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SIMPLE STRESS AND STRAIN

1. STRESS AND STRAIN

1.1. Introduction
When a material is subjected to an external force, a resisting force is set up within
the component. The internal resistance force per unit area acting on a material
or intensity of the forces distributed over a given section is called the stress at a
point.
It uses original cross section area of the specimen and also known as engineering
stress or conventional stress.
𝑃
Therefore, 𝜎 =
𝐴

P is expressed in Newton(N) and A, original area, in square meters (m2), the

stress σ will be expresses in N/ m2. This unit is called Pascal (Pa).
1 kPa = 103 Pa = 103 N/ m2 (kPa = Kilo Pascal)
1 MPa = 106 Pa = 106 N/ m2 = 1 N/mm2 (MPa = Mega Pascal)
1 GPa = 109 Pa = 109 N/ m2 (GPa = Giga Pascal)
1.2. Types of Stresses
Tensile stress (σt)
If σ > 0 the stress is tensile. i.e. The fibres of the component tend to elongate
due to the external force. A member subjected to an external force tensile P and
tensile stress distribution due to the force is shown in the given figure.

Compressive stress (σc)

If σ < 0 the stress is compressive. i.e. The fibres of the component tend to shorten
due to the external force. A member subjected to an external compressive force
P and compressive stress distribution due to the force is shown in the given figure.

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Shear stress (𝝉)

When forces are transmitted from one part of a body to other, the stresses
developed in a plane parallel to the applied force are the shear stress. Shear
stress acts parallel to plane of interest. Forces P is applied transversely to the
member AB as shown. The corresponding
internal forces act in the plane of section C and are called shearing forces. The
P
corresponding average shear stress. 𝝉=
Area

1.3. Strain
When an external force is applied on a body, there is some change occur in the
dimension of the body. The ratio of this change of dimension in the body to its
actual length is called strain.

For example: if you have a bar of length Lo and an external force P is applied on
the bar, then there is some change in the length of the bar. Let the change
produced in the bar is ∆𝐿. Then the strain is the ratio of this change in the length
to the original (actual) length. Strain is dimensionless quantity.
Mathematically,
strain= (change in length)/(original length)
e= ∆𝐿 /L

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1.4. Types of strain:

Strain in mechanics is of four types and these are:

1. Tensile strain: The strain produced in a body due to tensile force is called the

tensile strain. The tensile force is always results in increment of the length and

decrease in the cross section area of the body. In this case the ratio of the

increase in length to the original length is called tensile strain.

2. Compressive strain: The strain appears due to the compressive force is

called compressive strain. In compressive force there is a decrease in the

dimension of the body. So the ratio of the decrease in the length of the body to

the original length is called compressive strain.

3. Volumetric strain: The ratio of the change in the volume of a body to the

original volume is called the volumetric strain. In volumetric strain there is a

change in the volume of the body due to application of the external forces.

4. Shear strain: The strain which is produced in a body due to shear force is

called shear strain.

5. Longitudinal Strain

It is the normal strain in the direction of loading.

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6. Lateral strain
It is the normal strain in the direction which is perpendicular to the direction of
loading.
Every longitudinal strain is associated with two lateral strains.
Longitudinal and lateral strains are unlike is nature.

L (L f – Lo ) → + ve
longtiduinal =x = =
Lo Lo

Tensile strain
d ( df – do ) → –ve
lateral =y =z =
do do
V
volumetric = =x +y +z
Vo
7. Shear Strain
Change in initial right angle between two line elements which are parallel to x
and y axis respectively.

𝛾=ϕ
Let BB’=𝛿

tan  =
L
For smaller angles, tanϕ ≈ ϕ

= =·L
L
P
=
A
 
G = or  =
 G

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1.5. Engineering Stress & Strain

Engineering stress (σ) is defined by the relationship
σ = F/Ao
Where F = instantaneous force, Ao = original cross-sectional area
Because of the applied force on the specimen, corresponding deformation
happens in the specimen is called as strain and in this case of tensile force, there
is an elongation in the body and engineering strain is defined according as below
ε = (l-lo) / lo
Where lo = initial length of the specimen before the application of the force
l = final length of the specimen
Notes: Engineering strain (subsequently called just strain) is unitless.
1.6. True stress and strain
The stress, as computed from engineering stress is on the basis of the original
cross-sectional area, before any deformation, and does not take into account this
reduction in area at the neck.
Sometimes it is more meaningful to use a true stress–true strain scheme.
σT= F/Ai
Where σT = true stress, Ai = instantaneous area cross-section
True strain is given as,
εT = ln(li/lo)
Where li= instantaneous length, lo= initial length
Relations between true and engineering stress- strains are
σT=σ (1+ε) and εT=ln (1+ε)
1.7. Comparison of engineering stress and the true stress-strain curves for
mild steel in tension

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The true stress-strain curve is also known as the flow curve.

True stress-strain curve gives a true indication of deformation characteristics
because it is based on the instantaneous dimension of the specimen.
In engineering stress-strain curve, stress drops down after necking since it is
based on the original area.
In true stress-strain curve, the stress however increases after necking since the
cross-sectional area of the specimen decreases rapidly after necking.
1.8. Hook’s law
According to Hook’s law the stress is directly proportional to strain
i.e. normal stress (σ)  normal strain (ε)
and shearing stress (  )  shearing strain (  ).
σ = Eε and   =G
The co-efficient E is called the modulus of elasticity i.e. its resistance to elastic
strain. The co-efficient G is called the shear modulus of elasticity or modulus of
rigidity.
1.9. Elastic Constants
Elastic constants are used to
(i) determine strain theoretically
(ii) obtain stress-strain relationships
For a homogenous and isotropic material, the no. of elastic constant are four

 1
[i.e., E, G, K and  µ or  ]
 m
For a homogeneous and isotropic material, the no. of independent elastic
constants are two [i.e., E and µ]

Material No. of independent elastic constants

Isotropic 2

Orthotropic 9

Anisotropic 21
Homogeneous Material
Same elastic properties at any pt. in a given directions [i.e., elastic properties
are independent of point]
Isotropic Material
Same elastic properties in any direction at a given point [independent of
direction]
Anisotropic Material
Exhibit direction dependent elastic property

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Orthotropic Material

Exhibits different elastic properties in orthogonal directions at a given pt.

1.10. Relationship between Elastic constants

E = 2G(1 + µ)

E = 3K(1 – 2µ)

9 KG
E=
3K + G
Value of any Elastic constant should be ≥ 0

E, K, G > 0

µ ≥ 0 [µcork = 0]

If K should be positive,

Then 1 – 2µ ≥ 0

1
µ
2
For any engg. Material

1
0 µ 
2

Material µ
Cork Zero
Concrete 0.1 to 0.2
1 1
Metals to
4 3
Rubber, Clay, Paraffin 0.5 → Behaves like perfect plastic material

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Normal stress
E=
Longitudinal Strain
Shear Stress T
G= =
Shear strain Y
Normal stress 
K= =
Volumetric strain V
Poisson’s Ratio

 Lateral strain 
µ = – 
 Logitudinal strain 
1.11. Expression for volumetric strain under Triaxial loading

Px Py P
x = , y = , z = z
bt Lb Lt

1
(
x = x – µ y + z 
E
)
1
y = y – µ ( x + z ) 
E
1
z = z – µ ( x + y ) 
E
ϵv = ϵx + ϵy + ϵz

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1 – 2µ
v = x + y + z 
E 
1
If µ = then v = 0
2
If σx + σy + σz = 0 then ϵv = 0

For hydrostatic state of stress

σx = σy = σz = σ

1 – 2µ
v = 3
E
E 
= =K
3 (1 – 2µ ) v

Under uniaxial state of stress

σx = σ, σy = σz = 0

1 – 2µ
v = ()
E
1.12. Bars in Series and Parallel

Bars are said to be in series when they have end to end connections

Conditions

➢ Deformations are cumulative (𝛿 = 𝛿1 + 𝛿2 + 𝛿3 + ____ 𝛿𝑛 )

➢ Loads are equal (𝑃1 = 𝑃2 = 𝑃3 = _____𝑃)

Bars are said to be in parallel when they have surface to surface connections

Conditions

➢ Loads are cumulative (𝑃 = 𝑃1 + 𝑃2 )

➢ Deformations are equal (𝛿1 = 𝛿2 = 𝛿)

Parallel conditions are used when we require high load carrying capacity while

occupying the same space.

Equations to be used

𝜎𝑎 = 𝑃⁄𝐴 = 4𝑃⁄𝜋𝑑 2

𝛿 = 𝑃𝐿⁄𝐴𝐸 = 4𝑃𝐿⁄𝜋𝑑 2 𝐸

Conditions under which these equations are to be used

➢ Bar should be prismatic

➢ Bar should be made of same material

➢ Bar should be under pure axial loading

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1.13. Bars in Series

Case 1: When the stepped bar is fixed at one end, free at the other end and
load is applied only at the free end
For the stepped bar shown in figure, determine
(i) Maximum stress induced
(ii) Deformation of stepped bar

In this case, since load is applied only at the free end

Therefore, loads applied in all the sections will be same
𝑃1 = 𝑃2 = 𝑃3 = 𝑃
Hence, the stress induced will be maximum for the section where area is
minimum
𝑃2 2𝑃
𝜎𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝜎2 = =
𝐴2 𝐴
Total deformation, 𝛿𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = 𝛿3 + 𝛿2 + 𝛿1
𝑃3 𝐿3 𝑃2 𝐿2 𝑃1 𝐿1 𝑃𝐿 𝑃𝑙 𝑃𝐿 4𝑃𝐿
𝛿𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = + + = + + =
𝐴3 𝐸3 𝐴2 𝐸2 𝐴1 𝐸1 𝐴𝐸 𝐴⁄ 𝐸 𝐴𝐸 𝐴𝐸
2

Case 2: When the stepped bar is fixed at one end, free at the other end and
load is applied at the junction point

𝑃1 = 3𝑃, 𝑃2 = 𝑃, 𝑃3 = 0
Total deformation, 𝛿𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = 𝛿3 + 𝛿2 + 𝛿1
𝑃3 𝐿3 𝑃2 𝐿2 𝑃1 𝐿1
𝛿𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = + +
𝐴3 𝐸3 𝐴2 𝐸2 𝐴1 𝐸1
𝑃
𝜎=
𝐴

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Case 3: Bars fixed at both the ends

1. Net load = P (→)

2. 𝑃1 = 𝑅𝐴 𝑃2 = −𝑅𝐶 𝑜𝑟 𝑅𝑎 − 𝑃
3. 𝑅𝐴 + 𝑅𝐶 = 𝑃 − − − −(1) ∑ 𝐻 = 0
4. 𝛿𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = 𝛿1 + 𝛿2 − − − (2)
Calculation of 𝑹𝑨 and 𝑹𝑪
𝛿1 = −𝛿2
𝑃1 𝐿1 𝑃2 𝐿2
=−
𝐴1 𝐸1 𝐴2 𝐸2
𝑅𝐴 𝐿⁄5 (𝑅𝐴 − 𝑃) 4𝐿⁄5
=−
𝐴𝐸 𝐴𝐸
𝑅𝐴 = ⁄5 𝑃 and 𝑅𝐶 = 𝑃⁄5
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1.14. Elongation of Tapered bar under axial load

Tapered bar is treated as an assembly of ‘N’ bars of different diameters which

are in series
1. Load is applied at the free end, hence it is same for every section
Therefore, 𝑃1 = 𝑃2 = 𝑃3 = ____𝑃𝑛 = 𝑃
2. Deformations are cumulative
Therefore, 𝛿𝑇𝑎𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝐵𝑎𝑟 = 𝛿1 + 𝛿2 + 𝛿3 + _____𝛿𝑛
𝐿
Or 𝛿𝑇𝑎𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝐵𝑎𝑟 = ∫0 𝛿𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑝

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𝑥 2
𝑃𝑥−𝑥 = 𝑃 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑝 = 𝜋⁄4 [𝑑2 + (𝑑1 − 𝑑2 ) ( )]
𝐿

𝛿𝑡𝑎𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝐵𝑎𝑟 = 4𝑃𝐿⁄𝜋𝑑 𝑑 𝐸

1 2

On comparing with the expression for prismatic bar, i.e.

𝛿𝑃𝑟𝑖𝑠𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝐵𝑎𝑟 = 4𝑃𝐿⁄𝜋𝑑 2 𝐸

We have, 𝑑 2 = 𝑑1 𝑑2 or 𝑑 = √𝑑1 𝑑2 → Geometric mean (diameter of Tapered

Bar)

4𝑃 4𝑃
(𝜎𝑚𝑎𝑥 ) 𝑇𝑎𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝐵𝑎𝑟 = 𝜎𝐵 = 2 =
𝜋𝑑2 𝜋𝑑 2 𝑠𝑚𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑟

𝜎𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑑1 2 𝑑 2 𝑙𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒𝑟
[ ] =( ) = 2
𝜎𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝑇𝑎𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝐵𝑎𝑟 𝑑2 𝑑 𝑠𝑚𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑟

1.15. Elongation of a Prismatic Bar under its self-weight

𝛾 is weight density in N/m3

x
Px−x = γAx or P ( )
L
Px−x γAx Px
σx−x = = = γx or
A x−x A LA

σmax = γL or P⁄A

𝛾𝐿2 𝑃𝐿
Total deformation, 𝛿𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = 𝑜𝑟
2𝐸 2𝐴𝐸

Where, 𝑃 = 𝛾𝐴𝐿 = 𝑠𝑒𝑙𝑓 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡

Elongation of a prismatic bar under its self weight is equal to 1/2 of the

elongation of an identical prismatic bar under an axial load, which is equal to

self weight of the bar.

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Prismatic Bar under Axial Load Prismatic Bar under Self Weight
𝑥
𝑃𝑥−𝑥 = 𝑃 𝑃𝑥−𝑥 = 𝛾𝐴𝑥 𝑜𝑟 𝑃 ( )
𝐿
Load is independent of cross section Load varies from section to section

Axial loading diagram is rectangle Axial loading diagram is triangle

𝜎𝑥−𝑥 = 𝛾𝑥
𝜎𝑥−𝑥 = 𝑃⁄𝐴
𝜎𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝛾𝐿
𝛿∝𝐿 𝛿 ∝ 𝐿2

𝛿 ∝ 1⁄𝐴 𝛿 is independent of area of cross-section

𝛾𝐿2⁄ 𝑃𝐿⁄
𝛿 = 𝑃𝐿⁄𝐴𝐸 𝛿= 2𝐸 𝑜𝑟 2𝐴𝐸
where P = self weight

1.16. Bars in Parallel (Composite Bars)

Conditions
1. Loads will be cumulative, 𝑃 = 𝑃1 + 𝑃2
2. Deformations are same, 𝛿1 = 𝛿2 = 𝛿
3. Strains will be same, 𝜀1 = 𝜀2
Case 1: Either 𝜎1 or 𝜎2 are given and P is to be found
𝜀1 = 𝜀2
𝜎1 𝜎2
or =
𝐸1 𝐸2
𝜎1 𝐸1
or = ------- (1)
𝜎2 𝐸2

If 𝜎1 is given, then 𝜎2 can be found out using equation (1)

𝑃 = 𝑃1 + 𝑃2
𝑃 = 𝜎1 𝐴1 + 𝜎2 𝐴2 -------- (2)
By using equation (1) and (2), P can be determined

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Case 2: Load P is given and 𝑃1 and 𝑃2 are to be determined

Since deformations are equal
Therefore, 𝛿1 = 𝛿2
𝑃1 𝐿1 𝑃2 𝐿2
or =
𝐴1 𝐸1 𝐴2 𝐸2

𝑃1 𝐴1 𝐸1 𝐿2
or = × − − − − − (3)
𝑃2 𝐴2 𝐸2 𝐿1

𝑃 = 𝑃1 + 𝑃2 − − − − − (4)
By using equations (3) and (4), 𝑃1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑃2 can be determined
1.17. Thermal Stresses
Total Stress developed or induced in a component = Mechanical stress +
Thermal Stress
Mechanical Stress: Stress developed due to load acting on a load
Conditions for existence of Thermal Stress
1. There should be a temperature gradient
2. The thermal expansion or contraction should be restricted either completely
or partially
If only 1st condition is satisfied, then the thermal stresses developed will be
zero, due to free expansion of free contraction (i.e. no resisting force)
Free Expansion of Rectangular block

(δTh )x = δL = Lf − Lo = αTL
(δTh )y = δt = t f − t o = αTt

(δTh )z = δb = bf − bo = αTb
(δTh )x > (δTh )y > (δTh )z [Since, L > b > t]
(δTh )x or δL αTL
(εTh )x > = = αT
Lo L
(εTh )x = (εTh )y = (εTh )z = αT

(σTh )x = (σTh )y = (σTh )z = 0 [Since free expansion]

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Expression for Thermal Stress

Case 1: Free Expansion

(δTh )x = δL = αTL
(δTh )y = (δTh )z = δd = αTd

(εTh )x = (εTh )y = (εTh )z = αT

(σTh )x = (σTh )y = (σTh )z = 0

Case 2: Completely Restricted Thermal Expansion in one direction

δTotal = δL = 0 = δTh + δac = 0

−RL
= αTL + ( )=0
AE
σTh L
= αTL − =0
E
or σTh = αTE (Compressive)
σTh = ±αTE
′+′ → Thermal stress is Tensile in nature when temperature decreases
′−′ → Thermal stress is Compressive in nature when temperature increases
R = σTh . A = αTEA
σTh
εTh = = ±αT
E
σTh ∝ f[α, E &T]
[i.e. σTh is independent of dimensions of the member]

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Case: Partially restricted expansion in one direction

λ → Expansion permitted by the supports or yielding of supports

δL = δTh + δac = λ
R1 L
αTL − =λ
AE
σTh L
αTL − =λ
E
αTL−λ
Or σTh = ( )E
L
σTh −λ
Therefore, σTh = ± ( )E
L

For free expansion, λ = δTh

δTh −δTh
Therefore, σTh = ± ( ) E = zero
L

For completely restricted expansion, λ = zero

δTh αTLE
Therefore, σTh = ± .E = ± = ±αTE
L L

****

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