM)

Tensile Strength, E-Glass: 2500 HT-Carbon: 3200
2900
σf, ult (MPa) R-Glass: 3200 HM-Carbon: 2500
Compressive Strength,
σf, ult (MPa)
E-Glass: HT-Carbon:
Efℓ = 74 Efℓ = 230
Eft = 74 Eft = 15 Efℓ = 130
Gf = 30 Gf = 50 Eft = 5.4
Stiffness (GPa) R-Glass: HM-Carbon: Gf = 12
Efℓ = 86 Efℓ = 390 Aramid fibre is
Eft = Eft = 6 anisotropic.
Gf = Gf = 20
Glass fibre is isotropic. Carbon fibre is anisotropic.
E-Glass: 0.25 HT-Carbon: 0.3
Poisson’s Ratio, νf 0.4
R-Glass: 0.2 HM-Carbon: 0.35
Low; Very Low;
Density, ρf (kg/m3) E-Glass: 2600 HT-Carbon: 1750 Very Low; 1450
R-Glass: 2500 HM-Carbon: 1800
Material Cost 2
Low; 2.5 High; 10.0 – 200.0 High; 20.0
₤ / kg
Coefficient of Thermal Low; Very low;
Low;
Expansion, αf E-Glass: 0.5E-5 HT-Carbon: 0.02E-5
-0.2E-5
(Strain/°C) R-Glass: 0.3E-5 HM-Carbon: 0.08E-5
Impact Resistance
Dependent upon elastic Dependent upon elastic Dependent upon elastic
(Brittle Failure
strain energy absorbed; strain energy absorbed; strain energy absorbed;
Toughness)
Fatigue See Section 1.1.3.
Retain strength up till Oxidise in air above 650 Limited to 200 °C.
Fire
melting point (over 1000 °C. Combustible. Combustible.

1
GAY, Daniel, HOA, Suong, TSAI, Stephen. Composite Materials Design and Application. CRC Press, London, 2003.
2
NB: Cost reductions are however made in erection and transportation due to the lighter weight.

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°C). Combustible.

Susceptible only when in

contact with aluminium
Corrosion Resistance Not susceptible. causing a “galvanic Not susceptible.
phenomenon” which leads
to rapid corrosion.
Creep
Coefficient of Thermal Low; Very high;
Conductivity at 20°C, λ E-Glass: 1 HT-Carbon: 200 Very low; 0.03
(W/m°C) R-Glass: 1 HM-Carbon: 200
Heat Capacity, c E-Glass: 800 HT-Carbon: 800
1400
(J/kg°C) R-Glass: 800 HM-Carbon: 800
Electrical Conductivity Non-conducting. Conducting. Non-conducting.
Aramids absorb much
Attacked by alkalis (pH more water than either
Chemical Resistance greater than 11) but not by Good. glass or carbon causing
acids. problems with the
resin/fibre interface.
Changes colour and the
strength reduce. However,
UV Resistance Good. Good. when embedded in resin,
overall mechanical
properties little affected.
Non-toxic and inert. Does Non-toxic and inert. Does Non-toxic and inert. Does
Sustainability not contaminate not contaminate not contaminate
groundwater. groundwater. groundwater.
Transparency to Radio
Frequency
Electromagnetic
Considerations

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1.1.3 The Polymer (Resin) Matrix

There are two types of polymer; thermosets and thermoplastics. Once cured (hardened) by a chemical reaction, a
thermosetting polymer will not melt or soften when subsequently heated. A thermoplastic polymer softens when
heated and hardens upon cooling. Common thermoset polymers are polyester, epoxy and phenolic.

Property Polyester Epoxy Phenolic

Tensile Strength,
80 130 70
σm, ult (MPa)
Compressive Strength,
σm, ult (MPa)
Em: 4.5 Em: 4.5 Em: 3.0
Stiffness (GPa) Gm: 1.4 Gm: 1.6 Gm: 1.1
Polyester is isotropic. Epoxy is isotropic. Phenolic is isotropic.
Poisson’s Ratio, νm 0.4 0.4 0.4

Density, ρm (kg/m3) 1200 1200 1300

Material Cost
2.5 5.0 – 10.0 10.0
₤ / kg
Coefficient of Thermal
Expansion, αm High; 8E-5 High; 11E-5 Low; 1E-5
(Strain/°C)
Impact Resistance
(Brittle Failure
Toughness)
Fatigue resistance of FRP composites is generally better than that of metals as the
fibres act as crack stoppers - up to 1000000 cycles no fatigue limit. Unlike metals,
Fatigue fatigue failure is gradual as the matrix cracks and fibres debond. Generally, non-
propagating stress range estimates for composites can be as high as 90% of static
strength (cf. that for steel and titanium being 50% and aluminium 35%).
Although the fibres are not flammable, the polymer matrix is inherently flammable.
Although thermoset polymers do not melt when heated, they do soften (Young’s
Modulus decreases) above the glass transition temperature Tg, typically 60 – 70 °C.
Fire
This greatly influences the maximum service temperature of a FRP composite and its
structural performance in a fire. The temperature at which a FRP composite softens is
called the Heat Distortion Temperature (HDT) and is related to Tg.
Corrosion Resistance
All polymers used in FRP composites display viscoelastic or time (and temperature)
dependent properties. Materials with a high glass transition temperature (Tg) have
higher creep resistance. Creep is of primary significance for structures under a
sustained load. Creep in FRP composites is primarily a matrix deformation. A FRP
Creep composite with fibres aligned in the direction of the applied stress, creep is unlikely to
be a significant problem, while loading off axis to the fibre direction may result in
excessive deflection. The design methodology should be based on limiting the internal
strains in the matrix. Axial strain levels should be less than 0.2% strain. Creep curves
are available for estimating creep modulus (long term modulus).
Coefficient of Thermal
Low; 0.2 Low; 0.2 Low; 0.3
Conductivity at 20°C, λ

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(W/m°C)

Heat Capacity, c
1400 1000 1000
(J/kg°C)
Electrical Conductivity
Resistant to grease, oils,
Resistant to grease, oils,
paints, solvents, petroleum.
paints, solvents, petroleum.
Epoxy resins can absorb Resistant to grease, oils,
Chemical Resistance Polyester resins attack
water by diffusion up to paints, solvents, petroleum.
polystyrene foam in
6% of mass. Paint thinners
sandwich structures.
attach epoxy resins.
Good. Maintains
appearance > 20 years.
Used as protective gel coat
on composites with a more
UV Resistance UV sensitive polymer.
Appearance changes long
before significant
mechanical property
degradation.
Sustainability
Transparency to Radio
Frequency
An application where it has been particularly useful to use FRP composites is where
concrete members require non-ferrous reinforcement due to electromagnetic
Electromagnetic
considerations e.g. MRI scanner rooms; airport radio and compass calibration pads;
Considerations
high voltage electrical transformer vaults; concrete near high voltage cables and
substations.

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1.1.4 The Additives

Property Remark
To counteract UV effects on appearance and the degradation of mechanical properties,
additives can be blended with the polymer during processing. Photo stabilizing
additives protect the polymer chains by reacting preferentially with UV light - UV
absorbers. Pigments can also protect the polymer by reflecting the UV radiation.
UV Resistance
Metallic pigments can be used as effective reflectors. Zinc oxide (ZnO) is another
effective reflector. However, the most effective reflector is carbon black. It is often
used to enhance the lifespan of polymers exposed outdoors. Colors that can be
particularly prone to fade include reds, yellows and pastel colors.

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1.1.5 The Composite Laminate Forming Processes

Forming Process Description

Open molding since there is only one mold.
Contact Molding Reinforcement is mats or fabrics. Compaction is done
(Hand Lay Up) using a roller to squeeze out air pockets. Labour intensive
and high quality workmanship required.
Closed molding as the countermold will close the mold to
Compression Molding apply pressure after impregnated reinforcement (fabrics or
unidimensionals) placed on mold.
Vacuum Assisted Resin
Vacuum is applied under a soft plastic sheet on the open
Transfer Molding VARTM
Molding mold and piece is compacted under atmospheric pressure
(a.k.a. Depression Molding
to elimitate air bubbles.
or Bag Molding)

impregnation of Resin is injected into the preformed reinforcement
fibres into resin Resin Transfer Molding
(unidimensionals, fabrics, mats) placed between the mold

placing mixture RTM
and countermold.
on tool Premixed (a.k.a. Bulk Moulding Compound B.M.C., i.e.

compaction Injection of Premixed
mixture of cut short fibres in a resin matrix) is fed into

polymerization Molding
mold and countermold in a highly automated fashion.

demolding Molding by foam injection allows the processing of

finishing Foam Injection Molding polyurethane foam reinforced with glass fibres in mold
and countermold.
Centrifugal Molding Allows for the fabrication of tubes using short fibres.
Filament winding is used to form tubes with continuous
fibres wound helically within the component. The fibres
are coated with polymer resin and wound around a
Filament Winding
mandrel to create the desired shape. The winding angle
may be varied to orientate the fibres to give the desired
properties in different directions.
Sheet Forming Allows the production of plane or corrugated sheets.
Profile Forming Pultrusion involves pulling reinforcement fibres (unidimensionals, fabrics or mats) coated
(Pultrusion) in a polymer resin through a die.
Only applicable to thermoplastic composites. Preformed plates are heated, stamped and
Stamp Forming
then cooled.
Three
Woven tows along several directions in space assembled before impregnation using liquid
Dimensional
or gas.
Assembly
Cutting A programmed cutting machine can cut components into shapes required by the design.

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1.1.6 Modelling and Analyzing Fibre Reinforced Polymer (FRP) Composite Laminates in
MSC.NASTRAN

1.1.6.1 The Ply

The reinforcement fibres are manufactured to be as thin in diameter (d) as possible because their rupture strength
decreases as their diameter increases. The minimum effective fibre length (critical fibre length, lc) is dependent on
the fibre diameter (d) and its ultimate tensile strength, σf, ult and on the fibre-matrix bond strength (or the shear
strength of the matrix) τc according (simplistically) to
lc = σf, ult d / τc
For a number of glass and carbon fibre-matrix combinations, this critical length is on the order of 1 mm, which
ranges between 20 and 150 times the fibre diameter. Fibres for which l >> lc (normally l > 15lc) are termed
continuous; discontinuous or short fibres have lengths shorter than this. For discontinuous fibres of lengths
significantly less than lc, the matrix deforms around the fibre such that there is virtually no stress transfer and little
reinforcement by the fibre.

The forms of the reinforcement fibres are

i. Unidimensional (continuous fibres)
ii. Bidimensional woven fabric (continuous fibres)
iii. Bidimensional mat (short or continuous fibres)
iv. Multidimensional fabric (continuous fibres)

1.1.6.1.1 Mechanical Properties of the Unidimensional Ply

Two dimensional anisotropic materials (MAT2) can be fully defined from 7 independent constants, Ex, Ey, νyx,
νxy, Gxy, Gxz, Gyz.

 Ex ν yx E x 
 0 
1 − ν xy ν yx 1 − ν xy ν yx
σ x     ε  α x 
   ν xy E y Ey   x    τ xz  G xz 0  γ xz 
σ y  =  0   ε y  − (T − Tref )α y   =  
τ  1 − ν xy ν yx 1 − ν xy ν yx   γ   0  τ yz   0 G yz  γ yz 
 xy   0 0 G xy   xy   
 
 

Two dimensional orthotropic materials (MAT8) can be fully defined from 6 independent constants, 3 from Ex,
Ey, νyx and νxy due to the symmetry relation νxyEy = νyxEx and also Gxy, Gxz, Gyz.

 Ex ν yx E x 
 0 
1 − ν xy ν yx 1 − ν xy ν yx
σ x     ε  α x 
   ν xy E y Ey   x    τ xz  G xz 0  γ xz 
σ y  =  0   ε y  − (T − Tref )α y   =  
τ  1 − ν xy ν yx 1 − ν xy ν yx   γ   0  τ yz   0 G yz  γ yz 
 xy   0 0 G xy   xy   
 
 

Two dimensional (plane stress) isotropic material (MAT1) can be fully defined from 2 independent constants
from E, G and ν as G = E / [2(1+ν)].

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 E νE 
0
 σ x  1 − ν 2 1− ν2 
  ε x  α 
   νE νE   τ xz  G 0  γ xz 
σ y  = 0   ε y  − (T − Tref )α   =  
τ  1 − ν    τ yz   0 G  γ yz 
2
1− ν2  0 
 xy   0 0 G  γ xy   
 
 

A fundamental physical difference in the deformation between an isotropic and an orthotropic material shall be
mentioned. If an isotropic material is stressed, the deformation of the element will be ellipsoidal with the axes of
the ellipsoid coinciding with the principal stress axes. However, if an orthotropic material is stressed, the
deformation of the element will be ellipsoidal with the axes of the ellipsoid not coinciding with the principal stress
axes.

The mechanical properties of a ply are defined on the MAT8 card.

Note that x denotes the longitudinal direction of the ply, y the transverse in plane direction of the ply and z the
transverse out of plane direction of the ply; f denotes fibre and m the resin matrix; fℓ the longitudinal direction of
the fibre and ft the transverse direction of the fibre.

Property of Ply Expression

The longitudinal modulus, Ex (or E1)
(Assumes straight and unidirectional fibre
Ex = EmVm + EfℓVf = Em(1–Vf) + EfℓVf
orientation and that the material is bimodulus, i.e.
same stiffness in tension and compression)
 
 1  1 V V
The in-plane transverse modulus, Ey (or E2) Ey = Em   or = m + f
 (1 − V ) + m V 
E E y E m E ft
 f
E
f 
 ft 
The in-plane Poisson’s ratio, νxy (or NU12) νxy = νmVm + νfVf = νm(1–Vf) + νfVf
 
 1 
The in-plane shear modulus, Gxy (or G12) G xy = G m  
 Gm 
 (1 − Vf ) + G Vf 
 f 
If test data are not available, the value of G12 may be
The out-of-plane shear modulus, Gxz (or G1Z) used for G1Z and G2Z. If zero then no shear flexibility
or shear deformations, i.e. infinite shear stiffness.
If test data are not available, the value of G12 may be
The out-of-plane shear modulus, Gyz (or G2Z) used for G1Z and G2Z. If zero then no shear flexibility
or shear deformations, i.e. infinite shear stiffness.
1
The in-plane modulus along any direction, Eθ Eθ =
(Note the rapid decrease in modulus in directions cos 4 θ sin 4 θ  1 ν xy 
+ + 2 cos 2 θ sin 2 θ − 
away from the longitudinal fibre) Ex Ey  2 G E 
 xy y 

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where θ = anticlockwise angle from x

Mass density, ρ (or RHO) ρ = ρmVm + ρfVf = ρm(1–Vf) + ρfVf
The longitudinal coefficient of thermal expansion, α = α f E f
Vf + α m E m Vm
x
αx (or A1) E f
Vf + E m Vm
(ν f E m − ν m E f
)
The transverse coefficient of thermal expansion, αy α y = α m Vm + α f Vf + E m E f

(α f − α m )
(or A2) +
Vf Vm
Vf ρ f
Fibre mass fraction, Mf Mf =
Vf ρ f + Vm ρ m
Vf ρ f
Resin matrix mass fraction, Mm Mm =1− Mf =1−
Vf ρ f + Vm ρ m

The fibre volume fraction, Vf depends largely upon the manufacturing process used.

Molding Process Fibre Volume Fraction, Vf

Contact Molding 30%
Compression Molding 40%
Filament Winding 60% − 85%
Vacuum Molding 50% − 80%

Conversely, if the fibre mass fraction Mf is known, the volume fractions can be derived as follows.

Property of Ply Expression

M f / ρf
Fibre volume fraction, Vf Vf =
M f / ρf + M m / ρm
M f / ρf
Resin matrix volume fraction, Vm Vm = 1 − Vf =
M f / ρf + M m / ρm

The thickness of the plies must be defined on the PCOMP card (for each individual PSHELL card) as Ti. The
thickness is obtained as follows.
m 1 1  1 − M f 
Ti = of or Ti = m of  +  
Vf ρ f  ρ f ρ m  M f 
where mof is the mass of fibre per m2 of area.

1.1.6.1.2 Mechanical Properties of the Bidimensional Woven Fabric Ply

The fabrics are made of fibres oriented along two perpendicular directions, one called the warp and the other
called the fill direction. The fibres are woven together, which means that the fill yarns pass over and under the warp
yarns, following a fixed pattern. Each fabric layer is considered to be a single anisotropic layer of thickness Ti with
approximate mechanical properties as follows. Define
n1
k=
n1 + n 2
where n1 is the number of warps yarns per metre and n2 is the number of fill yarns per metre. Then
Exfabric ≈ kEx + (1–k)Ey
Eyfabric ≈ (1–k)Ex + kEy

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Gxyfabric ≈ Gxy
ν xy
ν xyfabric ≈
Ex
k + (1 − k )
Ey
where Ex, Ey, Gxy and νxy are values obtained by considering the woven fabric ply to be a unidirectional ply, i.e.
with both the warp and fill yarns to be in the same direction such that the total volume fraction, Vf would be the
same as that of one unidirectional ply. Note that the stiffness of a woven fabric will be less than two equivalent
(with the two unidirectional plies having the same fibre volume fraction as the one woven fabric ply) unidirectional
plies orthogonal to one another because of the curvature of the woven fibres over and under the orthogonal fibres.

The thickness of the anisotropic ply would be Ti as with the unidirectional ply.

1.1.6.1.3 Mechanical Properties of the Bidimensional Mat Ply

Mats are made up of short cut fibres or continuous fibres such that they are isotropic within their plane. Hence their
properties can be approximated by just two constants (and hence using MAT1) approximately as
3 5
E mat ≈ E x + E y
8 8
E mat
G mat ≈
2(1 + ν mat )
ν mat ≈ 0.3
where Ex and Ey are the elastic moduli along the longitudinal and transverse directions of a unidirectional ply with
the same volume fraction Vf.

The thickness of the mat ply would be Ti as with the unidirectional ply.

1.1.6.1.4 Mechanical Properties of the Multidimensional Fabric Ply

Multidimensional fabric plies has the reinforcement assembled according to pre-established directions. The ply is
isotropic within its plane.

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1.1.6.2 The Composite Laminate, Sandwich Structures and Structural Members with Attached Laminates

There are three types of laminated construction. These include the all laminated construction consisting of
relatively high stiffness and strength layers, the sandwich structure lamination consisting of at least two high
stiffness and strength outer layers connected by a core, and a third type consisting of a structural member that is
reinforced on the tensile or compression or both sides of a flexural beam.

1.1.6.2.1 Mechanical Properties of the Composite Laminate

A composite laminate is comprised of a number of plies. These can be defined using the PCOMP entry that refers
to the material cards of the individual plies MIDi, their thickness Ti and the orientation of the ply longitudinal axis
from the MCID by THETAi.

Plies are always defined bottom up (Z0 = −0.5 x total element thickness ∑Ti). There is a genuine need for a
midplane symmetry (ensured by specifying LAM = “SYM”) because during the cooling process of manufacture,
the plies have the tendency to contract differently depending on their orientations. With symmetry of the midplane,
nonuniform contraction is avoided.

[ ]
Typical laminate lay-ups of unidirectional plies are [90/02/−45/45]S and 0 / 45 / − 45 / 90 S . Note that these are
defined bottom up. The S-subscript indicates a set of symmetric plies. The 2-subscript indicates two plies. The
[ ]
hyphen above the number indicates that it is the midplane ply. The 0 / 45 / − 45 / 90 S lay-up is really the
technological minimum with the minimum thickness of the laminate being around 1mm. The plies should be
orientated such that there are fibres orientated in both the maximum and minimum principal stress directions. There
should also be no more than 4 consecutive plies along the same direction. The plies should be progressively
terminated to obtain a gradual change of thickness (maximum 2 plies for each 6mm interval).

Laminate lay-up which are symmetric can also be made up of fabrics, which can be thought of as a pair of
orthogonal plies and also of mats, which are isotropic in-plane.

1.1.6.2.2 Mechanical Properties of Sandwich Structures

Sandwich structures are made up of two facings sandwiching a light flexible core, hence again definable with a
PCOMP entry. The facing can be a composite laminate of many anisotropic MAT8 plies or simply a layer of
isotropic MAT1 material such as aluminium. The core can be deemed as just another layer within PCOMP with a
relatively much greater thickness.

A significant benefit of sandwich structures is the fact that they are extremely light whilst having a high flexural
rigidity due to the separation of the surface skins. The mass per unit area of the dome of the Saint Peter’s Basilica
in Rome (45m diameter) is 2600 kg/m2 whereas the same dome made of steel/polyurethane foam sandwich
(Hanover) is only 33 kg/m2.

Very approximate stress formulae in a 3 layer (core T2 sandwiched by 2 facings of thickness T1 and T3) sandwich
structure are as follows. These are useful verifications of computer outputs.

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M (per unit metre)

Bending stress in facings σ = assuming all bending is resisted by the facings
(
T2 + 1 (T1 + T3 ) (1m width )
2
)
V (per unit metre)
Shear stress in foam τ = assuming all the vertical shear is resisted by the core
T2 (1m width )

The approximate verification of displacements requires the estimation of the stiffness of the sandwich structure.
Also, both bending and shear deformations may be significant, hence both bending and shear stiffnesses must be
approximated as follows. Note that T2 is the thickness of the core and Tfacings is the thickness of the facings, i.e. T1
or T3.
width . skin thickness . (average panel depth )
2
(
width . Tfacings . T2 + Tfacings
2
)
EI = E facings = E facings
2 2
( )
GA s = G core T2 + 2Tfacngs . width

Sandwich structures are susceptible to global buckling according to Euler (including shear deformations) as
π 2 EI
Fcr = K
EI
L2 + π 2 K
GA s
where K = 1 for simply supported, K = 4 for fixed ended, K = 2.04 for fixed-pinned and K = 0.25 for cantilever.

Sandwich structures are particularly susceptible to local buckling of the facings. The critical compression stress is
3
σ cr = ( 2
E facings E core )
1/ 3

[
12(3 − ν core ) (1 + ν core )
2
]
2 1/ 3

The axial critical force in a beam for local buckling of the facings is approximately
1/ 2
 E Tfacings 
Fcr = 1.64Tfacings .width.E facings  core 
 E facings T2 
 

1.1.6.2.3 Mechanical Properties of Structural Members with Attached Laminates

This is utilized most often in construction and infrastructure applications. PCOMP can be used to define the
attached composite laminates on the flanges of the structural members, but of course not the structural members
themselves because the orientation of the web will be orthogonal to the orientation of the flange. Hence define
explicit PSHELL entries for the structural members.

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1.1.6.3 Failure Mode and Failure Criteria of the Composite Laminate

The failure mode of a ply is brittle rather than ductile with no significant yielding until failure at the ultimate
tensile strength. The ply remains elastic until the ultimate limit strength. In light of this it has been assumed that
only elastic methods may be used, with no redistribution. If the loading is tensile along the direction of the fibres, it
is assumed that the fibres break before the matrix. The compressive strength along the direction of the fibres will be
smaller than the tensile strength along the same direction due to the micro buckling phenomenon of the fibres in
the matrix.

To define a failure criteria a failure theory must be specified on the FT field of the PCOMP entry from either
“HILL” for Hill-Tsai, “HOFF” for Hoffman, “TSAI” for Tsai-Wu or “STRN” for maximum strain theory. The
allowable inter-laminar shear stress SB needs also to be provided in the PCOMP card in case of inter-laminar
failure. Then on the MAT8 cards, the allowable stress or strain in tension and compression in longitudinal direction
Xt, Xc, in the transverse direction Yt, Yc and the allowable stress or strain for in-place shear, S is required.

Hill-Tsai is really for orthotropic materials with equal strengths in tension and compression. The Hoffmann and
Tsai-Wu theory are for orthotropic materials with general state of plane stress with unequal strengths in tension and
compression. Note that the Hoffmann theory takes into account the difference in tensile and compressive allowable
stresses by using linear terms in its equation. The Tsai-Wu however is complicated by the need to satisfy a stability
criterion with an experimentally (biaxial loading) derived parameter F12 defined on the MAT8 card.
Narayanaswami and Adelman have thus suggested that F12 be set to zero and the use of Hoffman's Theory or the
Tsai-Wu theory with F12 = 0 are preferred alternatives. STRN on the MAT8 with a value of “1.0” is additionally
required for the maximum strain theory to indicate that Xt, Xc, Yt, Yc and S are strain allowables, instead of stress
allowables for the other criteria.

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The maximum strain criteria failure index is defined as follows

STRN can also be left blank (as done for the other criteria) even for the maximum strain theory to allow stress
allowables in which case the maximum strain criteria becomes the maximum stress criteria. For this case the
failure indices are calculated using

The failure index of the bonding material will be calculated as the maximum interlaminar shear stress divided by
the allowable bonding stress. Classical lamination theory, which utilizes the plane stress assumption, does not
account for interlaminar stresses. As a result, this theory cannot be used to predict the magnitude of these stresses.
High values of these interlaminar stresses can lead to failures that are unique to composite materials. An
approximate technique is used to calculate the interlaminar shear stresses. The basic assumption in this approximate
technique is that the x- and y-components of stress are decoupled from one another. The interlaminar shear strains
are calculated by

The Hill-Tsai failure criterion is defined as follows for each and every ply.

2 2 2
 σ   σ  σ σ  τ 
α=  x  + y  − x y +  xy  < 1.0 for no ply rupture
σ   σ y , ult  σ x , ult  τ xy , ult
2 
 x , ult    
 E 
where σ x, ult = σ f, ult  Vf + (1 − Vf ) m  ≈ σ f, ult Vf
 E f


These correspond to the entries on the MAT8 cards, the allowable stress in tension and compression in longitudinal
direction Xt (σx, ult), Xc (σx, ult), in the transverse direction Yt (σy, ult), Yc (σy, ult) and the allowable stress for in-place
shear, S (τxy, ult). If α > 1, then rupture occurs in the ply considered, generally due to the rupture of the resin. The
rupture resistance does not have the same value in tension and compression, hence it is useful to place in the
denominators of the Hill-Tsai expression the rupture resistance values corresponding to the mode of loading (i.e.
whether tension or compression) that appear in the numerator. This is done automatically in NASTRAN as follows.

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1.1.6.4 MSC.NASTRAN Finite Element Modelling of Composite Laminate Summary

Classical lamination theory is employed, hence incorporating the following assumptions:

i. The laminate consists of perfectly bonded laminae or ply.
ii. The bonds are infinitesimally thin and nonshear-deformable; i.e., displacements are continuous
across laminae (or ply) boundaries so that no lamina can slip relative to another.
iii. Each of the ply is in a state of plane stress.

The PCOMP property card is used for modelling a composite material consisting of layers. This information is
used internally within NASTRAN to compute equivalent PSHELL cards. The information on the PCOMP card
includes the thickness, orientation and material identification of each layer. This information is used internally
within NASTRAN to compute equivalent PSHELL cards. Special layer-by-layer output is provided when the
PCOMP option is used. We have said that for shells, the element definition and element stress recovery are
performed in the element coordinate system by default (but defined by MCID entry on element connection
card; 0 for basic projected, > 0 for user projected, < blank > for element coordinate system, > 0.0 and <
360.0 for angled from side n1-n2 of element). (Note that for beams, the element definition and element stress
recovery are performed in the element coordinate system. For solid elements, the element definition and element
stress recovery are performed in the basic coordinate system by default (but defined on CORDM field of
PSOLID; 0 for basic, > 0 for user-defined, -1 for element coordinate system)). In the case of the PCOMP entry,
the element coordinate system requires further subdivision as there are many plies. Hence the THETAi field of the
PCOMP entry specifies the angle from the coordinate system defined by MCID on the element connection card for
the longitudinal axis of each ply i.

To define laminates with PCOMP and numerous orthotropic MAT8 cards, the following procedure is undertaken.

I. Define a common material coordinate system MCID for the CQUAD4 elements. This would refer to either the
basic coordinate system (by specifying “0”) or a user-defined coordinate system (by specifying a CORDij ID).
In the usual case of uniform isotropic shells, MCID can be left defaulted to the individual element coordinate
system (by specifying < blank >), random as they may be, because due to the nature of the elements being
uniform and isotropic, the geometric definition will be the exact, and the correct consistent stress recovery will
be obtained so long as the stresses are rotated onto the global axes system by the post-processor (of course
though the Z-normal must still be ensured to be coherent amongst adjacent elements for correct stress recovery
of top and bottom surfaces). But in the case of the orthotropic shell, the geometric definition requires a
coordinate system. It is best to define a single user defined coordinate system for all the elements on their
MCID field, noting that the element coordinate system will then be the projection of the defined system onto
the element plane. The thickness T1 to T4 should not be specified because in accordance with normal practice
of defining isotropic materials, thickness is specified in the property card.

II. Define a PCOMP card that refers to the material cards of the individual plies MIDi, their thickness Ti and the
orientation of the ply longitudinal axis from the MCID, THETAi. Plies are always defined bottom up (Z0 =
−0.5 x total element thickness ∑Ti). SOUTi field requests by “YES” or “NO” stress output for the individual
plies provided that the ELSTRESS case control command is specified. The LAM field specifies the laminate
option from < blank > for explicitly specifying all plies, the recommended “SYM” for specifying half the
symmetrical plies from bottom side (with centerline ply of half thickness if odd-number of plies within
laminate), “MEM” for specifying all the plies but with membrane stiffness only (MID1 on derived PSHELL)
and “BEND” for specifying all the plies but with bending stiffness only (MID2 on derived PSHELL). A
failure theory FT can be specified from “HILL” for Hill-Tsai, “HOFF” for Hoffman, “TSAI” for Tsai-Wu or
“STRN” for maximum strain theory. The allowable inter-laminar shear stress SB needs to be provided.

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III. Define an orthotropic MAT8 card (although a MAT1 card could be used for a mat ply) for each individual ply.
For each ply, need to define E1, E2, Poisson’s ratio NU12, in-plane shear modulus G12, transverse shear
modulus for shear in 1-Z plane G1Z, transverse shear modulus for shear in 2-Z plane G2Z (if G1Z and G2Z
zero, then no shear flexibility or shear deformations, i.e. infinite shear stiffness) and density RHO. Define the
thermal expansion coefficients A1 and A2 if necessary. If the failure criterion is requested in PCOMP (in field
FT), then the allowable stress or strain in tension and compression in longitudinal direction Xt, Xc, in the
transverse direction Yt, Yc and the allowable stress or strain for in-place shear, S is required. F12 is
additionally required for Tsai-Wu failure criterion. STRN with a value of “1.0” is additionally required for the
maximum strain theory to indicate that Xt, Xc, Yt, Yc and S are strain allowables instead of stress allowables.
STRN can also be left blank (as done for the other criteria) even for the maximum strain theory to allow stress
allowables in which case the maximum strain criteria becomes the maximum stress criteria.

Safety factors vary considerably depending upon laminate design, constituent materials, manufacturing method,
service conditions, etc. However, as a rule of thumb, a conservative value of 3 can be used for the material factor.

The following are the MSC.NASTRAN recovered outputs:-

i. stress (ELSTRESS) and strain (ELSTRAIN) for the equivalent laminate shell
ii. force resultants (ELFORCE)
iii. stresses and strains in the individual plies and the shear stress in the bonding material
iv. a failure index table (if Xt, Xc, Yt, Yc and S specified on MAT8 and FT and SB specified on
PCOMP)

The failure index for an element is the largest value of the failure indices for all plies of the element.

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BIBLIOGRAPHY

1. GAY, Daniel, HOA, Suong, TSAI, Stephen. Composite Materials Design and Application. CRC Press,
London, 2003.
2. TIMOSHENKO & GERE. Mechanics of Materials 4th SI Edition. Stanley Thornes, United Kingdom, 1991.

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