types of Radio Waves and Applications

Radio waves have many uses—the category is divided into many subcategories,
including microwaves and electromagnetic waves used for AM and FM radio, cellular
telephones and TV.

The lowest commonly encountered radio frequencies are produced by high-voltage AC

power transmission lines at frequencies of 50 or 60 Hz. These extremely long
wavelength electromagnetic waves (about 6000 km) are one means of energy loss in
long-distance power transmission.

Extremely low frequency (ELF) radio waves of about 1 kHz are used to communicate
with submerged submarines. The ability of radio waves to penetrate salt water is related
to their wavelength (much like ultrasound penetrating tissue)—the longer the
wavelength, the farther they penetrate. Since salt water is a good conductor, radio
waves are strongly absorbed by it; very long wavelengths are needed to reach a
submarine under the surface.

AM Radio Waves

AM radio waves are used to carry commercial radio signals in the frequency range from
540 to 1600 kHz. The abbreviation AM stands for amplitude modulation—the method for
placing information on these waves. A carrier wave having the basic frequency of the
radio station (for instance, 1530 kHz) is varied or modulated in amplitude by an audio
signal. The resulting wave has a constant frequency, but a varying amplitude.

AM Radio: Amplitude modulation for AM radio. (a) A carrier wave at the station’s basic frequency. (b) An audio
signal at much lower audible frequencies. (c) The amplitude of the carrier is modulated by the audio signal
without changing its basic frequency.
FM Radio Waves

FM radio waves are also used for commercial radio transmission, but in the frequency
range of 88 to 108 MHz. FM stands for frequency modulation, another method of
carrying information. In this case, a carrier wave having the basic frequency of the radio
station (perhaps 105.1 MHz) is modulated in frequency by the audio signal, producing a
wave of constant amplitude but varying frequency.

FM Radio: Frequency modulation for FM radio. (a) A carrier wave at the station’s basic frequency. (b) An audio
signal at much lower audible frequencies. (c) The frequency of the carrier is modulated by the audio signal
without changing its amplitude.

Since audible frequencies range up to 20 kHz (or 0.020 MHz) at most, the frequency of
the FM radio wave can vary from the carrier by as much as 0.020 MHz. For this reason,
the carrier frequencies of two different radio stations cannot be closer than 0.020 MHz.
An FM receiver is tuned to resonate at the carrier frequency and has circuitry that
responds to variations in frequency, reproducing the audio information.
FM radio is inherently less subject to noise from stray radio sources than AM radio
because amplitudes of waves add noise. Thus, an AM receiver would interpret noise
added onto the amplitude of its carrier wave as part of the information. An FM receiver
can be fashioned to reject amplitudes other than that of the basic carrier wave and only
look for variations in frequency. Thus, since noise produces a variation in amplitude, it is
easier to reject noise from FM.

Antenna Polarisation
Antenna polarisation (or polarization) is a very important consideration when choosing
and installing an antenna and can mean as much as a 20db in signal loss if the receiver
and transmitter antenna are not using the same polarisation. Most systems use either
vertical, horizontal or circular polarisation.

Polarisation

An Antenna is a transducer that converts radio frequency electric current to

electromagnetic waves that are then radiated into space. The electric field plane
determines the polarisation or orientation of the radio wave. In general, most antennas
radiate either linear or circular polarised.

A linear polarised antenna radiates wholly in one plane containing the direction of
propagation. Where a circular polarised antenna, the plane of polarisation rotates in a
circle making one complete revolution during one period of the wave. If the rotation is
clockwise looking in the direction of propagation, the sense is called right-hand-circular
(RHC). If the rotation is counter clockwise, the sense is called left-hand-circular (LHC).

An Antenna is said to be vertically polarised (linear) when its electric field is

perpendicular to the Earth’s surface. An example of a vertical antenna is a broadcast
tower for AM radio or the “whip” antenna on an auto-mobile. Horizontally polarised
(linear) antennas have their electric field parallel to the Earth’s surface. Television
transmissions use horizontal polarization

Circular polarised wave radiates energy in both the horizontal and vertical planes and all
planes in between. The difference, if any, between the maximum and the minimum peaks
as the antenna is rotated through all angles, is called the axial ratio or elliptically and is
usually specified in decibels (dB). If the axial ratio is near 0 dB, the antenna is said to be
circular polarised, when using a Helix Antenna. If the axial ratio is greater than 1-2 dB,
the polarisation is often referred to as elliptical, when using a crossed Yagi.

What polarization is required?

Most communication systems use either vertical, horizontal or elliptical (RHC-right hand
circular or LHC-left hand circular) polarization, with vertical dominating commercial
VHF/UHF applications. In some instances, the selection is determined by the installation
site, with the antenna oriented to provide the best performance. If this is anticipated, your
antenna should provide mounting for either polarization.

Selecting the proper polarization for the system can enhance the overall performance by
minimizing the interference from adjoining systems. For example, by installing you
system orthogonal to other systems in the area, you can provide up to 20 dB of isolation.
This will result in up to a 99% power reduction of the interfering system! Elliptical
polarization can sometimes decrease fading.

Many systems are challenged because they must interface with handheld transmitters.
These units move around a room or warehouse, with the antenna often pointing many
degrees off-axis. To accommodate these application, the fixed antennas often use circular
or elliptical polarization with a hemispherically shaped pattern trading off high gain for
reasonable gain in all directions.
Polarisation Measurement
The polarization measurement method requires that a linearly polarized antenna, usually
a dipole or a small horn, is rotated in the plane of polarization, which is taken to be
normal to the direction of the incident field, and the output voltage of the probe is
recorded. The recorded signal describes a polarization pattern for an elliptically polarized
antenna. The polarization ellipse is tangent to the polarization pattern, and can be used to
determine the axial ratio and the tilt angle of the AUT.

Considerations
Polarization is an important design consideration. The polarization of each antenna in a
system should be properly aligned. Maximum signal strength between stations occurs
when both stations are using identical polarization.

When choosing an antenna, it is an important consideration as to whether the polarization

is linear or elliptical. If the polarization is linear, is it vertical or horizontal? If circular, is
it RHC or LHC?
On line-of-sight (LOS) paths, it is most important that the polarization of the antennas at
both ends of the path use the same polarization. In a linearly polarized system, a
misalignment of polarization of 45 degrees will degrade the signal up to 3 dB and if
misaligned 90 degrees the attenuation can be 20 dB or more. Likewise, in a circular
polarized system, both antennas must have the same sense. If not, an additional loss of 20
dB or more will be incurred.

https://electronicsforu.com/resources/learn-electronics/antenna-polarisation

#2

Standing wave
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

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Animation of a standing wave (red) created by the superposition of a left traveling (blue) and right
traveling(green) wave

In physics, a standing wave – also known as a stationary wave – is a wave which oscillates in time
but whose peak amplitude profile does not move in space. The peak amplitude of the wave
oscillations at any point in space is constant with time, and the oscillations at different points
throughout the wave are in phase. The locations at which the amplitude is minimum are
called nodes, and the locations where the amplitude is maximum are called antinodes.
Standing waves were first noticed by Michael Faraday in 1831. Faraday observed standing waves
on the surface of a liquid in a vibrating container.[1][2] Franz Melde coined the term "standing wave"
(German: stehende Welle or Stehwelle) around 1860 and demonstrated the phenomenon in his
classic experiment with vibrating strings.[3][4][5][6]
This phenomenon can occur because the medium is moving in the opposite direction to the wave, or
it can arise in a stationary medium as a result of interference between two waves traveling in
opposite directions. The most common cause of standing waves is the phenomenon of resonance,
in which standing waves occur inside a resonator due to interference between waves reflected back
and forth at the resonator's resonant frequency.
For waves of equal amplitude traveling in opposing directions, there is on average no
net propagation of energy.

Standing wave ratio, phase, and energy transfer[edit]

If the two oppositely moving traveling waves are not of the same amplitude, they will not cancel
completely at the nodes, the points where the waves are 180° out of phase, so the amplitude of the
standing wave will not be zero at the nodes, but merely a minimum. Standing wave ratio (SWR) is
the ratio of the amplitude at the antinode (maximum) to the amplitude at the node (minimum). A pure
standing wave will have an infinite SWR. It will also have a constant phase at any point in space (but
it may undergo a 180° inversion every half cycle). A finite, non-zero SWR indicates a wave that is
partially stationary and partially travelling. Such waves can be decomposed into two linearly
superpositional components (assuming the medium is linear) of a travelling wave component and a
stationary wave component. An SWR of one indicates that the wave does not have a stationary
component – it is purely a travelling wave, since the ratio of amplitudes is equal to 1.[9]
A pure standing wave does not transfer energy from the source to the destination.[10] However, the
wave is still subject to losses in the medium. Such losses will manifest as a finite SWR, indicating a
travelling wave component leaving the source to supply the losses. Even though the SWR is now
finite, it may still be the case that no energy reaches the destination because the travelling
component is purely supplying the losses. However, in a lossless medium, a finite SWR implies a
definite transfer of energy to the destination.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Standing_wave

Standing wave ratio

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

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In radio engineering and telecommunications, standing wave ratio (SWR) is a measure

of impedance matching of loads to the characteristic impedance of a transmission line or waveguide.
Impedance mismatches result in standing waves along the transmission line, and SWR is defined as
the ratio of the partial standing wave's amplitude at an antinode (maximum) to the amplitude at
a node (minimum) along the line.
The SWR is usually thought of in terms of the maximum and minimum AC voltages along the
transmission line, thus called thevoltage standing wave ratio or VSWR (sometimes pronounced
"vizwar"[1][2]). For example, the VSWR value 1.2:1 denotes an AC voltage due to standing waves
along the transmission line reaching a peak value 1.2 times that of the minimum AC voltage along
that line. The SWR can as well be defined as the ratio of the maximum amplitude to minimum
amplitude of the transmission line's currents, electric field strength, or the magnetic field strength.
Neglecting transmission line loss, these ratios are identical.
The power standing wave ratio (PSWR) is defined as the square of the VSWR,[3] however, this
deprecated terminology has no physical relation to actual powers involved in transmission.
SWR is usually measured using a dedicated instrument called an SWR meter. Since SWR is a
measure of the load impedance relative to the characteristic impedance of the transmission line in
use (which together determine the reflection coefficient as described below), a given SWR meter can
only interpret the impedance it sees in terms of SWR if it has been designed for that particular
characteristic impedance. In practice most transmission lines used in these applications are coaxial
cables with an impedance of either 50 or 75 ohms, so most SWR meters correspond to one of these.
Checking the SWR is a standard procedure in a radio station. Although the same information could
be obtained by measuring the load's impedance with an impedance analyzer (or "impedance
bridge"), the SWR meter is simpler and more robust for this purpose. By measuring the magnitude of
the impedance mismatch at the transmitter output it reveals problems due to either the antenna or
the transmission line.

Impedance matching[edit]
Main article: Impedance matching

SWR is used as a measure of impedance matching of a load to the characteristic impedance of a

transmission line carrying radio frequency (RF) signals. This especially applies to transmission lines
connecting radio transmitters and receivers with their antennas, as well as similar uses of RF cables
such as cable television connections to TV receivers and distribution amplifiers. Impedance
matching is achieved when the source impedance is the complex conjugate of the load impedance.
The easiest way of achieving this, and the way that minimizes losses along the transmission line, is
for both the source and load to be real, that is, pure resistances, equal to the characteristic
impedance of the transmission line. When there is a mismatch between the load impedance and the
transmission line, part of the forward wave sent toward the load is reflected back along the
transmission line towards the source. The source then sees a different impedance than it expects
which can lead to lesser (or in some cases, more) power being supplied by it, the result being very
sensitive to the electrical length of the transmission line.
Such a mismatch is usually undesired and results in standing waves along the transmission line
which magnifies transmission line losses (significant at higher frequencies and for longer cables).
The SWR is a measure of the depth of those standing waves and is, therefore, a measure of the
matching of the load to the transmission line. A matched load would result in an SWR of 1:1 implying
no reflected wave. An infinite SWR represents complete reflection by a load unable to absorb
electrical power, with all the incident power reflected back towards the source.
It should be understood that the match of a load to the transmission line is different from the match
of a source to the transmission line or the match of a source to the load seen through the
transmission line. For instance, if there is a perfect match between the load impedance Zload and the
source impedance Zsource=Z*load, that perfect match will remain if the source and load are connected
through a transmission line with an electrical length of one half wavelength (or a multiple of one half
wavelengths) using a transmission line of any characteristic impedance Z0. However the SWR will
generally not be 1:1, depending only on Zload and Z0. With a different length of transmission line, the
source will see a different impedance than Zload which may or may not be a good match to the
source. Sometimes this is deliberate, as when a quarter-wave matching section is used to improve
the match between an otherwise mismatched source and load.
However typical RF sources such as transmitters and signal generators are designed to look into a
purely resistive load impedance such as 50Ω or 75Ω, corresponding to common transmission lines'
characteristic impedances. In those cases, matching the load to the transmission
line, Zload=Z0, always ensures that the source will see the same load impedance as if the transmission
line weren't there. This is identical to a 1:1 SWR. This condition ( Zload=Z0) also means that the load
seen by the source is independent of the transmission line's electrical length. Since the electrical
length of a physical segment of transmission line depends on the signal frequency, violation of this
condition means that the impedance seen by the source through the transmission line becomes a
function of frequency (especially if the line is long), even if Zload is frequency-independent. So in
practice, a good SWR (near 1:1) implies a transmitter's output seeing the exact impedance it expects
for optimum and safe operation.

formula

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Standing_wave_ratio

#3

Quarter wave vertical antenna

- overview or summary about the basics of the quarter wave vertical and
ground plane antennas that ares widely used for medium wave broadcasting,
mobile radio communications applications and many mor
Vertical antennas are widely used at all frequencies from MF up to VHF and beyond. They exist in a
variety of forms including the quarter wave vertical and ground plane antennas. They possess many
advantages and are widely used for medium wave broadcasting as well as for mobile applications in
areas including private mobile radio.
The reason for this widespread use is the omni-directional radiation pattern that they give in the
horizontal plane. This means that the antennas do not have to be re-orientated to keep the signals
constant as the car moves it position.
Single element vertical antennas posses an omni-directional radiation pattern (in the horizontal
plane). This means that the antennas do not have to be re-orientated when used in mobile
applications as the vehicle moves. This is obviously an essential requirement.
A further advantage is that much of the radiation is at right angles to the antenna element, and as a
result it travels close to the earth's surface where the receiving stations are located. Radiation
directed upwards is wasted in many instances as VHF transmissions are normally not reflected by
the ionosphere.
For medium wave broadcast stations a particular advantage is that the radiation is vertically
polarised. It is found that the vertically polarised transmissions propagate further via the ground
wave that these transmissions use.

Basic element
Like the name suggests the antenna consists of a quarter wavelength vertical element. The antenna
is what is termed "un-balanced" having one connection to the vertical element and using an earth
connection or simulated earth connection to provide an image for the other connection.
The voltage and current waveforms show that at the end the voltage rises to a maximum whereas
the current falls to a minimum. Then at the base of the antenna at the feed point, the voltage is at a
minimum and the current is at its maximum. This gives the antenna a low feed impedance. Typically
this is around 20 ohms.

A quarter wave vertical RF antenna design

The ground is obviously an important part of the RF antenna. Many MF and HF installations use a
ground connection for this. These ground systems need to be very effective fort he antenna to
perform satisfactorily. They must obviously have a very low resistance, and often utilise large "mats"
of radials extending out from the base of the antenna to ensure excellent RF performance.
For VHF and UHF installations, height is obviously important and antennas need to be raised to
ensure they are above the nearby obstructions. Also for mobile installations it is clearly not possible
to use a true earth connection. In these cases a simulated earth is used. For mobile applications this
consists of the body of the vehicle. The antenna mounting will normally enable a suitable connection
to be made to the vehicle body, sometimes using a capacitive connection. However it is necessary
to ensure that the vehicle body is metal, and not plastic in the vicinity of the antenna mounting.
For fixed stations a set of radials simulating a ground plane is used. In theory the ground plane
should extend out to infinity, but in practice a number of radials a quarter wavelength long is used.
Typically for many VHF applications four radials is sufficient.

A radial system used with a quarter wave vertical

If the radials are bent downwards from the horizontal then the feed impedance will be raised. A 50
ohm match is achieved when the angle between the ground plane rods and the horizontal is 42
degrees. Another solution is to include an impedance matching element in the antenna. Normally
this is in the form of a tapped coil that can be conveniently housed in the base of the antenna.

Folded element
In view of the low impedance presented to the feeder by the RF antenna, methods must be found of
presenting a good match and some have already been outlined. Another is to use a folded element.
In the same way that a folded dipole increases the feed impedance of the antenna, so a folded
vertical element can be used. If the diameter of both sections is the same, then an increase by a
ratio of 4:1 is achieved. This would bring the impedance to 80 ohms and will provide an acceptable
match to 75 ohm feeder. By using a smaller diameter grounded element the feed impedance can be
reduced so that a good match to 50 ohm coax can be achieved.

Summary
The quarter wave vertical antenna is widely used in view of its simplicity and convenience. To
improve on its performance other types of vertical are available. It is also possilbe to use further
verticals and feed them with different phases to provide gain to the overall antenna system.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dipole_antenna