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18 Desember 2018 Profil Paul Engle

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Rosichiero Glass
Sunset over Venice
(klik gambar untuk
memperbesar) Resep kaca
paling terkenal di 1612 buku
Antonio Neri,  L'Arte Vetraria ,
adalah "# 129 Transparan
Merah." Alasan untuk
kemasyhurannya, tentu saja,
emas murni yang digunakan
sebagai pigmen . Emas-ruby, Printer 3D untuk
atau "rubino" adalah warna Manufaktur
yang sangat sulit untuk
diproduksi dalam gelas dan
tidak dapat digandakan dengan Markforged - Dapatkan Demo
benar sampai bertahun-tahun setelah kematian Neri, meskipun potongan-potongan yang Cetak Bagian Logam dan Komposit. Hema
dibuat pada zaman kuno telah digali.   Waktu, Uang, & Upaya dengan Markforged
3D Printers
Meskipun rubino emas adalah resep Neri yang paling terkenal dan tentu saja gelas merahnya
yang paling terkenal, resep ini tidak ada dalam isolasi. Bahkan, itu cocok di tengah-tengah
sekelompok sebelas resep (120-130) yang ditujukan untuk transparan, atau setidaknya kaca BUKA
3d.markforged.com
merah tembus pandang, enamel dan persiapan terkait. 

120 Merah Transparan dalam Kaca.

121 Merah Seperti Darah.
122 Balas Warna.
123 Untuk mengekstrak Roh Saturnus, Yang Melayani Banyak Penggunaan dalam Enamel dan Gelas.
124 Rosichiero ke Enamel Gold.
125 Rosichiero untuk Emas dengan Metode Lain.
126 Bagaimana Memperbaiki Sulphur untuk Pekerjaan yang Diuraikan di Bagian Atas.
127 Kaca Merah Seperti Darah, Yang Dapat Berfungsi sebagai Rosichiero.
128 Cara Terbukti untuk Membuat Rosichiero.
129 Merah Transparan.
130 Cara Memperbaiki Belerang untuk Rosichiero ke Enamel Emas.

Warna tertentu yang populer pada saat itu dikenal di Italia sebagai " rosichiero ." Pembuat
gelas kami menyajikan empat resep yang berbeda dan dua lagi pada "memperbaiki"
belerang, yang diperlukan beberapa persiapan. Kebanyakan kamus menyebut Neri sebagai
orang pertama yang menggunakan kata 'rosichiero 'di cetak, tetapi kita tahu itu adalah istilah
umum seni di antara pembuat kaca jauh lebih awal. Setara Prancis adalah " rouge clair ."
Edisi bahasa Spanyol dari  L'Arte Vetraria  mencatat bahwa dalam bahasa itu istilahnya adalah
" rosicler ," yang masih digunakan saat ini untuk menggambarkan warna senja yang sangat
cerah dari matahari terbenam yang indah.

Gelas merah dari kelompok ini semua panggilan untuk penambahan tembaga sebagai
pewarna dan tembaga tetap menjadi pigmen populer hingga saat ini. Misalnya, lampu lalu
lintas merah yang terbuat dari kaca biasanya diwarnai dengan tembaga. Tetapi itu bukan
keseluruhan cerita; beberapa rosinieros Neri juga termasuk penambahan belerang dan
beberapa memerlukan hematit atau oksida besi, oksida timbal merah, oksida mangan, atau
anggur tartar. Dalam resepnya # 125 untuk rosichiero, ia mulai dengan empat pon gelas
cristallo berkualitas tinggi. Untuk ini menambahkan bagian oksida timah dan timah yang
sama, dicampur bersama-sama: 

[A] dd calx ini sedikit demi sedikit, ½ oz pada suatu waktu, biarkan ia bergabung, dan
perhatikan ketika gelas menjadi abu warna abu-abu, pada titik mana akan menjadi
baik. Jangan tambahkan terlalu banyak kalx karena jika Anda membebaninya, kaca
akan menjadi berwarna putih, yang tidak baik. Ketika itu berubah warna abu-abu,
jangan tambahkan lebih banyak kalx tetapi biarkan untuk mengklarifikasi. Kemudian
memiliki 2 oz fine minium [lead oxide merah], tambahkan ini ke kaca, dan biarkan itu
memadukan dengan baik, dan klarifikasi. Ketika klarifikasi dengan baik, buang ke
dalam air, kembalikan ke wadah dan biarkan selama 8 jam [di dalam tungku]. 

Memiliki ½ oz tembaga yang dikalsinasi, artinya tembaga merah dan ½ oz dari anggur
putih mentah [wine] tartar. Buang bahan-bahan ini, dan aduk dengan baik. Sekarang
tambahkan dram hematit, yang digunakan para pembuat pedang untuk memoles, dan 1
dram belerang tetap. Aduk dan masukkan serbuk ini, dan perhatikan. Jika terlalu
berwarna, berikan sedikit mangan untuk melarutkannya. Jika sudah jelas warnanya,
tambahkan lebih banyak sulfur tetap, hematit, sedikit tembaga merah dan sedikit
 anggur putih tartar sesuai kebijaksanaan Anda sehingga menjadi warna yang
diinginkan.

Tak satu pun dari bahan-bahan ini kecuali tembaga umum dalam produksi kaca warna hari
Rumah
ini; faktanya, belerang bebas biasanya Buku-buku
dianggap sebagai saya yang tidak
kontaminan Jelajahi ▾
diinginkan. Komunitas ▾
Hematit adalah bentuk mineral alami dari oksida besi. Dinamakan demikian karena jika
terabrasi dalam air, warnanya menjadi merah, tampak berdarah. Hematit saat ini tidak
digunakan sebagai pigmen merah dalam kaca, tetapi umumnya digunakan dalam beberapa
glasir tembikar. 

Dari sudut pandang kimia, tebakan yang bagus adalah bahwa belerang yang ditambahkan ke
gelas akan bereaksi dengan tembaga dan besi untuk menghasilkan berbagai senyawa sulfida.
Bagaimana senyawanya mempengaruhi warna dan tekstur kaca adalah pertanyaan terbuka.
Di sinilah kita masuk ke wilayah yang belum dipetakan; empat ratus tahun setelah buku Neri
diterbitkan pertama kali, memprediksi warna berdasarkan kimia tertentu tidaklah mudah
bagi kita. Ilmu warna pada umumnya tetap merupakan kacang yang sulit untuk dipecahkan.
Namun, fakta bahwa masih banyak yang tidak kita pahami tidak menghalangi kita untuk
menikmati warna merah cemerlang yang terinspirasi oleh matahari terbenam yang baik.

* Untuk yang berpikiran teknis, Universitas Oslo memiliki presentasi yang luar biasa tentang
keadaan fisika warna. Untuk yang non-teknis, lihatlah - serangkaian gambar yang memukau
yang mencakup indera penglihatan dan seterusnya. Ada alamat tautan di "kredit gambar"
untuk posting ini.

** Posting ini pertama kali muncul di sini pada 24 April 2014.

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Dipublikasikan pada 18 Desember 2018 21:00

13 Desember 2018
Dicelup dalam Grain
Dyeing wool cloth, from "Des
Proprietez des
Choses"Bartholomaeus Anglicus,
1482British Library Royal MS 15.E.iii,
folio 269In his 1612 book on
glassmaking, L'Arte Vetraria, Antonio
Neri presents a number of recipes
for paint pigments used to decorate
finished glassware. One recipe
(#119) is for crimson red, from
kermes [kur-meez], prepared by a
method of his own invention, which
he developed while working in Pisa
in 1602–1603.

Since antiquity, throughout Europe

and the Near East, kermes was a
highly valued red colorant because it
formed a pigment that resisted
sunlight, humidity and temperature.
Kermes red can be found in
prehistoric cave paintings, Egyptian
scrolls and the robes of cardinals
and kings. Words in many languages
used to describe bright red,
"crimson" and "carmine" among them, are derived from the name "kermes." The pigment
is produced from the bodies and eggs of a small type of insect that feeds on the sap of
evergreen oak trees throughout the Mediterranean region. In the spring, the female kermes
insects and their eggs were harvested. The small eggs surrounding the edges of the insect
body resemble kernels of grain, hence the expression "dyed in the grain." For medicinal
purposes, kermes pastes were used to disinfect wounds and served as an effective
contraceptive. 

To extract the color, Neri starts with a flask of "the very best grappa," which is a potent kind
of liquor made by distilling the skins, seeds, stems and pulp of grapes, leftover from wine
making. To this, he adds a pound of alum and one ounce of the dried kermes insects, ground
finely and sifted. He agitates the mixture, at which point the grappa will "color beautifully"
and then lets it sit. After four days, he adds four ounces of alum dissolved in water and pours
the mixture into a stocking that has been sewn into the shape of a cone. The stocking hold
most of the color, while letting the grappa pass through. 

Alum is another material used since antiquity. It was widely available in Neri's time as a
mined mineral, which could actually be several different chemical species with similar
properties. Today, chemists know it as a "flocculant"; it neutralizes the electrical charge of
finely suspended particles in a liquid, allowing them to stick together and fall to the bottom.
This is the secret to Neri's method, although he was not thinking in modern chemical terms,
he did know that the alum precipitated the pigment from the liquid allowing it to be collected
and dried.

Finally, he scoops the pigment onto pieces of linen stretched over newly fired terracotta tiles
and lets it dry. He advises: Rumah Buku-buku saya Jelajahi ▾ Komunitas ▾
Do not spread it too thickly, because then it will not dry quickly. When there is too much
moisture it will mildew, and make an ugly color. When a tile has absorbed a lot of
moisture, take another new tile. In this manner, it will dry more quickly. When it is dry,
remove the coating from the linens. This will be a good lake for painters, as I have made
many times in Pisa. Take note that if the color is too strong you should use more roche
alum and if it is too weak use less alum so that the color is according to your taste, and
desire.

Through the fifteenth century, kermes was among the most sought after pigments, but by
Antonio Neri's lifetime, its use was declining in favor of a new insect-based red called
cochineal that Portuguese traders brought back from Mexico. Cochineal bugs inhabit the
prickly pear cactus. They give a more intense color and eventually replaced kermes
throughout Europe.

*This post first appeared here on 26 February 2014.

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Published on December 13, 2018 21:00

December 11, 2018

Laughing in the Fern
Allain Manesson Mallet  1719,"Der Mont. –
Lune"In Chapter 5 of L'Arte Vetraria, Antonio
Neri shows how to extract salt for glass from
fern plants in an evocative recipe. Fern was and
still is widely abundant in Tuscany. It presented
a ready source material for glassmakers of the
region. Neri directs that harvesting of the plants
be done in the spring:

Cut this herb from the ground when it is green,

between the end of the month of May and mid
June. The moon should be waxing and close to
its opposition with the sun, because at this
point the plant is in its perfection and gives a
lot of salt, more than it would at other times
and of better nature, strength and whiteness.

At first, it is tempting to dismiss this lunar

influence as the product of a fertile imagination,
but let us take a closer look. Even today,
grandmothers throughout Italy remember the
advice to pick vegetables from the garden and
bring them into the kitchen at a half-moon. Can
nona be completely off-track? The fact is
that tidal forces of the moon do subtly affect
plants, fish and animals in ways that can be measured. A closer look at Neri’s advice reveals
reasoning that is hard to dismiss as mere astrological superstition. When the moon is
waxing, tides rise and so do water tables. According to folklore, this is when sap rises from
the roots of plants into stems and leaves. Sap carries the dissolved mineral salts required for
glass. Neri also stipulates that harvesting should take place during lunar opposition. When
the moon is 'opposed' to the sun, it is on the opposite side of the earth from the sun. In
opposition, the moon is near full and rises as the sun sets. Plants see more light at night,
leading to increased photosynthesis and growth.

In contrast, violin makers from Cremona valued high alpine spruce called moon wood. Trees
were felled in the wintertime, when lunar tides were low. This minimized the amount of
vibration deadening sap in the wood. In his Natural History, Pliny relates Cato’s advice on
felling trees in accordance with the lunar cycle. In fact, centuries-old tradition specified
lunar conditions for a host of needs from construction timbers to cheese boxes. In this case
the advice relates to picking ferns for use in glass.

Fern ash is high in potassium carbonates. If carefully purified it can make an exceedingly
clear glass, rivaling or even surpassing Venetian cristallo. It has the additional advantage of
being physically tough, making it ideal for engraving or diamond-point work. On the other
hand, once out of the furnace it stiffens quickly, giving it a short 'working life' for the hot
glass artisan. This limits designs to simple basic forms. While soda-based glass was the
norm for the Mediterranean region, throughout the Middle Ages and into the Renaissance,
northern Europeans were more likely to be making potash-based glass. They utilized the
potassium rich local trees and plants of the northern forests. In France, fern glass is
called verre de fougère. In the considered opinion of some connoisseurs, wine tasted better
when sipped from verre de fougère cups, hence the delightful expression 'le vin rit dans la
fougère' [wine laughs (sparkles) in the fern].

Since the middle ages, fern glass became part of everyday life in northern Europe. It was
Rumah
familiar enough to find its way into Buku-buku
literary verse on matters ofsaya is a ▾nice
Jelajahi
the heart. There Komunitas ▾
reference to fern glass by Geoffrey Chaucer, in The Squires Tale:

But notwithstanding, some said that it was

Wondrous to make fern-ashes into glass,

Since glass is nothing like the ash of fern;

But since long since of this thing men did learn,

Chaucer, in turn, borrowed this reference from an epic twenty-two thousand line French
poem from the late thirteenth century, when the technique of making glass from ferns was
already ancient.

* This post is a mashup of material that first appeared here on 5-7 August 2013.

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Published on December 11, 2018 21:00

December 9, 2018
Isaac Hollandus
J. Hollandus,
Chymische Schriften, (Vienna: 1773)In early
1603, Glassmaker Antonio Neri traveled
from Italy to Flanders, to visit his friend
Emmanuel Ximenes. Neri would stay for
seven years and in that time he worked on a
number of glass related projects including the
manufacture of artificial gems using lead
crystal glass. An enduring mystery is that in
his 1612 glass book L'Arte Vetraria, he gives
credit to alchemist Isaac Hollandus for a "new
chemical method never before used," yet no
such recipe for artificial gems has ever been
found in the writings of Hollandus.
Neri’s host Emmanuel Ximenes owned several
titles by this somewhat obscure figure.
Historians conjecture that there were actually
two alchemists in the Hollandus family, Isaac
and Johannes Isaac. Their relationship is not
clear, although they are often assumed to be
father and son. We know little about them;
some authors date them as early as the
fourteenth century. However, a
preponderance of evidence point to about the
time Neri lived. In his glass book, in the fifth
part devoted to artificial gems, Neri writes:
Above all is this wonderful invention. A new way
practiced by me, with the doctrine taken from
Isaac Hollandus, in which paste jewels of so much
grace, beauty and perfection are made, that they
seem nearly impossible to describe and hard to
believe.
In the 1679 German edition of L'Arte Vetraria,
Johannes Kunckel implies that Isaac was dead before Neri came to Antwerp, writing "This is
the manner to imitate precious stones, of Isaac Hollandus, (namely, from his posthumous
writings) that I [Neri] learned in Flanders" (emphasis added). Yet, coinciding with Neri's
visit, playwright Ben Jonson who had just returned to London from the war in Flanders,
referenced the pair in his satirical work The Alchemist (1610). There he implies that the elder
Hollandus was then dead but survived by "living Isaac." In 1644, the famous Flemish
chemist Van Helmont identified Isaac Hollandus as a recent contemporary. In a 1716 treatise,
Kunckel paid Hollandus a great compliment and at the same time took a swipe at Helmont
saying "and the incomparable Hollandus had more of the fire-art in his little finger as
Helmont in his whole body." In another reference, Sir Francis Bacon mentions Hollandus as
"by far the greater part of the crowd of chemists."
One Hollandus title in Ximenes' Antwerp library was Opera Mineralia, first published in 1600.
The subject of this volume is the philosopher's stone and its production. While there are no
artificial gem recipes here per se, there are some intriguing connections between artificial
gems and the philosopher's stone, both philosophical and practical. It was thought that the
colors of metallic based glass pigments were an indication that the metals were "opened"
and became susceptible to alchemical transmutation. Of special interest was the deep red
ruby color made by adding gold to the glass melt. In the introduction to a 1797 French
translation of Neri's book, artificial ruby or "vitrified gold," is equated to the bible's
Electrum of Ezekiel —a red glow seen by the prophet in a vision.
By the mid-eighteenth century, Isaac Hollandus was lauded in industrial arts books as a
genius of artificial gems. He may well have been, but the evidence does not support it. All of
Rumah seem toBuku-buku
the specific recipes attributed to Hollandus lead back tosaya
Neri's L'ArteJelajahi ▾ its
Vetraria or Komunitas ▾
translations. A case can be made that Hollandus' reputation for artificial gems stems from a
1697 plagiarized version of Neri's book. A volume published in France by Haudicquer
Blancourt that gives no credit to the priest. Blancourt used Christopher Merrett's English
edition as his base and added to the recipes with his own embellishments. The chapter on
artificial gems still lauds Hollandus, but its length was now doubled from the seventeen
original recipes to thirty-five. The size of this one section jumped from thirteen to nearly
two hundred pages, an increase in page-count larger than Neri's entire book. In 1699,
Blancourt's version was then translated back into English, again without reference to Neri.
There is no doubt that these two editions, with their expanded chapters on paste gems
exerted a strong influence on later craftsmen. They may also be the source of the credit given
to Hollandus' for paste gems in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries.
A number of intriguing questions remain unanswered. Chief among them is the nature of
Neri’s association with the Dutch alchemist(s). Was Hollandus or his son alive in the first
decade of the seventeenth century and did Neri meet with either of them in person? We can
only guess. The Hollandus men are notable, if not enigmatic, characters in the transition
from alchemy to modern chemistry. Historians would very much like to know them better.
Nevertheless, there can be no doubt of the strong impact Hollandus made on Neri. Isaac
holds a singular honor as the one person named in Neri's book to whom he gives specific
credit. As research on early modern science has progressed, the importance of
communication between practitioners has emerged as a central theme. A meeting of the
minds between Neri and Hollandus, if it ever occurred, would rank as a prime example of
technology transfer with a definite impact.

For a comprehensive look at Hollandus see: Annelies van Gijsen, "Isaac Hollandus Revisited"
in Chymia: science and nature in Medieval and early modern Europe, Miguel Lòpez-Pèrez, Dider
Kahn; Mar Rey Bueno, eds., (Newcastle upon Tyne, UK: Cambridge Scholars, 2010), pp. 310–
324.
*This post first appeared here 2 April 2014.

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Published on December 09, 2018 21:00 • 1 view

December 6, 2018
Early American Poem on Glass
Note: This is an abbreviated version of a piece appearing in the Autumn/Winter 2016 issue of
the NAGC Bulletin. Many thanks for their permission to share it here. A copy of the complete
article is available through inter-library loan from the numerous public and art museum
libraries which subscribe to this journal, (including the Rakow Library at The Corning
Museum of Glass). The Bulletin can also be obtained directly from its publisher, the National
American Glass Club.

Glass: A poem by Henry Schoolcraft

In the final years of the 1700s, a third

generation family that was living in New
York’s Hudson River Valley welcomed a
new son, Henry Rowe Schoolcraft (1793-
1864). They welcomed him into a newly
formed country, brimming with promise
and expectation, the United States of
America. His father was the
superintendant of a new window glass
factory near Albany. The family boasted
a long line of military men, but perhaps
more importantly, a long line of
adaptable, self-motivated, life-long
learners and young Henry was no
exception.  

With the help of his father and like-

minded family friends, Henry parlayed a
rural education into private instruction
in Latin, a premier collection of
scientific books, and a museum quality
mineral collection.  In 1809, at the age
of 16, he started a hand-written literary
magazine called “The Cricket” in which
he published short pieces of prose and poetry among a circle of friends. His time
at Union College was cut short by the opportunity to manage a glass factory
further west on the shores of Seneca Lake, near Geneva, New York.
Along with his father, Henry went on to become one of the most sought after
glass factory guru’s in New England. In 1814, he was running the Vermont
Glassworks on the shore of Lake Dunmore. He had set up an experimental
furnace with Prof. Frederick Rumah Buku-buku
Hall from the college sayaMiddlebury.
in nearby Jelajahi
 Henry▾ Komunitas ▾
used the facility to research glass composition for a hefty book he was writing on
the subject. Managing by day, experimenting by night, he still found time for his
literary pursuits. It was here, in the autumn of 1814, that he composed a
remarkable poem titled “Glass” in which he compares commonplace
personalities of the early 19th century to the vitreous material of which he was so
familiar.

Until now the poem has never been published beyond the first few stanzas.
 “Glass” runs for 268 lines of rhyming couplets in a lose meter. The handwritten
manuscript is archived at the Library of Congress. It begins with an assessment
of mankind: [1]

1Mankind resemble glass; they are, like it,

For use or fashion, show or service fit;
Some bright and fair, some dull and more obscure,
These prized as good, those, estimed poor;5To grace a kitchen, or a parlour
made,
As use is most consulted, or parade;
But all as various; and eke they are,
As frail, as brittle, and as keen a ware.

Their bases differ, as our chemists say,10This made of sand, that fashioned out
of clay
Yet shall we, in both compositions find,
Similitude in beauty, use and kind.
To man, tis true some small objections lie
In point of texture and transparency,15But though we grant him, in material
blind,
Yet lacks he not, transparency of mind
And we no surer faults in each detect
By rays of light, than rays of intellect.

So nice the processes, the art requires,20So pure th’ ingredients, so intense the
fires,
Where tumours grow, where phthysic’s fitful breath,
Forbodes the public faith, a sudden death.
Felons, freckles, frightful fire warts,
Are all disclosed as clear as limpid quartz.

25His voice and pen are graced with equal skill,

To lash, report, or advocate a bill.
Speak without nostrums, clear his throat when lost,
But ever loudest, when they shuffle most.
Alike to him, the subject, time or stage,30Fierce to discuss, and ready to engage
If finance—there Blaberius is at home
If raising troops, he votes with general glum.
In peace he’s noisy, but if wars involve’
He blasts the foe by one august “Resolve.”35Prate, prate, prate, prate! the error
of the land,
His voice, by every vulgar breeze is fanned
Nor learn from Witherspoon his course to run,
The simple cause, “to stop when he has done.”
(Read full poem)

NOTES  

(Line numbers are referenced in parenthesis) 

The exact manuscript title as written by Schoolcraft is: GLASS, | A Satire Poem. |
Lake Dumnore, 1814.
(4) Estimed: Vernacular loanword from the French, estime; valued.
(7) Eke: also.
(10) “Feet of clay” is an expression referring to a weakness or character flaw.
The phrase derives from the interpretation of the dream of Nebuchadnezzar,
King of Babylon, by the prophet Daniel as recounted in the “Book of Daniel.”
(Daniel 2:31–33, 2:41–43).
(21) Phthisic: a wasting illness of the lungs, such as asthma or tuberculosis;
phthisis. Any wasting disease. A person suffering from phthisis.
 (23) Felon: a carbuncle or other localized infection of the skin. Fire warts: “The
hand that reached farthest down on the shovel is burned forever with calloused
fire warts.” William E. Bain, Frisco Folks: Stories and Pictures of the Great Steam
Days of the Frisco Road (St. Louis-San Francisco Railway Company) (Denver:
Sage Books, 1961), p. 96. Rumah Buku-buku saya Jelajahi ▾ Komunitas ▾
(25) In the ms, “Graced” is struck out and replaced by a word that is smeared
and illegible to me.
(27) Nostrum: a medicine, especially one that is not considered effective,
prepared by an unqualified person.
(31) Blaberius: possible Latinization for ‘one who blabbers’. Also blaberus: a
genus of giant Central American cockroach.
(35) Prate: to talk foolishly or tediously about something.
(37) Witherspoon: John Knox Witherspoon (1723–1794).

Footnotes:
[1] Paul Engle, “Glass, A Poem by Henry Schoolcraft” in Glass Club Bulletin, of
The National American Glass Club, No. 230, Autumn/Winter 2016, pp. 5-14.

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Published on December 06, 2018 21:00 • 1 view

December 4, 2018
Aventurine
Small amphora in aventurine glass,Murano, Salviati.With all
its glitz and sparkle, aventurine (avventurina) stands out as a
flamboyant extrovert among the varieties of glass that were
developed and perfected on the Venetian island of Murano.
Also known as 'goldstone', it consists of a transparent base
glass with myriad reflective crystalline "spangles" running
throughout. The classical version is a deep golden brown with
crystallites composed mainly of metallic copper, with a few
related compounds as supporting cast. However, numerous
colors have been developed, including red, orange, yellow,
green, blue, violet, black and white. 

Folklore holds that aventurine was discovered by accident ("a

venturi") when unknown monks inadvertently dropped
copper or brass shavings into a glass melt as early as the
thirteenth century. [1] However, more thorough
investigations have recently identified 1620 as a likely date for the first appearance of
aventurine glass. [2] No example or written account has been found that dates prior to the
seventeenth century. An alternate story accounts for the name aventurine being derived from
'adventure'; referring to the difficulty and uncertainty involved in its production.[3] At first,
the formula was a closely held secret among a few glassmakers and subsequently it was lost
and then rediscovered not once but  twice.

To complicate matters, natural minerals with a similar appearance were named after the
glass, leading to the misconception that they were also discovered after the glass was
invented. This is clearly not the case. Early examples of mineral aventurine artifacts date to
the Neolithic era [4] and can be found throughout history. First century Roman writer Pliny
mentions a type of stone with silvery flecks, a passage that was well known when the glass
was developed.  The compositions of these minerals were also identified early; either species
of quartz that contain flecks of mica, or a type of feldspar (sunstone).[5] Mineral aventurine
turns up as the eyes of Greek statues, in stonework mosaics and later in the 'pietre dure' art
perfected by the Medici artisans in Florence around the time Antonio Neri started making
glass there. The chances are good that examples of the mineral were known to Neri as well as
to the glassmakers on Murano, but a recipe for the glass version does not turn up in Neri’s
1612 book; he was apparently too early by a decade.  

The story of aventurine's accidental discovery by monks may well be apocryphal;

nevertheless, it is a great entrée to understanding how the formulation works. First, contrary
to what the story implies, aventurine is not the result of dumping metallic confetti into glass.
The reflective "spangles" (as early researchers were fond of calling them) are actually
uniformly sized, mirror-like crystals that are grown in the glass. In truth, the formula is
quite similar to recipes already in use by Neri and others; the difference was in proportions
and in how the glass was treated after it was in the furnace. The formula for aventurine calls
for the addition of copper, iron and tin oxides, to a base that was a hybrid of soda, potash
and lead glass. Neri’s recipe #128 is titled "A Proven Way to Make Rosichiero" [6] and
provides for all of these ingredients, albeit in lower concentrations. Rosichiero was a
transparent tawny red colored glass that was a staple of furnaces throughout Italy. 

The secret to producing the reflective "spangles" was to mix the glass and heat it in the
furnace in a normal way, but then to slowly reduce the heat while creating a low oxygen
“reducing” atmosphere. The furnace draught was shut; the glass pot was fitted with a tight
lid and then covered with ashes and allowed to cool very slowly.  

Initially, the batch is saturated with copper oxide. This means the glass has dissolved as
much copper, iron and tin as it can and any further addition of these powders will simply
float to the bottom of the pot.  TheRumah
exact amount ofBuku-buku dissolve▾ is a
saya able toJelajahi
powdered metals Komunitas ▾
function of temperature; the hotter the glass the more that will dissolve and the cooler the
glass the less that will dissolve. The key concept here is that as the glass slowly cools, the
metals start to come out of solution and crystals start to form. There is some complex
chemistry happening at the same time; the reducing atmosphere encourage the metals to
stay in a pure un-oxidized form,  Furthermore any oxygen or sulfur  that happens to be
present will preferentially combine with the iron, leaving the copper crystals pristine. Once
cooled to room temperature, a successful batch would be broken away from the glass pot by
workers and divided into smaller pieces. Glass artisans wanting to incorporate the aventurine
into their work needed to work quickly. They carefully reheated an appropriate nugget and
coated (encase) it in a layer of clear glass; once molten, direct exposure to the air would
destroy the glittery effect. 

Over time, it was discovered that various colors could be produced with the addition of
different chemicals, but the central principal of growing tiny metallic crystals is the same.

[1]  The earliest instance of this story in print that I can find is fairly late;  Faustino Corsi,
Delle pietre antiche: libri quattro (Rome: Salviuccio e figlio, 1828)  pp. 166-167.  
[2] Cesare Moretti (†), Bernard Gratuze and Sandro Hreglich,  “Le verre aventurine (‘
avventurina ‘) : son histoire, les recettes, les analyses, sa fabrication”, ArcheoSciences, 37 |
2013, 135-154.
[3] For instance see  Giulio Salviati, “Venetian Glass” Journal of the Society of Arts
(Proceedings), Volume 37 (7 June,1889), p. 630
[4] Neolithic Quartz Aventurine Pendant - 7 Cm/ 2. 76 ", green - 6500 To 2000 Bp – Sahara.
Item Id: 106549,  Weight: 83 gm. Sahara - Mauritania - Tagant country.
http://ancientpoint.com/inf/106549-ne...
[5] Dizionario del cittadino, o sia Ristretto storico, teorico e ..., Volume 1 pp. 38-39.
[6] Antonio Neri, L'Arte Vetraria (Firenze: Giunti, 1612).
[7] Sauzay, A. (1870) Marvels of Glassmaking in All Ages. London, 1870 pp. 173 - 175.

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Published on December 04, 2018 21:00 • 2 views

November 29, 2018

Glass or Rock
Rock crystal ewer, Egypt (1000-1050)V&A
Museum, #7904-1862Today, a sharp
distinction is made between glass and rock,
but in the early seventeenth century,
differences in the two materials were not so
well defined. One was the product of nature
and the other of art, but after that the lines
began to blur. Philosophers debated weather
glass should be classified as artificial stone,
and why not? It is a material that was
actually made from crushed up rocks (quartz
and calcined limestone) with the addition of
plant salts. In a very accurate sense, it is a
form of artificial rock. 

In his 1612 book L'Arte Vetraria, Florentine

glassmaker Antonio Neri repeatedly
illustrates the thinking that glass was an
artificial form of rock. The very first part of
the book concerns itself with cristallo glass,
which was considered to be an imitation of
natural rock crystal. He devotes a whole
section to the imitation of the colorful stones
variously known as chalcedony, jasper and
oriental agate. About these he writes: 

It is often said, and it may well seem to be true, that art cannot match nature. However,
experience in many things shows, and this is particularly true of colors in glass, that art
not only challenges and matches nature, but by far exceeds and surpasses it. Why, if you
did not see it for yourself, you would find it hard to believe the beauty and great variety
of interplay seen in these particular chalcedonies.

Another entire section of the book is devoted to artificial gemstones: rubies, sapphires,
emeralds, topaz, chrysolite; he even uses crushed natural gems to color his glass. He
describes a "sky blue even more beautiful, from the garnets of Bohemia." 

An earlier 1540 book that Neri read closely was by Italian metallurgist Vannoccio Biringuccio,
called De La Pirotechnia. This was the first book entirely devoted to mining and metal foundry
practices. Biringuccio was from Siena, but was considered something of a folk hero in Neri’s
nearby Florence because he oversaw the casting of iron cannons for the city's defense in the
great siege of 1529–30. His book contains a short six-page chapter devoted to glass where he
writes: Rumah Buku-buku saya Jelajahi ▾ Komunitas ▾

[I]t [glass] is one of the effects and real fruits of the art of fire, because every product
found in the interior of the earth is either stone, metal or one of the semi-minerals. Glass
is seen to resemble all of them, although in all respects it depends on art.

This is an observation that Neri echoes almost verbatim in the introduction of his own book,
and in this light, it is not so difficult to see what connects glassmaking to alchemy. Neri was
in the business of learning nature's secrets, and then using them to create new materials
that were even better than the originals. These are aims quite familiar to any modern
materials engineer. Neri and his contemporaries were successful up to a point. They were
able to create artificial gems and other items that were impressive in color and clarity, yet
they lacked some key properties of their natural counterparts, most notably hardness. 

Based on Neri's earliest known writing Treasure of the World, started in 1598, he was already
familiar with mining practices before his glassmaking activities started and over a decade
before he would write the book. He devotes this early manuscript to "all of alchemy, its
furnaces, instruments and the mining of metals." Around 1600 he started work at Prince Don
Antonio de' Medici's Casino di San Marco laboratory. Here, he may have had the opportunity
to interact with characters such as Filippo Talducci (1543- c.1615), celebrated Florentine
chemist and mining engineer, several of whose relatives worked at the Casino. In his 1613
manuscript Discorso, Neri strongly hints that he has personally been to more than one mine
in connection with his alchemical activities. "I would not say this, had I myself not had the
good fortune of being in such a mine from which, with much artifice, was extracted a small
quantity of real gold liquor, which was the true golden seed. […] To this day I have never
found another mine like it, and therefore suitable for this purpose."

Today, we hardly associate glass with the raw materials from which it is composed, just as
we hardly ever think of metals in their unrefined state. Antonio Neri was more closely
connected to the earth, by virtue of his profession, but also because daily life in the early
seventeenth century was filled with such activity; refining raw materials into useful forms
had a direct and immediate impact on quality of life. Although glass is now manufactured in
highly automated facilities, far away from our daily lives, it is still essentially the same
product that Neri made. The next time you come in contact with a piece of glass, to pour a
drink or look through a window or read the text on a screen as you are probably doing right
now, stop for a minute and think of it as Neri did four centuries ago, as artificial rock.

* This post first appeared here 17 Feb 2014.

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Published on November 29, 2018 21:00 • 2 views

November 27, 2018

Neri's Glass Furnace
From "De re metallica" Agricola (Georg Bauer) 1556.In the seventeenth century, glass
furnaces represented a pinnacle of technology. True, the ability to achieve the high
temperatures required to melt glass had been around for centuries – high enough to melt
gold, silver and copper as well. What made the glass furnace remarkable was its refinement.
It made efficient use of its hardwood fuel and was able to maintain a controlled, even
temperature long before any thermometer could measure it. In fact, in the early seventeenth
century, Galileo was only just beginning to use glass bulbs and tubes to measure differences
in ambient room temperatures.

In Florence, the construction used was typical of the time throughout Europe, called a
"beehive" furnace because its shape resembled the classic elongated dome of a beehive. A
double wall, built of fire resistant bricks, provided further insulation, trapping heat inside.
Vertically, the furnace was divided into three levels, each forming a wide open chamber. The
bottom space was used to build the fire, and had one or two openings to the outside, used to
add wood fuel, rake the coals, or shovel out ash. The second, central level was where the pots
of glass resided. A central hole or "eye" on the floor directly exposed the fire pit below. The
space directly next to the eye was the hottest, and temperature could be further controlled by
moving the crucibles farther away or closer to the eye. A number of openings in the wall
allowed gaffers access to the glass pots, and at least one larger opening was used to place
new crucibles, or rearrange the existing ones. The upper chamber was used to control the
draft, and sometimes for annealing. Again, a central hole in the floor of this (top) level
allowed exhaust gasses to leave the glass chamber and an opening to one side vented the
exhaust.

In his 1612 book, L’Arte Vetraria, Neri is careful to stress that only dry oak or other hardwood
should be used because it burns cleanly, and will not deposit ash or creosote in the glass.
 The furnace should have dry wood, hard
wood of oak because soft wood tinges
the furnace and does no good. Stoke it
steadily and continuously so that the
Rumah Buku-buku
flame saya
is always Jelajahi
clear, and there ▾
is never Komunitas ▾
any smoke, which is very important in
order to make a beautiful cristallo.

Once a finished piece of glassware is made,

it must be allowed to cool slowly, over a
period of many hours. This was often
accomplished by building a long enclosed
horizontal trough that connected to the
furnace. A draft opening at the far end
allowed heat from the furnace to be drawn
in, and finished pieces were placed in a
pan at the furnace end and then slowly
pulled by a chain further and further down
the trough toward the cooler end. This
"annealing" process ensured the glass
would not develop stresses and crack as it
cooled.

Although Neri does not concern himself

with the vagaries of furnace construction
in the book, it is clear that he did possess
considerable knowledge on the subject.
Several of his unconventional methods for
making pigments for glass involve taking
bricks out of the furnace wall to stash
chemicals for long term exposure to the
heat.

Take small pieces of copper and put them inside the arches of the furnace. In that place,
they will be within the walls. Leave them that way until each piece of copper is well
calcined, using a simple fire.

While it is true that artisans of the early seventeenth century did not possess the same
understanding of nature that we now enjoy, they did have a working knowledge that served
them very well. It was backed by a theoretical framework that was quite sophisticated and
was consistent with what could be observed and measured at the time. This is no different
from our own modern understanding of nature: sophisticated and consistent with what we
can observe and measure.

*This post first appeared here 24 January 2014

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Published on November 27, 2018 21:00 • 1 view

November 22, 2018

Filigrana
Mezza Filigrana footed vase, circa 1950s,by
Dino Martens (for Aureliano
Toso).Filigrana is a classical glassmaking
technique developed in the sixteenth
century on the Venetian island of Murano.
In the broadest sense, a piece of filigrana --
let's say a vessel -- is composed of
transparent glass with very fine vertical
threads of color running through it.
Traditionally, these threads were opaque
white lattimo (milk) glass, running through
a colorless high quality product known
as cristallo. Because of this, the technique
was originally known as “latticino,” a term
still in use, but now falling out of favor and
being replaced by filigrana (filigree), a name
that does not imply any particular color. 

Over the centuries, this and closely related

techniques became a kind of trademark for
the Murano glass industry. Parallel threads in a loose spiral winding around a vessel from
top to bottom form what is perhaps the most basic application of the method. This is known
as mezza filigrana (half filigree). The reason for the “half” becomes apparent when we
consider its far more famous cousin reticello. With this technique, two sets of threads are
used winding in opposite directions to form a fishnet pattern of  diamonds. The name
recalls reticella, a traditional Venetian lace. When the work is done properly, tiny air bubbles
are trapped inside the glass, one in the center of each diamond of the fishnet pattern.

Even more exotic variations have been developed, which we will discuss another time. First,
let's explore how the glass artisan is able to achieve these fine threads in the glass, so
Rumah
perfectly spaced. I should hasten to Buku-buku
say that I am not saya and this Jelajahi
a glassblower ▾ is
description Komunitas ▾
not an instructional, but simply a window into some of the fabulous artistry that takes place
in a glass shop. These techniques take hundreds or thousands of hours of practice to master.
Even a shallow understanding of the steps that go into a piece of filigrana lead to a far richer
appreciation than simply being able to identify it by name.

 “Cane” is a general term for long straight rods of glass. They have many uses in glass
artistry and the method by which they are made can be surprising the first time you see it
done. It is the same method as was practiced a thousand years ago. A gob of molten glass is
removed from the furnace on the end of an iron rod. A second rod is attached by another
artisan, with the lump of molten glass between the two rods. They start to pull in opposite
directions, slowly at first. They swing and manipulate the hot glass as it cools, forming a
mass of relatively uniform diameter. They continue to walk away from each other, the glass
pulling thinner as they go. Practiced artisans can end up with a uniform pencil thin straight
rod of glass that extends for many meters. It is laid on spaced wooden slats on the floor,
allowed to cool and then snapped at regular intervals to form smaller rods.

In the case of filigrana cane, the artisan starts with a smaller gob of opaque glass; let us
say lattimo (white). This gob is then dipped into clear glass, which encases it in a heavy
transparent layer. When the cane is pulled, the result is a clear rod with a filament of opaque
white glass running down the center. Short lengths of cane are laid side by side in a pan. The
pan is heated so that adjacent rods start to fuse together into a mat. The glass artist will
again take a gather of glass from the furnace around the end of an iron blowpipe and flatten
it into a disk, leaving the blowhole unobstructed. The disk, known as a "collar"[2] is touched
to the mat of canes at one end and rolled so that the canes wrap around and form a cylinder.
The open end of the cylinder is then closed down, in effect forming a bubble on the end of
the pipe. The glassblower can then treat this as if it were a bubble formed straight out of the
furnace, but of course, this bubble has the threads of lattimo glass running through it. The
bubble is then manipulated into a finished piece. [2]

Miniature
flamework
ed vessels
(aprox.
3cm tall)
in the style
of
filigrana,
by Emilio
Santini. Ou
tside of the
hot shop,
there are
methods
that use only a torch to duplicate the appearance of filigrana and reticello on a smaller scale.
This involves starting with glass tubing and "painting" the threads on using thin "stringers"
of glass. It is a completely different technique which requires an entirely different set of
skills. In the right hands, the results can be strikingly similar. Now that we have the basics
down, we can discuss the more spectacular variations that have been developed, which we
will talk about next time.

[1] "Colletto"(Italian) "Coeto" (Venetian), means narrow neck or little neck.

[2] The following Youtube video shows American glass artist William Gudenrath, assisted by
Harry Siemens pulling filigrana cane and executing a reticello vase at the Corning Museum of
Glass. http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xCrdewFgObc

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November 20, 2018

Incalmo of Venice
Incalmo vessels by Tapio Wirkkala for Venini.In this post, we will explore one of the classical
techniques of glass art. Along with filigrana, latticino, reticello and pezzato, incalmo is a
classical Venetian technique well established in the art, even if poorly understood by many
outsiders.

‘Incalmo’, in Venetian dialect literally means “graft” as in joining two plants. That is a pretty
good description of how this effect is achieved; think of a vase whose bottom-half is one
color and top is another. The glass artist blows two separate bubbles of glass, opens them
and joins them together to form a single bubble. It is a difficult operation because the two
 open lips must be exactly the same
size to join properly. The process
can be continued to add more colors;
virtuoso pieces may include several
Rumah Buku-buku saya
sections, Jelajahi
each a different ▾ In
color. Komunitas ▾
addition, the position of the iron rod
that the artist uses to hold the
bubble can be changed while the
piece is under construction, leading
to asymmetrical effects.
16th century incalmo plate,
unknown artist.The above
description is the classical way of
achieving incalmo, but modern
materials and equipment allow
artists to achieve a similar effect
with considerably less skill. For
instance, precise diameter glass
tubing is now available in a wide
variety of colors. This can be cut into
rings with a saw, then stacked
in a kiln and fused together.
From there, this “prefabricated
incalmo tube can be worked by
traditional methods. Whether
or not this meets the definition
of true incalmo depends
entirely on whether one
focuses on the method or on
the end result.

9-10th century incalmo vase,

Syria or Iraq.The name
‘incalmo’, was applied to glass
in the first half of the
twentieth century by the
Venini factory on Murano, in
Venice. [1] However, both the
word and the method are much
older. The Venini artisans
revived the technique to great
acclaim, but Venetian
examples date from the
sixteenth century and Islamic
examples from ninth century
Syria have also survived. It is
not hard to imagine that this
joining technique was
experimented with shortly
after glassblowing became
common around the first
century BCE. However, what is
truly amazing is that any of these early
examples survived to be sold to customers
without breaking in the cooling process. The
reason for this is a technical issue that we
have not discussed yet.

All glass expands a little when it is heated and

shrinks when it cools. Different formulations
of glass generally expand by differing
amounts. When a single piece incorporates
more than one type of glass, and the thermal
expansions differ significantly, the result is
disaster. After the piece is finished it is placed
in a kiln where it slowly cools back to room
temperature. Because of the mismatch, one
area wants to shrink more than the adjacent
area and the glass cracks along the join. The
expansion and contraction is microscopic, but
it is enough to ruin hours and hours of work,
leading to much gnashing of teeth the
morning after, when the finished work is
inspected. 

The Venini glass masters had the benefit of

this knowledge, but for earlier artisans, trial
and error must have played a big role in
determining which formulas were compatible.
Different colors mean different metallic
additives and to match expansion other ingredients would need to be adjusted. Today,
manufacturers produce glass in a series based on expansion; artists can be relatively sure
 that two different colors from the same series can be “grafted” and not self-destruct when
cooled.

[1] I have not absolutely confirmed this, but authoritative secondary references credit Venini,
Rumah
and I can find no mention to "incalmo" Buku-buku
as a glass technique sayato the twentieth
prior ▾
Jelajahicentury. Komunitas ▾

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