Mechanics of Solids = deals with the relation between the loads applied to a solid
(nonrigid) body and the resulting internal forces &
deformations induced in the body.
Principle Objective = determine the stresses, strains, and displacements in structures &
their components due to loads acting on them.
P P
SIDE VIEW: L
Before Loading
m δ
After Loading d
P P
n
Cut the bar at mn & draw a FBD of the left part of the bar
These forces are continuously
m distributed over the cross sectional.
σ The intensity of the force is called
P STRESS , = σ (SIGMA)
n
Mechanics of Solids 2 / 22
Chapter 1
R = σA _____________________________(a)
A = cross sectional area
The bar is in equilibrium,
R = P _______________________________(b)
From (a) & (b):
P = σA ______________________________(c)
FORCE
UNITS:
AREA
US SI
1 psi = 1 lbs / sq. in. 1 N / m2 = 1 Pa (PASCAL)
1,000 lbs = 1 kip 1 N/ mm2 = 1 MPa (m= 10-3 ; M= 106)
1,000 psi = 1 ksi
1 psi ≈ 7,000 Pa
δ
ε=
L __________________________(1-2)
LENGTH
UNITS: (dimensionless but units in which strain was measure are used)
LENGTH
US SI
in / in mm / m
μm / m
OR as a percent.
The stress and strain result for these conditions is called Uniaxial Stress & Strain.
In conclusion:
EXAMPLE No. 1
GIVEN:
The crane structure below supports a load of 17,660 N. If member AB is
a steel bar 15 mm in diameter:
4m 4m 4m
A B C D
9m E
F 17,660 N
FIND:
a. The force transmitted by member AB
SOLn:
Mechanics of Solids 5 / 22
Chapter 1
EXAMPLE No. 2
GIVEN:
In the following figure, the axial stresses are 1500 psi C in the wood post B and
20, 000 psi T in the steel bar A.
A Steel
Area = ½ in2
6” 10”
P
O
B Wood
Area = 7 in2
FIND:
Load, P
SOLn:
Mechanics of Solids 6 / 22
Chapter 1
EXAMPLE No. 3
GIVEN:
Consider the loads in the following figure to be axially applied at sections B, C, and D to
the concrete structure supported at A. The cross sectional areas are: CD = 8,000 mm2;
BC = 2,000 mm2; AB = 12,000 mm2. All loads are in kN.
80
D
60 60
C
85 85
B
120 120
A
FIND:
Axial stress in the concrete
a.) in section CD
b.) in section BC
c.) in section AB
SOLn:
Mechanics of Solids 7 / 22
Chapter 1
1.3 STRESS – STRAIN DIAGRAMS
See Fractured Specimen, TEXT Pg 12 (Fig 1-8). Notice that around the fracture the
diameter of the specimen is reduced ( necking).
P
The AVERAGE axial stress is: σ=
A
NOMINAL STRESS (σn ) = stress value when initial area of specimen is used.
TRUE STRESS (σt ) = stress value when actual area of specimen at the time of fracture is
used.
σn < σt
δ
The AVERAGE axial strain is: ε= where, δ = L f − Li
L
NOMINAL STRAIN (εn ) = stain value when the initial length ( Li, gage length ) of the
specimen is used.
TRUE STRAIN (εt ) = strain value when the actual length of the specimen at fracture is
Used ( Lf ). Also called, natural strain.
εn > εt
After testing, the stress vs strain is plotted and the result is a stress – strain diagram for
the material tested.
Each material has its own characteristic stress – strain diagram. This diagram provided
important information about the mechanical properties behavior for the material.
Structural steel is one of the most used metals and is found in buildings, bridges, cranes,
ships, vehicles.
Mechanics of Solids 8 / 22
Chapter 1
σ E’
Ultimate D
stress
E
B C Fracture
Yield stress
Proportional
limit A
ε
O
Perfect Strain Necking
plasticity hardening
or yielding
FIGURE 1-10
Linear TEXT Pg 15
region ( NOT TO SCALE )
DO DIAGRAM IN PARTS
O to A
1. straight line; stress and strain are proportional
2. the slope of the straight line:
σ
Modulus of Elasticity: E = UNITS: same as stress
ε
Beyond A ( proportional limit )
3. stress and strain are no longer proportional
A to B
4. the strain increases more rapidly than the stress. Slope decreases to 0 (zero) at B
B to C
5. yielding = considerable elongation occurs with no noticeable increase in tensile
force. Thus, B is the Yield Point. Corresponding stress is the Yield Stress.
6. material is perfectly plastic ( = deforms without increasing applied load)
Mechanics of Solids 9 / 22
Chapter 1
C to D
7. due to the large strains occurring from B up to C, the crystalline structure of the
material undergoes changes that allows the material to withstand higher loads.
This is call Strain Hardening
8. eventually a maximum stress value is obtained called, the Ultimate Stress
D to E
9. the specimen continues to be stretched (elongated) even though the load is
reduced. Fracture occurs at E
10. lateral contractions occur. This results in a decrease in the cross sectional area
and is called Necking. Becomes apparent in the vicinity of the Ultimate Stress
(See TEXT Pg 16, Fig 1-11)
C to E’
11. if the actual “necked” cross sectional area is used to compute the stress, the curve
will follow CE’
NOTE: The total load the specimen can carry decreases after the Ultimate Stress is
encountered. However, this is due to the decrease in AREA not to a loss
of strength in the material.
For most cases, the curve OABCDE is used which is based on the initial cross sectional
area of the specimen.
Stress – Strain Diagram was not drawn to scale. See TEXT Pg 17 (Fig 1 -12) for a
diagram drawn to scale.
Ductile Materials:
1. mild steel (low carbon, structural steel)
2. aluminum
3. copper
- Aluminum Alloys
- Offset Method ⇒ Offset Yield Stress
- Rubber
- % eleongation
- % reduction in area
- Brittle ⇒ glass
- Plastics
- Stress-strain diagrams for compression
σ σ
F B F
loading E loading
A E
A
unloading
unloading
ε C D ε
O O
Elastic Plastic
Residual
Strain
Elastic
Recovery
Consider the loading and unloading of a tensile specimen in the following:
O to A
When loading is removed, the material follows exactly the same curve back to O.
This property of the material to return to its original dimensions is called elasticity.
Stress-strain curve need not be linear in the elastic region.
E = Elastic Limit = the max. stress value for which the behavior of the material remains
completely elastic.
Generally, the elastic limit is slight more or the same as the proportional limit.
For mild steel, yield stress, elastic limit, and proportional limit are considered equal.
O to B
When unloaded from B (above the elastic limit), the material will follow BC which is
parallel to a tangent at O on the stress-strain curve.
At C, the load has been completely removed, but a permanent set (residual strain) is now
in the material represented by OC. The tensile specimen is now, longer than it was
originally (permanent set).
OD represents the total strain developed during loading from O to B. Of this, the strain
CD has been recovered elastically. Therefore, the material is partially elastic.
Mechanics of Solids 11 / 22
Chapter 1
Plasticity = when a material has inelastic strains beyond the strain at the elastic limit.
Plastic Flow = large deformations that occur in ductile materials loaded in the plastic
region.
σ
B F
A E
unloading
loading
C ε
O
Residual
Strain
RELOADING
1. new loading begins at C and goes to B (unloading point from previous cycle).
2. from B, original stress-strain curve is followed.
3. Material is linearly – elastic from C to B
4. B is the new Proportional Limit (higher than original Prop. Limit)
Properties of the material are changed by stretching it into the plastic region.
- Linear elastic region is increased
- Proportional Limit is raised
- Elastic limit is raised
- BUT: ductility is reduced because YIELDING from B to F is less than from E to F
NOTE:
- F is not necessarily failure (could be, but not necessarily)
- If B is exceed (new elastic limit), then a new unloading line is created, parallel to CB
which is also, parallel tangent at O.
CREEP
Linearly Elastic = region where the material is both linear and elastic as illustrated in
previous stress-strain diagrams (from O to A, FIG 1-10, Pg 15 ). Designs which stay
within this region avoid yielding and permanent deformations.
σ
We defined Modulus of Elasticity as: E= (slope of line OA, FIG 1-10)
ε
Also called, Young’s Modulus
The lateral strain at a given point in the bar is proportional to the axial strain at that point
IF the material is linearly elastic.
ε'
Poisson’s ratio: ν =−
ε
where ε’ = lateral strain
ε = axial strain
ν (nu) = poisson’s ratio
GIVEN:
An axial load of 430 kN is slowly applied to a 25 x 100 x 2500 mm rectangular bar.
When loaded (the action is elastic) the 100 mm side measures 99.965 mm and the length
has increased 2.50 mm. 25 mm
FIND: P = 430 kN
GIVEN:
Pipe is compressed by axial force, P = 140 kip;
L = 40 ft; d1 = 4.5 in (I.D.); d2 = 6.0 in (O.D.).
E = 30,000 ksi; ν = 0.30 (poison’s ratio)
40’ 4.5” t
FIND:
a.) the shortening, δ
b.) lateral strain, ε’
c.) O.D. increase, Δd2 and I.D. increase, Δd1
d.) increase in wall thickness, Δt 6”
SOLn:
Mechanics of Solids 15 / 22
Chapter 1
1.6 SHEAR STRESS AND STRAIN
P P
P P
Due to action of tensile load, P, the BAR and CLEVIS will press against the bolt and
contact stresses called BEARING STRESSES will be developed in the bolt.
CLEVIS
m n
BAR
p q
CLEVIS
FBD of BOLT
mV n
BAR
p
V q
The shear force acts on 2 surfaces, thus the bolt is in DOUBLE SHEAR.
V
τ avg = average shearing stress ( UNITS = )
A FORCE
AREA
For this example: V = ½ P (double shear)
A = ¼ πd 2
When the shearing stresses (as in this example) are created by the direct action of the
forces trying to cut through the material it is called DIRECT SHEAR (or simple shear).
Generally, direct shear occurs in the design of bolts, pins, rivets, keys, welds, and glued
joints.
Members in tension, torsion & bending can indirectly produce shearing stress.
τ
x
z
This block is in pure shear (to be discussed later, Ch 3)
Mechanics of Solids 17 / 22
Chapter 1
These shearing stresses cause the block to deform as shown. Thus causing SHEARING
STRAINS within the material
The shear stresses cause the block to change shape, but the lengths of the sides do not
change.
UNITS = radians
POSITIVE FACE: outward normal is in direction of a positive axes.Opposite faces are negative.
POSITIVE SHEAR STRESS: Acts on a positive face in the positive direction of an axis.
Anything else is negative.
SHEARING STRESSES ON:
π/2 - γ
π/2 + γ
Mechanics of Solids 18 / 22
Chapter 1
HOOKE’S LAW in shear applies to the linear elastic region of the shear stress – strain
diagram.
These diagrams are similar in shape to tensile stress – strain diagrams, except magnitudes
are different.
τ = Gγ Hooke’s Law in shear
Typical Values for E & G are listed in Table H-2, Appendix H (text, pg 913)
E
E & G are related by : G= ν = Poisson’s Ratio
2(1 +ν )
actual strength
Factor of Safety = n = required strength
n must be greater than 1.0 for no failure USUALLY: 1.0 < n < 10
yield stress
a.) Allowable Stress = factor of safety
σy
σ allow =
n
Used when material is to remain in the linear – elastic range.
Typically, for mild steel, n = 1.67
ultimate stress
b.) Allowable Stress = factor of safety
σu
σ allow =
n
Used for brittle materials: Concrete
High strength steels
Typical values, n = 2.8
2. Service or Working Loads
Mechanics of Solids 19 / 22
Chapter 1
ultimate load
Factor of Safety = n = service load
Margin of Safety
margin of safety = n – 1
GIVEN:
A lever is attached to the steel gate valve operating shaft by means of a ½ x ½ x 1 inch
key. A Load of 200 lbs is applied to the level.
FIND:
Average cross shearing stress in the key.
SOLn:
Mechanics of Solids 21 / 22
Chapter 1
EXAMPLE No. 2
OMIT
GIVEN:
A structural steel bar, 30 mm in diameter, is subjected to an axial tensile load of 27π kN.
FIND:
a. the normal and shearing stresses on a plane through the bar that makes an
angle of 30° with the direction of the load.
SOLn:
Mechanics of Solids 22 / 22
Chapter 1
EXAMPLE No. 3
GIVEN:
The rigid bar DC in the figure shown is horizontal under no load and bars A and B are
unstressed. When the load P is applied, the axial strain in bar B is found to be 0.0015.
The material properties are as listed in the following table.
400 mm
B
A 200 mm
C D
100 mm 100 mm 50 mm
P
FIND:
The factor of safety with respect to failure by yielding for each bar.
SOLn: