Faculty 4 Department of Waste Management

Municipal Solid Waste Management

Dipl.-Ing. Heike Bishop

Municipal Solid Waste Management

in India
by

Shashank Goyal / Matriculation No.: 3426719

25th. of December 2014

 2

Contents
Introduction ............................................................................................................................................ 5

Qualitative and quantitative analysis of MSW........................................................................................ 5

Municipal Solid Waste Management (MSWM) ...................................................................................... 8

Storage and collection of MSW ............................................................................................................ 12

Transfer and transport of MSW ............................................................................................................ 15

MSW disposals and treatment.............................................................................................................. 15

Landfilling .......................................................................................................................................... 15

Recycling of organic waste ................................................................................................................ 16

Aerobic composting .................................................................................................................... 17

Vermicomposting .......................................................................................................................... 17

Anaerobic digestion (Biomethanation) ......................................................................................... 17

Thermal treatment techniques of MSW ........................................................................................... 18

Incineration ................................................................................................................................... 18

RDF Plants ..................................................................................................................................... 19

Recovery of recyclable materials ...................................................................................................... 19

PER CAPITA MSW GENERATTION ......................................................................................................... 20

MSWM WITH INCREASING EXPENDITURE IN INDIA ............................................................................. 21

REALITIES AND CHALLENGES FOR AN SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT PLANNER .................................. 25

WASTE MANAGEMENT APPROACH ...................................................................................................... 26

THE POTENTIAL FOR WASTE TO ENERGY GENERATION IN INDIA ........................................................ 27

Considering Waste treatment Efforts for Mumbai City .................................................................... 27

Suitability of Waste to Energy in Mumbai ........................................................................................ 28

Current Situation in Indian Cities and legal framework ........................................................................ 29

The Municipal Solid Waste (Management and Handling) Rules 2000.................................................. 30

Waste Treatment rules ..................................................................................................................... 32

Waste Disposal rules ......................................................................................................................... 32

Status of Compliance with the 2000 Rules ....................................................................................... 32

 3

Prevalent Deficiencies and Challenges in the SWM System in India ................................................ 32

Current Practices........................................................................................................................... 33

Urbanization: Root of Solid Waste in India ........................................................................................... 33

Laws and Policies of Solid Waste Management in India ....................................................................... 34

Municipal Solid Waste Rules ............................................................................................................. 34

Scale of the Problem ......................................................................................................................... 35

Need for Safe Disposal ...................................................................................................................... 35

Conclusion ............................................................................................................................................. 35

References ............................................................................................................................................ 37
 4

List of Figures
Figure 1: Per capita generation rate of MSW for Indian cities (CPCB, 2004) ....................................... 7
Figure 2: Collection efficiency of MSW for Indian cities (Gupta et al., 1998, Khan,
1994 and Maudgal, 1995). .................................................................................................................... 14
Figure 3: Open dump near Jaipur (Rajasthan): Half of Jaipur City’s MSW reaches this site (Annepu,
2012) ..................................................................................................................................................... 16
Figure 4: A Small Scale Biogas Unit Developed by Biotech, Kerala; Capacity: 2 kg/day of Organic
Waste .................................................................................................................................................... 18
Figure 5: Conveyor belt for feeding RDF into the WTE boiler, Hyderabad RDF-WTE plant, Elikatta
(Annepu, 2012) ..................................................................................................................................... 19
Figure 6: Stages of separation of recyclables (Annepu, 2012) ............................................................. 20
Figure 7: Hierarchy of Sustainable Waste Management (Annepu, 2012) ............................................ 21
Figure 8: Composition of waste in Mumbai as of 2006 ........................................................................ 28
Figure 9: Compliance with the 2000 rules ............................................................................................ 33

List of Tables
Table 1: Municipal solid waste generation rates in different states in India ........................................... 6
Table 2: Sources and Types of Municipal Solid Waste .......................................................................... 7
Table 3: Per capita generation, disposal and collection efficiency of MSW for Indian state ............... 14
Table 4: Comparison between the per capita MSW generation rates in Low, Middle and High Income
Countries ............................................................................................................................................... 21
Table 5: Comparison of SW variables between NZ and India .............................................................. 23
Table 6: Indian Census, 2001................................................................................................................ 30
Table 7: The Four Steps of Schedule I of the 2000 Rules .................................................................... 31
 5

Introduction
Solid waste management (SWM) is an integral part of the urban environment and planning of
the urban infrastructure to ensure a safe and healthy human environment while considering
the promotion of sustainable economic growth. Industrialization leads to the rapid economic
growth of the developing countries like India has created serious problems of waste disposal
due to uncontrolled and unmonitored urbanization1. Rapid population explosion and
industrialization in India, makes people migrate from villages to cities due to which
thousands of tons of MSW gets generated daily. Improper collection and inadequate
transportation of waste is responsible for the deposition of MSW at every corner of the
country. Due to the lack of suitable facilities to treat and dispose large amounts of MSW,
municipal solid waste management is going through a demanding chapter. Nearby
surroundings became the spot of solid waste disposal. Consequently, the management of
the MSW needs to be revamped to accommodate the changes in the quantity and quality to
ensure the longevity of the environment. Commonly, MSW is disposed of in low-lying
areas without taking any precautions or operational controls2. Therefore, MSWM is one of
the major environmental problems of Indian megacities.

Qualitative and quantitative analysis of MSW

There are many categorisation of MSW such as rubbish, food waste, institutional waste,
commercial waste, industrial waste, street sweeping waste, construction and demolition
waste, and sanitation waste. Municipal solid waste contains toxic substances (paints,
pesticides, used batteries, medicines), recyclables (plastic, paper, glass, metals, etc.), bio-
medical waste (blood stained cotton, disposable syringes, sanitary napkins) and compostable
organic matter (fruit and vegetable peels, food waste). (Mufeed Sharholy, Kafeel Ahmad,
Gauhar Mahmood, Gauhar Mahmood, 2007)

The quantitative analysis of municipal solid waste generated depends on factors like food
habits, living standard, commercial activities and seasons. Information on quantity variation
and generation of solid waste is useful in framing a model for collecting and disposing
systems. With increasing urbanization and modern life styles, cities in India now generate
eight times more MSW in 1947. About 90 million tonnes of solid waste are generated

1
Municipal Solid Waste Management in Asia: A Comparative Analysis C. Visvanathan and J. Trankler
2
http://www.ipublishing.co.in/jesvol1no12010/EIJES2016.pdf
 6

annually as by-products of municipal, industrial, mining, agricultural and other processes3. A

host of researchers have reported that the MSW generation rates in small towns are lower
than those of metro cities, per capita generation rate of MSW in India ranges from 0.2 to
0.5 kg/day. In 1991, the total MSW generated by 217 million urban people was estimated to
be 23.86 million t/yr, and more than 39 million tonnes in 2001. The quantity of MSW
generated (CPCB, 2000) and the per capita generation rate of MSW (CPCB, 2004) is shown
below in Table 1 and Figure 1, respectively.

Table 1: Municipal solid waste generation rates in different states in India

S. No. Name of the No. of Municipal Municipal solid Per capita

state cities population waste (t/day) generated
(kg/day)
1 Andhra Pradesh 32 10,845,907 3943 0.364
2 Assam 4 878,310 196 0.223
3 Bihar 17 5,278,361 1479 0.280
4 Gujarat 21 8,443,962 3805 0.451
5 Haryana 12 2,254,353 623 0.276
6 Himachal Pradesh 1 82,054 35 0.427
7 Karnataka 21 8,283,498 3118 0.376
8 Kerala 146 3,107,358 1220 0.393
9 Madhya Pradesh 23 7,225,833 2286 0.316
10 Maharashtra 27 22,727,186 8589 0.378
11 Manipur 1 198,535 40 0.201
12 Meghalaya 1 223,366 35 0.157
13 Mizoram 1 155,240 46 0.296
14 Orissa 7 1,766,021 646 0.366
15 Punjab 10 3,209,903 1001 0.312
16 Rajasthan 14 4,979,301 1768 0.355
17 Tamil Nadu 25 10,745,773 5021 0.467
18 Tripura 1 157,358 33 0.210
19 Uttar Pradesh 41 14,480,479 5515 0.381
20 West Bengal 23 13,943,445 4475 0.321
21 Chandigarh 1 504,094 200 0.397
22 Delhi 1 8,419,084 4000 0.475
23 Pondicherry 1 203,065 60 0.295
299 128,113,865 48,134 0.376

3
http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0956053X07000645
 7

Figure 1: Per capita generation rate of MSW for Indian cities (CPCB, 2004)

It is shown in Table 1 and Figure 1 that the per capita generation rate is high in states like
Gujarat, Delhi and Tamil Nadu and cities like Madras, Kanpur, Lucknow and Ahmadabad
while it is low in states like Assam, Meghalaya, Tripura and Manipur and cities like Pune,
Nagpur and Indore The reason for high and low per capita generation rate of municipal solid
waste may be the rapid economic growth, the high living standards, and the high level of
urbanization in these states and cities. (Mufeed Sharholy, Kafeel Ahmad, Gauhar Mahmood,
Gauhar Mahmood, 2007)

Table 2: Sources and Types of Municipal Solid Waste4

Sources Typical waste generators Components of solid waste

Components of Single and multifamily
solid waste dwellings
Commercial Stores, hotels, restaurants,
markets, office buildings
Institutional Schools, government center,
hospitals, prisons
Food wastes, paper, cardboard, plastics,
textiles, glass, metals, ashes, special
wastes (bulky items, consumer
electronics, batteries, oil, tires) and
household hazardous wastes
Paper, cardboard, plastics, wood, food
wastes, glass, metals, special wastes,
hazardous wastes
Paper, cardboard, plastics, wood, food
wastes, glass, metals, hazardous wastes

4
Source:
http://www.seas.columbia.edu/earth/wtert/sofos/Sustainable%20Solid%20Waste%20Management%20in%20
India_Final.pdf
 8

Municipal Street cleaning, landscaping, Street sweepings, landscape and tree

services parks, beaches, recreational trimmings, general wastes from parks,
areas beaches, and other recreational areas

Municipal Solid Waste Management (MSWM)

The municipal solid waste management incorporates the waste generation, its storage,
collection, transportation, processing and then the final disposal. The management of waste
focuses on disposal preferences in India. The products which are of no more value to anyone
are considered as waste. All these waste product needs to be collected. Waste collection in
most parts of the world is streamlined and the waste generated by a household or institution
are collected together as mixed wastes. Managing waste is a public necessity and this
provided by urban local bodies (ULBs) of respective states in India. SWM starts with the
collection of solid wastes and ends with its beneficial use and/or disposal. Proper SWM
includes segregation of different collected wastes but in low income countries like India
collect solid wastes in a mixed form because source separation collection is not possible.
Collection of separated waste is only possible through personnel and public awareness. Paper
could be collected in a source separated form, but in all other cases municipal solid waste
(MSW) or solid waste would be considered as mixed wastes. Most of the Indian cities could
not collect all the MSW generated. Big and metros cities in India collect between 70- 90%
while smaller cities and towns collect less than 50%. About 91% of the waste is landfilled on
open sites. This is the reason why source separated collection is not yet possible.

(Annepu, 2012)
 9

Ministry of Environment and Forests

Notification

New Delhi, the 25th September, 2000

Schedule -II

[See rules 6(1) and (3), 7(1)]

Management of Municipal Solid Wastes5

S. no. Parameters Compliance criteria

1. Collection of 1. Littering of municipal solid waste shall be prohibited in cities,
municipal solid towns and in urban areas notified by the State Governments. To
wastes prohibit littering and facilitate compliance, the following steps
shall be taken by the municipal authority, namely :-

i. Organising house-to-house collection of municipal solid

wastes through any of the methods, like community bin
collection (central bin), house-to-house collection,
collection on regular pre-informed timings and scheduling
by using bell ringing of musical vehicle (without
exceeding permissible noise levels);
ii. Devising collection of waste from slums and squatter
areas or localities including hotels, restaurants, office
complexes and commercial areas;
iii. Wastes from slaughter houses, meat and fish markets,
fruits and vegetable markets, which are biodegradable in
nature, shall be managed to make use of such wastes;
iv. Bio-medical wastes and industrial wastes shall not be
mixed with municipal solid wastes and such wastes shall
follow the rules separately specified for the purpose;
v. Collected waste from residential and other areas shall be
transferred to community bin by hand-driven
containerised carts or other small vehicles;

5
Source: http://www.moef.nic.in/legis/hsm/mswmhr.html
 10

vi. Horticultural and construction or demolition wastes or

debris shall be separately collected and disposed off
following proper norms. Similarly, wastes generated at
dairies shall be regulated in accordance with the State
laws;
vii. Waste (garbage, dry leaves) shall not be burnt;
viii. Stray animals shall not be allowed to move around waste
storage facilities or at any other place in the city or town
and shall be managed in accordance with the State laws.

2. The municipal authority shall notify waste collection schedule

and the likely method to be adopted for public benefit in a city or
town.

3. It shall be the responsibility of generator of wastes to avoid

littering and ensure delivery of wastes in accordance with the
collection and segregation system to be notified by the municipal
authority as per Para 1(2) of this Schedule.
2. Segregation of In order to encourage the citizens, municipal authority shall
municipal solid organise awareness programmes for segregation of wastes and
wastes shall promote recycling or reuse of segregated materials. The
municipal authority shall undertake phased programme to ensure
community participation in waste segregation. For this purpose,
regular meetings at quarterly intervals shall be arranged by the
municipal authorities with representatives of local resident
welfare associations and non-governmental organizations.
3. Storage of Municipal authorities shall establish and maintain storage
municipal solid facilities in such a manner as they do not create unhygienic and
wastes insanitary conditions around it. Following criteria shall be taken
into account while establishing and maintaining storage facilities,
namely :-

i. Storage facilities shall be created and established by

taking into account quantities of waste generation in a
 11

given area and the population densities. A storage facility

shall be so placed that it is accessible to users;
ii. Storage facilities to be set up by municipal authorities or
any other agency shall be so designed that wastes stored
are not exposed to open atmosphere and shall be
aesthetically acceptable and user-friendly;

iii. Storage facilities or bins shall have easy to operate design

for handling, transfer and transportation of waste. Bins for
storage of bio-degradable wastes shall be painted green,
those for storage of recyclable wastes shall be printed
white and those for storage of other wastes shall be
printed black;
iv. Manual handling of waste shall be prohibited. If
unavoidable due to constraints, manual handling shall be
carried out under proper precaution with due care for
safety of workers.

4. Transportation Vehicles used for transportation of wastes shall be covered.

of municipal Waste should not be visible to public, nor exposed to open
solid wastes environment preventing their scattering. The following criteria
shall be met, namely:-

i. The storage facilities set up by municipal authorities shall

be daily attended for clearing of wastes. The bins or
containers wherever placed shall be cleaned before they
start overflowing;
ii. Transportation vehicles shall be so designed that multiple
handling of wastes, prior to final disposal, is avoided.

5. Processing of Municipal authorities shall adopt suitable technology or

municipal solid combination of such technologies to make use of wastes so as to
wastes minimize burden on landfill. Following criteria shall be adopted,
namely:-
 12

i. The biodegradable wastes shall be processed by

composting, vermi composting, anaerobic digestion or
any other appropriate biological processing for
stabilization of wastes. It shall be ensured that compost or
any other end product shall comply with standards as
specified in Schedule-IV;

ii. Mixed waste containing recoverable resources shall

follow the route of recycling. Incineration with or without
energy recovery including pelletisation can also be used
for processing wastes in specific cases. Municipal
authority or the operator of a facility wishing to use other
state-of-the-art technologies shall approach the Central
Pollution Control Board to get the standards laid down
before applying for grant of authorisation.

6. Disposal of Land filling shall be restricted to non-biodegradable, inert waste

municipal solid and other waste that are not suitable either for recycling or for
wastes biological processing. Land filling shall also be carried out for
residues of waste processing facilities as well as pre-processing
rejects from waste processing facilities. Land filling of mixed
waste shall be avoided unless the same is found unsuitable for
waste processing. Under unavoidable circumstances or till
installation of alternate facilities, land-filling shall be done
following proper norms. Landfill sites shall meet the
specifications as given in Schedule III.

Storage and collection of MSW

Most of the urban areas are substantially lacking in storage of MSW. There are common bins
for decomposable and non-decomposable waste, and the waste is collected at a communal
disposal centre. There are movable bins and fixed bins for the storage of waste. The movable
bins are not durable but they are flexible in transportation, while the fixed bins are more
 13

durable but they cannot change their position once they are fixed. (Mufeed Sharholy, Kafeel
Ahmad, Gauhar Mahmood, Gauhar Mahmood, 2007)

The corporations/municipalities are responsible for the collection of MSW. The

predominating collection system in many of the Indian cities is through communal dustbins
placed at various locations along the roads. NGOs help to organize door-to-door collection of
solid waste in many megacities such as Mumbai, Delhi, Bangalore, Hyderabad and Madras.
Many municipalities have hired private contractors for secondary transportation of waste
from the collection points or communal bins to the disposal sites while others have employed
NGOs and citizen’s committees to take care of separation and collection from the generation
point to collection points located at points between sources and dumpsites. Moreover, the
welfare associations arrange collection of waste in some urban areas on a pre defined
monthly payment. All the sweepers sweeping the roads are allotted a specific area of around
250 m2. The sweepers put the road wastes into a wheelbarrow, and then transfer the waste to
dustbins or collection points.

In many cities, only a part of MSW remains uncollected on streets, and the collected waste is
transported to disposal sites or processing. The collection efficiency is the quantity of MSW
collected and transported from streets to disposal sites divided by the total quantity of MSW
generated during the same period6. Studies on urban environment have shown that MSW
collection capability is a function of two major factors: availability of manpower and
transportation capacity. The average collection efficiency for MSW in Indian cities and states
is about 70%, as shown in Figure 2 and Table 3. Table 3 and Figure 2 show that the
collection efficiency is high in the cities and states, where private contractors and NGOs are
employed for the collection and transportation of MSW. Most of the cities are unable to
provide waste collection services to all parts of the city. Generally, overcrowded low-income
settlements do not have MSW collection and disposal services. The reason is that these
settlements are often illegal and the inhabitants are unwilling or unable to pay for the
services. They throw away the waste near or around their houses at different times, which
make the collection and transportation of waste very difficult in these areas. The Central
Pollution Control Board (CPCB) has collected data for the 299 Class-I cities to determine the
mode of collection of MSW. It is found that manual collection comprises 50%, while

6
http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0956053X07000645
 14

collection using trucks comprises only 49%. (Mufeed Sharholy, Kafeel Ahmad, Gauhar
Mahmood, Gauhar Mahmood, 2007)

Figure 2: Collection efficiency of MSW for Indian cities (Gupta et al., 1998, Khan,
1994 and Maudgal, 1995).

Table 3: Per capita generation, disposal and collection efficiency of MSW for Indian state

State Per capita generation Per capita disposal Collection

(g/cap/day) (g/cap/day) efficiency (%)
India (sample average) 377 273 72
Andhra Pradesh 346 247 74
Bihar 411 242 59
Gujarat 297 182 61
Haryana 326 268 82
Karnataka 292 234 80
Kerala 246 201 82
Madhya Pradesh 229 167 73
Maharashtra 450 322 72
Orissa 301 184 61
Punjab 502 354 71
Rajasthan 516 322 62
Tamil Nadu 294 216 73
Uttar Pradesh 439 341 78
West Bengal 158 117 74
 15

Source: (Mufeed Sharholy, Kafeel Ahmad, Gauhar Mahmood, Gauhar Mahmood, 2007)

Transfer and transport of MSW

Transfer station (excluding few cases as in Mumbai, Madras, Delhi, Calcutta and
Ahmadabad) are not used, and the vehicle which collects waste from individual dustbins,
transfer it to the disposal or processing site. (Mufeed Sharholy, Kafeel Ahmad, Gauhar
Mahmood, Gauhar Mahmood, 2007) Different types of vehicles like tractor-trailers, bullock
carts, tricycles etc. are used in smaller towns to transport the MSW collected from the
collection points and dustbins to the processing centre or disposal sites. Light motor vehicles
and Lorries are generally used in big towns or cities for transport of MSW. The open body
type trucks are used for carrying waste; so while carrying the waste; it tends to spill onto the
roads creating an unhygienic situation. Some cities have adopted modern hydraulic vehicles.

Collection and transportation contributes around 80%–95% of the total budget of MSWM;
hence, it plays an important role in determining the economics of the complete MSWM
system. Municipal agencies use their own vehicles for MSW transportation although in some
cities they are hired from private contractors. (Mufeed Sharholy, Kafeel Ahmad, Gauhar
Mahmood, Gauhar Mahmood, 2007)

MSW disposals and treatment

The two most growing and adopted process of waste disposal in India are composting (vermi-
composting and aerobic composting) and waste-to-energy (WTE) (incineration,
biomethanation, pelletisation). WTE concept for disposal of MSW is a new concept adopted
in India. Although this concept has been tried and tested with positive results in developed
countries, these are yet to be tested on the ground of financial viability and sustainability.
Different methods for the disposal and treatment of MSW have been discussed below:

Landfilling

In many metro cities, poorly managed dumping is generally practiced, causing environmental
degradation. Over 90% of the waste in towns and cities are directly disposed of on open land
in an unmanaged manner. This leads to the leaching of heavy metals into the coastal waters.
In Delhi, very limited land is available for disposing waste. Without following the
 16

fundamentals of sanitary landfilling, MSW is deposited in low-lying areas outside the city.
Levelling and compaction of waste followed by a covering of soil layer can be rarely seen at
most disposal sites, and the low-lying disposal sites are not equipped with a landfill gas
monitoring and collection equipment or leachate collection system. Since there is no
separation of MSW at the source, so all of the infectious waste from hospitals generally get
disposed to the disposal site. Sometimes, industrial waste also gets deposited at the landfill
sites which are dedicated for domestic waste. Sanitary landfilling is most preferred method
for safe disposal of MSW. However, certain improvements will have to be made to ensure the
sanitary landfilling. (Mufeed Sharholy, Kafeel Ahmad, Gauhar Mahmood, Gauhar Mahmood,
2007)

Figure 3: Open dump near Jaipur (Rajasthan): Half of Jaipur City’s MSW reaches this site
(Annepu, 2012)

Recycling of organic waste

If the organic biodegradable waste is left untreated, it will decompose naturally giving rise to
a bad odour and a feeding spot for a variety of insects and pests, which then give birth to
disease carriers causing severe health problems. The separation, decomposition and
 17

stabilization of the organic waste biologically form the basis of recycling through natural
cycles.

Aerobic composting

The conversion of organic waste in the presence of air and moisture and under bacterial
action is called composting; the final product after this conversion is called compost (humus),
which is of high agricultural value. It is used as fertilizer, and it is odourless with no
pathogens. Because of this composting process, volume of the waste can be brought down to
50–85%. The composting could be manual or mechanical. Manual composting is adopted in
smaller urban centres while mechanical composting is adopted in big Indian cities.

In 1974, Government of India introduced a scheme to encourage MSW composting,

especially for the cities having population more than 0.3 million. Indore city was a famous
centre for MSW composting, and the name was used to describe the composting process.
Now, about 9% of MSW is treated by composting. (Mufeed Sharholy, Kafeel Ahmad,
Gauhar Mahmood, Gauhar Mahmood, 2007)

Vermicomposting

Vermicomposting involves stabilization of organic waste through the joint action of

earthworms and aerobic microorganisms. Initially, microbial decomposition of biodegradable
organic matter occurs through extra cellular enzymatic activity (primary decomposition).
Earthworms feed on partially decomposed matter, consuming five times their body weight of
organic matter per day. The ingested food is further decomposed in the gut of the worms,
resulting in particle size reduction. The worm cast is a fine, odorless and granular product.
This product can serve as a bio-fertilizer in agriculture. However, the area required is larger,
when compared to dry composting.

Anaerobic digestion (Biomethanation)

If the organic waste is buried in pits under partially anaerobic conditions, it will be acted
upon by anaerobic microorganisms with the release of methane and carbon dioxide; the
organic residue left is good manure. This process is slower than aerobic composting and
occurs in fact naturally in landfills. However, thermophilic digestion for biomethanation is
much faster and has been commercialized. Anaerobic digestion leads to energy recovery
through biogas generation. The biogas, which has 55–60% methane, can be used directly as a
 18

fuel or for power generation. It is estimated that by controlled anaerobic digestion, 1 t of

MSW produces 2 to 4 times as methane in 3 weeks in comparison to what 1 t of waste in
landfill will produce in 6–7 years (Ahsan, 1999 and Khan, 1994).

Figure 4: A Small Scale Biogas Unit Developed by Biotech, Kerala; Capacity: 2 kg/day of
Organic Waste

Thermal treatment techniques of MSW

The destruction of MSW using heat energy is called thermal treatment. Although there are
many thermal processes, incineration is the most widely used technique at present.

Incineration

Incineration is the process of burning solid wastes under control and complete combustion. It
results in destruction of toxic wastes, for example, waste from hospitals and recovering
energy from it. The temperature in the incinerators varies between 980 and 2000°C. One of
the most attractive features of the incineration process is that it can be used to reduce the
original volume of combustible solid waste by 80–90%. Unfortunately, in Indian cities,
incineration is not very much practiced. This may be due to the high organic material (40–
60%), high moisture content (40–60%), high inert content (30–50%) and low calorific value
content (800–1100 kcal/kg) in MSW. The first large-scale MSW incineration plant was
constructed at Timarpur, New Delhi in 1987 with a capacity of 300 t/day and a cost of Rs.
250 million (US$5.7 million) by Miljotecknik volunteer, Denmark. (Mufeed Sharholy, Kafeel
Ahmad, Gauhar Mahmood, Gauhar Mahmood, 2007)
 19

RDF Plants

Refuse derived fuel (RDF) method is used to produce an improved solid fuel from MSW.
Many RDF plants in Hyderabad, Guntur and Vijaywada in Andhra Pradesh State are
operational in India. The Hyderabad RDF plant is near the Golconda dumping ground with a
capacity of 1000 t/day. The RDF plant at Deonar, Mumbai is for processing waste into fuel
pellets. It is based on indigenous technology but the plant is not working for the last few
years and in present Excel India is its owner.

Figure 5: Conveyor belt for feeding RDF into the WTE boiler, Hyderabad RDF-WTE plant,
Elikatta (Annepu, 2012)

Recovery of recyclable materials

A number of recyclable materials, for example paper, glass, plastic, rubber, ferrous and non-
ferrous metals present in the MSW are suitable for recovery and reuse. It has been estimated
that the recyclable content varies from 13% to 20%. A survey conducted by CPCB during
1996 in some Indian cities revealed that rag pickers play a key role in SWM. They work day
and night to collect the recyclable materials from the streets, bins and disposal sites for their
livelihood, and only a small quantity of recyclable materials is left behind them. In Delhi,
there are more than 100,000 rag pickers and the average quantity of solid waste materials
collected by one rag picker is 10–15 kg/day. About 17% of Delhi waste handling is done by
rag pickers, who collect, sort and transport waste free of cost.

(Mufeed Sharholy, Kafeel Ahmad, Gauhar Mahmood, Gauhar Mahmood, 2007)

 20

Figure 6: Stages of separation of recyclables (Annepu, 2012)

PER CAPITA MSW GENERATTION

The per capita waste generation rate is strongly correlated to the gross domestic product
(GDP) of a country (Table 2). Per capita waste generation is the amount of waste generated
by one person in one day in a country or region. The waste generation rate generally
increases with increase in GDP. High income countries generate more waste per person
compared to low income countries due to reasons discussed in further sections. The average
per capita waste generation in India is 370 grams/day as compared to 2,200 grams in
Denmark, 2,000 grams in US and 700 grams in China (12) (13) (14). (Annepu, 2012)
 21

Table 4: Comparison between the per capita MSW generation rates in Low, Middle and High
Income Countries

Country Per Capita Urban MSW Generation (kg/day)

1999 2025
Low Income Countries 0.45 - 0.9 0.6 - 1.0
Middle Income Countries 0.52 - 1.1 0.8 - 1.5
High Income Countries 1.1 - 5.07 1.1 - 4.5

Waste generation rate in Indian cities ranges between 200 - 870 grams/day, depending upon
the region’s lifestyle and the size of the city. The per capita waste generation is increasing by
about 1.3% per year in India (7).

Figure 7: Hierarchy of Sustainable Waste Management (Annepu, 2012)

MSWM WITH INCREASING EXPENDITURE IN INDIA

Waste management is always an issue of concern for the world society. Similarly, Solid
waste management is an issue for not only developing countries but also for the developed
countries and India is keen to get rid of the issue of solid waste as soon as possible. It is
estimated that India’s current population of 1.2 billion will continue to grow at the rate of 3-
 22

3.5% per annum. With increase rate per capita waste generation by 1.3% per annum, the
yearly increase in waste generation is around 5 % annually. The government is under
constant pressure to efficiently handle the ever growing amounts of solid waste and make
cost effective changes as soon as possible. A huge budget allotments in the solid waste sector
is also done by the government supporting the municipal waste department, poor
administrative management practice have been a focus of increasing concern (ERM, 2004). A
review of literature of Solid Waste Management in India highlights institutional/financial
issues as the most important ones limiting improvements in Solid Waste Management;
Hanrahan et al (2006) specifically notes that “There is an urgent requirement for much
improved long term planning at the municipal and state level so that realistic investment
projections can be developed and implemented as soon as possible "New methods shall be
implemented as soon as possible with no cost rate issues".

Statistical techniques such as multiple regression analysis are an estimation procedure that is
used by some in the developed world to estimate costs of Solid Waste Management. Multiple
types of models are to be used effectively in developing cost estimating relationships that are
commonly called “Cost Functions”. Cost Functions simply varies the price of the product and
makes it more economical (eg a product, good , object , service , activity) to the buyer (one
or more independent variables) .

As we all know India is the second most populated country in the world consisting of 29
states and eight union territories. Any country with a population of 1.2 billion can be
expected to suffer with issue related with waste management. The country is undergoing a
phase of rapid urbanization for the past couple decades and putting immense pressure on the
infrastructure of the expanding cities for its development and livelihood of the society. Urban
Local Bodies [ULBs] are very much responsible for provision and maintenance of basic
infrastructure and services in cities and towns. According to the 1991 Census of India, there
are 3,255 Urban Local Bodies in the country which may double by now and those are again
further 3 classified into various sub-categories based on their civic status. In this paper the
term ‘municipality’ will be used in general to describe Urban Local Bodies or any of its sub-
categories to avoid confusion. Solid waste management is one of the single largest activities
undertaken by municipalities. Due to the vast diversity in terms of the demographics of India,
the variety with respect to Solid Waste characteristics within this single country is huge.
Table 5 below explains this diversity by comparing the socio-economic variables affecting
 23

Solid Waste Management between a developed country such as New Zealand and a
developing country such as India.

Much more expenditure will be necessary for collection services and for the construction and
operation of treatment and disposal facilities and many more. The municipality is now not in
concern of the expenditures needed to tackle those waste issues as soon as possible. The
expenditure varies from cities to cities depending on the type of development. Cities that
have achieved a certain level of economic development have different methods of financing
the improvement of Municipal Solid Waste Management.

Table 5: Comparison of SW variables between NZ and India

STATUS NZ India
Population Low High
% Literature High Low
Technology Level High Low
Per Capita Income High Low
Social Diversity Low High
Urban Rural Divide Low High
Labour Cost High Low
Capital Investment High Low
Rule Of Law Good Poor
SW Characteristics Similar Variable

The statistical summary of average costs of Solid Waste Management for Metropolitan cities,
and for Class I and Class II cities in, India are estimated accordingly .( Black Line inside box
is the half 50 percentile, or median; The lower and upper hinges. And the box boundaries,
mark the 25 and 75 percentiles of each distribution. The vertical lines ending in horizontal
lines are at the largest and smallest observed values; Outliers- O; Extreme
 24

(A) Cost per ton

(UC Research Repository)

 25

REALITIES AND CHALLENGES FOR AN SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT

PLANNER

Funds for Solid Waste Management in India are typically assigned as part of the annual
municipal general budget. Municipalities receive income from various sources, state
government, central government, various NGOs, local taxes, with little income directly tied
to Solid Waste Management. Then the (municipalities) have to manage a number of civic
services apart from the Solid Waste Management, the number of services increasing with the
size of city, thus it varies with the geographical size of the city. It has been also observed that
in smaller towns, where Solid Waste Management is the main municipal service,
municipalities spend up to 70% -75% of their total budget on Solid Waste Management. The
note was that metropolitan cities on the other hand, due to Huge population and more
migration very day are responsible to provide larger number of services for expected larger
people in the society and to supply larger quantity of water , sewerage , sanitation tanks etc,
which they spend only around 10% of their total budget on Solid Waste Management. The
provision of funds for solid waste management in India is commonly observed to be made on
an necessary basis, and not allotted on the basis of any cost estimate which is one of the
biggest reasons for mismanagement of resources in india.

One of the main reason for a large number of issues based solid waste on a country like india
is the difficulties of decision making and cost planning in India and ideas of the new
techniques for implimentation. New techniques, data unavailability and inaccessibility is the
most common complaint of Solid Waste planners. While the Municipal planners require good
quality data from their past to predict future costs for improvement and upgrading of existing
services. Even when cost information and datas are accessible , there is too often no way to
cross-check the validity of the data obtained. As an example, we calculated the average cost
per capita from three different but reliable sources, and found that there was a wide variation
in the figures. Table 2 gives a comparison of the per capita expenditure on SWM across
selected cities in India, each obtained from different sources.

• It is been known that delhi is the city where the highest expenditure per cost capita in solid
waste management is implemented, reported Federation of Indian Chambers for Commence
and Industry.
 26

• The National Institute of Urban Affairs (NIUA) conducted a study to assess the status of
water supply, sanitation and solid waste management in 300 selected cities and towns and to
estimate the funds required for full coverage of population by these services in the urban
areas of the country.

• The National Solid Waste Association of India conducted a survey of various Indian
districts. Their website contains a link that gives information from the survey for each
district.

CITY FICCI* NIUA** NSWAI***

Delhi Rs 431 Rs 135 Rs 497

Mumbai Rs 428 Rs 372 Rs 392

Jaipur Rs 301 Rs 185 Rs 301

Chennai Rs 295 Rs 150 Rs 295

Ludhiana Rs 258 Rs 73 Rs 1

*FICCI - Federation of Indian Chambers of Commerce and Industry (2007)

**NIUA - National Institute of Urban Affairs (2005)

***NSWAI - National Solid Waste Association of India (2001)

(UC Research Repository)

WASTE MANAGEMENT APPROACH

‘Waste hierarchy’ is a popular approach to waste management in India. Different treatment

options can be ranked as prevention or waste minimization reuse, materials recycling and
composting, incineration with energy recovery, incineration and landfilling.

The approach of waste hierarchy has been critically reviewed in the recent past as it doesn’t
take into account the options which are cost effective and have the most least environmental
impacts. In this approach there is no attempt to measure the impacts of individual options,
thus system analysis tools like LCA is recommended.
 27

THE POTENTIAL FOR WASTE TO ENERGY GENERATION IN INDIA

With India’s economic growth in the recent years it has got the attention of the world, India
has really shifted with large demographic of young, English-speaking workers, and has
shifted from an agricultural economy to a more self dependent economy. With this change
the country's economy, now the country has been suffering with some consequences related
to solid waste. This article discusses the problems involved in managing such quantities and
the opportunities it presents, particularly with regard from waste generation to Energy
production.

Nowadays many Indians are consuming new consumes which previously not available or
affordable. From small electronic items to larger consumer goods like cell phone to a
refrigerators and cars, India's consumption now a day has been steadily increasing and shows
no signs of anytime soon. Thus, this has led to a rapid growth in the quantity and variety of
Municipal Solid Waste.

In most of the cities and towns in India, Municipal Solid Waste disposed is not in a proper
and unscientific manner in low-lying, open dumps on the outskirts of cities. Most dumping
sites lack systems for leachate collection, landfill gas collection or monitoring, nor do they
use inert materials to cover the waste. These results in ground and surface water
contamination from runoff and lack of covering, air pollution caused by fires, toxic gases,
and odour, and public health problems due to mosquitoes and scavenging animals.

Considering Waste treatment Efforts for Mumbai City

Mumbai is the financial hub and one of the major cities in India, which has been facing a
solid waste management crisis for over a decade. There has been a lack of development in
infrastructure compared to economic and population development. To move forward and gain
its reputation as a world class city in the next few years , the city Mumbai needs to implement
new techniques and planning towards successful solid waste management approach.

Department responsible for solid waste management in Mumbai is the Solid Waste
Management Department (SWMD) of the Municipal Corporation of Greater Mumbai
(MCGM) and also its private contractors. The 2009-10 budget of the Solid Waste
Management Department expected to increase the budget from Rs.10.6 billion (US$228
 28

million), to Rs.15.5 billion ($334 million) in 2010-11, about 5 billion increase in budget in
between last two years.

The municipal corporation spends roughly Rs.1160 per tonne ($25/tonne) on collection of the
waste, also the transport, and the disposal of Municipal Solid Waste. Collection and transport
together constitute roughly around 80% of the cost. In India, the average municipal
expenditure on solid waste management is Rs.500 to Rs.1500 per tonne of waste ($10 to $32
per tonne), which is comparatively quite less compared to other developed countries.

Suitability of Waste to Energy in Mumbai

The Municipal Solid Waste collection in Mumbai consists of wet organics (primarily food
waste), dry organics (straw and wood, etc.), inert materials (sand and soil), and recyclables
(bottle of plastics, metal sheets, glass and paper). Based on the composition of Municipal
Solid Waste, processing the waste in a WtE facility would reduce its volume by 96.74%, thus
freeing up land that would otherwise have been used for landfills.

Figure 8: Composition of waste in Mumbai as of 2006

(Bhada-Tata)
 29

Current Situation in Indian Cities and legal framework

It’s the responsibility of municipal department to look over the issues and other effects of
municipal solid waste management in India. Every Indian state has got its own municipal
department how looks over the issues of municipal solid waste and thus tackles it as such.
Most of the municipal departments in many Indian states are suffering failure not been able to
tackle issues of solid waste management and thus it is effecting the environment. Thus the
failure of municipal solid waste management (MSWM) can result in serious health problems
and environmental degradation in any Indian state. Because of deficient collection services,
uncollected waste and old techniques they often also mixed with human and animal excreta
and thus they dumped indiscriminately in the streets and in drains, thereby contributing to
floods, breeding of insect, rodent vectors, and spreading of diseases all around. Furthermore,
even the collected waste is disposed of in uncontrolled dumpsites or burned openly which
some is injurious to the environment, thus this can contribute severe impact on environment
including pollution of water resources, air and also soil.

The issue of Solid Waste Management in India is that when it comes up to urbanization and
unplanned development, it is meant that the issues can't be tackled and there is no future
chance of improvement in the municipal solid waste management.

This paragraph elaborates on the existing Solid Waste Management situation in Indian cities,
also highlights the consisting legal support, which explores the major, challenges that the
municipalities challenging day by day, and also outlines the causes for deficient Solid Waste
Management and noncompliance with the mandatory rules for the management of and
handling of solid waste in states of India. Furthermore, it is recommended towards steps that
compliance with Solid Waste Management rules in India.

The total Indian urban population amounts to approximately 0.28 billion (see Table 6). There
are 4378 cities and towns in India. Out of those cities, according to the 2001 census, 423 are
considered class I, meaning that the population exceeds by 100000. The class I cities alone
contribute to more than 72 % of the total municipal solid waste (MSW) generated in urban
areas and the remaining 28% by the others. Class I cities include 7 mega cities (which have a
population of more than 4 million), 28 metro cities (which have a population of more than 1
million), and also 388 other towns (which have a population of more than 100000).
 30

Although there are no data yet on waste generation rates, collection coverage of the waste,
storage as well, transport from one place to the dumped place, and disposal volumes and
practices, the Central Public Health and Environmental Engineering Organization (CPHEEO)
estimated the waste generation in India range about from 0.2 to 0.6 kilograms per day
combining both towns and cities.

The population growth rate in urban India is high and also increasing day by day. The
percentage of the total population living in urban areas shows a continuous increase. For
2015, a value of 32.2 % is predicted.

Table 6: Indian Census, 20017

Population (million)
Area of Country Percentage of Total Population
Persons Males Females
Total 1,027 531 496 100
Rural 742 381 361 72
Urban 285 150 135 28

The Municipal Solid Waste (Management and Handling) Rules 2000

The Municipal Solid Waste Management of India rules lay down that the steps to be taken by
all municipal authorities n their own states to ensure management of solid waste according to
the best possible practice available. Municipal authorities and private contractors must meet
the deadlines laid down in Schedule I of the rules set by and also must follow the compliance
criteria and procedure laid down in Schedule II.

Hence, municipal authorities are responsible for initiating provisions according to the 2000
rules being set. They must provide the infrastructure and services and also keep an eye on the
regard to collection, storage, segregation, transport, treatment, and disposal of Municipal
solid Waste. State municipal authorities and also the private contractors are requested to
obtain authorization and also to work according to the rules that are being set by (that is,
permission or technical clearance) from the state pollution control board or committee to set
up waste processing and disposal facilities, and they must deliver annual reports of
compliance on time.

7
http://www.censusindia.net/results/rudist.html
 31

The state pollution control boards are directed to process the application of municipal
authorities and to issue authorization to the municipalities within 45 days of the application’s
submission, this is the minimum time required for authorization after submission of the
application. The board is responsible for coordinating the implementation of the rules among
the state municipalities. The state municipalities were mandated to implement the rules by
December 2003, with punishment for municipal authorities that failed to meet the standards
prescribed; nevertheless, most municipalities did not meet the deadline.

The departments of the urban development with respective state governments are responsible
for enforcing the provisions of the rules in metropolitan cities. The district magistrates or
deputy commissioners of the concerned districts are responsible for enforcing the provisions
within the territorial limits of their jurisdictions. The state pollution control boards are
responsible for monitoring compliance with the standards on groundwater, ambient air, and
leachate pollution. They must also monitor compliance with compost quality standards and
incineration standards as specified in the rules.

The deadline for implementing Schedule I of the 2000 rules has already passed, and
compliance is far from effective. Some cities and towns have not even started implementing
measures that could lead to compliance with the rules. Enforcement and sanctioning
mechanisms remain weak. Other cities and towns have moved somewhat forward, either of
their own accord or because of pressure from the Supreme Court, their state government, or
their state pollution control board. Under Schedule II of the rules, municipal authorities have
been further directed to set up and implement improved waste management practices and
services for waste processing and disposal facilities. They can do so on their own or through
an operator of a facility (as described in Schedules III and IV of the rules). Standards for
waste processing and disposal facilities are defined in the rules, and municipal authorities are
required to meet the specifications and standards specified in Schedules III and IV. (Zhu,
Asnani, Zurbrugg, Anapolsky, & Mani, 2008)

Table 7: The Four Steps of Schedule I of the 2000 Rules8

Steps Completion Date

1. Set up waste processing and disposal facilities. December 2003 or earlier.

8
Ministry of Environment and Forests 2000
 32

2. Monitor the performance of processing and disposal Once every 6 months.

facilities.
3. Improve existing land fill sites as per provisions of the December 2002 or earlier.
rules.
4. Identify landfill sites for future use and make sites ready December 2002 or earlier.
for operation.

Waste Treatment rules

• Ensure that biodegradable waste is processed by composting, vermi composting, anaerobic

digestion, or any other appropriate biological process for stabilizing waste. Compost or any
other end product must comply with the standards specified in Schedule IV.

• Ensure that mixed waste containing recoverable resources follows the route of recycling.
Incineration with or without energy recovery may be used in special cases.

Waste Disposal rules

• Restrict landfilling to non biodegradable and non recyclable waste.

• Ensure that landfilling meets the specifications defined in Schedule III.

Status of Compliance with the 2000 Rules

No consolidated official data are available about the status of compliance of MSW. However,
figure 1.1 shows estimated percentages of compliance. Municipal authorities report numerous
reasons for noncompliance with the 2000 rules.

Prevalent Deficiencies and Challenges in the SWM System in India

An expert committee appointed by the Supreme Court identified the following deficiencies in
the SWM system in India.

• No storage of waste at source

• Partial segregation of recyclable waste

• No system of primary collection of waste at the doorstep

 33

• Irregular street sweeping

• Inappropriate system of secondary storage of waste

• Irregular transport of waste in open vehicles

• No treatment of waste

• Inappropriate disposal of waste at open dumping grounds

Figure 9: Compliance with the 2000 rules9

Current Practices

Managing Solid waste in the developing countries is one of the most complicated and
cumbersome task. In India there is more of less is no formal source segregation and with very
less public participation, all the waste is mixed in a common container. Recovery of waste or
recycling is done mostly by informal sector i.e. by waste pickers (manual). This collecting,
sorting, trading and recycling provided income to many households and are carried by
unhygienic ways.

Urbanization: Root of Solid Waste in India

Urbanization nowadays is globalizing worldwide, especially in the developing countries or it

can be said as it is pronounced in developing countries. With the high rate of population
growth, declining opportunities in rural areas and shift from stagnant and low paying

9
Asnani 2004a
 34

agriculture sector to more paying urban occupations, largely contribute to urbanization. The
unexpected immigration has also increased the rate of slums and the growth of unknown
people or squatters and informal houses all around the cities of developing countries. Solid
waste management which is already a task in India is suffering and making it a lot more
complicated due to urbanization, changing lifestyles. Issues such as along with the disposal
and dumping of wastes on the outskirts of the cities and towns creating a serious public and
health issue. The present paper is to see and deal with the upcoming increase in urbanization
in India and to deal with the solid waste issues accordingly which increase public health
problems. (Vij, 2012)

Laws and Policies of Solid Waste Management in India

Solid waste policy in India specifies the duties and responsibilities for hygienic disposal of
waste for cities and citizens of India. This policy was accepted on September 2000 which was
based on 1999. The policies were different for class 1 cities, class 2 cities and class 3 cities.

Municipal Solid Waste Rules

To stop the present unplanned open dumping of waste outside city limits, the MSW rules
have laid down a strict timetable for compliance: improvement of existing landfill sites by
end-200.

Littering and throwing of garbage in the roads are strictly prohibited. Citizens should keep all
kinds of wastes in their own premises and dispose it together in the garbage drum.

There are also rules not to mix the garbage together, “wet” food wastes with "dry"
waste like paper, plastics, glass, metal etc. and to promote recycling or reuse of segregated.

The report recommends that cities should provide free waste collection for all slums and
public areas, but charge the full cost of collection on "polluter pays" principle, from hotels,
eateries, marriage halls, hospitals & clinics, wholesale markets, shops in commercial streets,
office complexes, cattle - sheds, slaughter - houses, fairs & exhibitions, inner-city cottage
industry & petty trade. Debris and construction waste must be stored within premises, not on
the road or footpath, and disposed of at pre - designated sites or landfills by builder, on
payment of full transport cost if removed by the Municipality. (Wikipedia)
 35

Scale of the Problem

As we also spoken about India been the second largest country in the world and as a result of
this urban India generating about 188,500 tones of municipal solid waste and there is as an
increase in 50% of waste generation every decade, and out of this 80% leaving in open spaces
and causing public health problems.

Landfills are very hard to find in urban India and thus resulting in people throwing the
garbage and wastes in open areas which later cause health problems. Finding landfills are
nearly impossible due to sheer lack of space. The increase in population is increasing day by
day and the municipal department is not so very alert about that fact.

For the next 20 years India’s only chance to deal with public health issues caused by solid
waste can be treated in India is through a combination of MBT, WTE and sanitary landfilling
(SLF).

Need for Safe Disposal

The basic technique to eliminate solid waste management issues is to safely dispose the waste
in a landfill not in an open space. Nationwide protest against the waste management can also
be one of the major opportunities for the WTE. (Annepu, 2012)

Conclusion

From the study of municipal solid waste in India including all its states, it can be concluded
that waste composition is different due to climatic, cultural variations, urbanization. The
different system that are being carried out and adopted for collection, transportation and
disposal is quite different than compared with in the developed countries where the MSWM
(municipal solid waste management) is formalized because waste management in
underdeveloped or not formalized or completely formal in developing countries. This
uniqueness is attributed to the involvement of the informal sector, waste composition, NGOs,
voluntary groups, private organizations and community based organizations (CBOs), and
rapid privatization of collection, transportation and finally processing systems. Without
adapting the current situation in states of India it is not in the best interest to suit the situation
here to transfer technology from the west for the recent trends in technological development
 36

for MSWM systems in Asia. And thus the new technology so far is quite useful and more
new technologies to be adapted in the coming few years.

An overview of the current practices of waste management indicates that existing technology
practices are not found to be sufficient to overcome the burden of waste in a sustainable
manner. Simple new technologies have to be made for promoting new policies, reformulation
of existing policies, cooperative efforts and technology transfer. Thus, the technologies
chosen for waste management have to be tested for their sustainability, in addition to being
environmentally effective it should also be economically viable and socially acceptable. Thus
filling the gaps with such design is highly indispensable to move towards 3R as a means of
solving the waste management problems.

As far as the implementation of new techniques is concerned, Reduce and Reuse highly
involves changes in human attitudes towards production and consumption patterns. This
change has to begin at the grassroots with the commitment of all citizens of a country.
Developing and transferring appropriate, proven technologies forms a key component in
successfully promoting recycling.
 37

References
(n.d.). Retrieved from http://www.moef.nic.in/legis/hsm/mswmhr.html.

Annepu, R. K. (2012). Sustainable Solid Waste Management in India. Open dumping of solid wastes in
India , 30-75.

Bhada-Tata, P. (n.d.). THE POTENTIAL FOR WASTE TO ENERGY IN INDIA. WASTE MANAGEMENT
WORLD .

Mufeed Sharholy, Kafeel Ahmad, Gauhar Mahmood, Gauhar Mahmood. (2007). Municipal solid
waste management in Indian cities – A review. ScienceDirect , 1-9.

UC Research Repository. (n.d.). Retrieved from http://ir.canterbury.ac.nz/:

http://ir.canterbury.ac.nz/bitstream/10092/3670/1/12621630_wasteminz_V2.pdf?origin=publicatio
n_detail

Vij, D. (2012). Urbanization and Solid Waste Management in India: Present Practices and Future
Challenges. Procedia , 1-11.

Wikipedia. (n.d.). Retrieved from http://en.wikipedia.org:

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solid_waste_policy_in_India

www.google.com. (n.d.). Retrieved from http://www.moef.nic.in/legis/hsm/mswmhr.html.

Zhu, D., Asnani, P. U., Zurbrugg, C., Anapolsky, S., & Mani, S. (2008). Improving Municipal Solid
Waste Management in India. Washington, DC: WBI Development Studies.

Municipal Solid Waste Management in Asia: A Comparative Analysis C. Visvanathan and J. Trankler

http://www.ipublishing.co.in/jesvol1no12010/EIJES2016.pdf

http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0956053X07000645

http://www.seas.columbia.edu/earth/wtert/sofos/Sustainable%20Solid%20Waste%20Management
%20in%20India_Final.pdf

http://www.moef.nic.in/legis/hsm/mswmhr.html

http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0956053X07000645

http://www.censusindia.net/results/rudist.html

Ministry of Environment and Forests 2000

Asnani 2004a