Networking

Course Introduction
Pre-course Assessment
Module 1: Ethernet Overview
1.1: What is Ethernet? 1.2: Ethernet Development Module 1 Exercise
Module 2: Ethernet Basics
2.1: Transmitting and Receiving Data 2.2: Ethernet and the OSI Reference Model 2
.3: The Physical Layer 2.4: The MAC Sublayer 2.5: Repeaters, Switches and Bridge
s Module 2 Exercise
Module 3: Ethernet Operations
3.1: The CSMA/CD Algorithm 3.2: Maximum Distance between Stations 3.3: Exponenti
al Backoff Algorithm 3.4: Collisions and Performance Considerations 3.5: Network
Segmentation Module 3 Exercise
Module 4: Ethernet Frame Composition
4.1: Basic Ethernet Frame Composition 4.2: Preamble/SFD 4.3: Destination Address
and Source Address Fields 4.4: Type/Length Field 4.5: Data Field 4.6: Frame Che
ck Sequence 4.7: Interframe Gap Module 4 Exercise
Module 5: Ethernet Frame Types
5.1: Overview 5.2: Ethernet II Frame 5.3: IEEE 802.3 Ethernet Frame with IEEE 80
2.2 LLC Header 5.4: IEEE 802.3 Frame with SNAP Encapsulation 5.5: Novell 802.3 F
rame Module 5 Exercise
Module 6: Full-duplex Ethernet
6.1: Full-duplex and Half-duplex Compared 6.2: The Benefits of Full-duplex Ether
net 6.3: Full-duplex and Distance Limitations 6.4: Full-duplex Mode and Gigabit
Ethernet Module 6 Exercise
Module 7: Ethernet Operation at 10Mbps
7.1: 10Base-5 and 10Base-2 7.2: 10Base-T 7.3: 10Base-FL 7.4: Implementation: 10M
bps Ethernet Configuration Guidelines Module 7 Exercise
Module 8: Fast Ethernet
8.1: The Growth of Fast Ethernet 8.2: 10Mbps Ethernet vs. Fast Ethernet 8.3: 100
Base-TX 8.4: 100Base-FX 8.5: Implementation: Fast Ethernet Configuration Guideli
nes 8.6: Auto-negotiation Module 8 Exercise
Module 9: Gigabit Ethernet
9.1: Why Gigabit Ethernet is Needed 9.2: Gigabit Ethernet Defined 9.3: Implement
ation of Gigabit Ethernet 9.4: Gigabit Ethernet and CSMA/CD 9.5: Considerations
for Early Adoption Module 9 Exercise
Module 10: Ethernet and Other Physical-layer Technologies
10.1: Overview: Ethernet and Other Technologies 10.2: Ethernet Compared 10.3: Sp
ecific Examples Module 10 Exercise
Module 11: Ethernet and the Upper-layer Protocols
11.1: The OSI Model Revisited 11.2: Running Multiple Protocols Module 11 Exercis
e Post-course Assessment Course Evaluation
Fundamentals of Ethernet Technology
Course Description This web-based course teaches the fundamentals of Ethernet ne
tworking. It contains eleven modules, which can be selected individually. Each m
odule contains a number of lessons that discuss Ethernet concepts, generic imple
mentation types, definitions and basic processes. The course does not include ha
nds-on lab exercises, nor 'how to' directions for specific Intel products. This
course begins with a brief overview about what Ethernet is and, also, describes
the historical setting in which Ethernet was developed and delineates the reason
s for the tremendous success of Ethernet products in the marketplace. The second
module of the course serves as a comprehensive introduction to basic methods us
ed by Ethernet to facilitate communication between computers. Following the high
-level overviews of Ethernet that comprise the first two modules, the remaining
modules of the course each focus on a specific aspect of Ethernet technology ran
ging from Ethernet's collision detection system and data transfer methods to spe
cific types of Ethernet, including 10Base-T, Fast Ethernet and Gigabit Ethernet.
General configuration guidelines for each Ethernet type are also discussed. Fol
lowing a description of Gigabit Ethernet operations, the course discusses Ethern
et's relationship to other physical-layer technologies, such as Token Ring, ATM
and FDDI. The course concludes with an examination of Ethernet's relationship to
the upper-layer protocols that Ethernet serves, reinforcing the concept of Ethe
rnet as an Open Systems technology. Recommended Prerequisites Knowledge of netwo
rking fundamentals Course Goal After completing this self-study course, students
should understand the fundamentals of Ethernet technology. Subsequent Intel cer
tification courses are based on the assumption that students understand the basi
c concepts covered in this course. Certification courses will not attempt to cov
er these topics. This will minimize the amount of time students will spend outsi
de of their work environment in advanced technical/sales training. Course Object
ives
q
Identify the characteristics of the layers in the OSI layering model for data co
mmunications, with particular emphasis on the functionality included in OSI laye
rs
q q q q
q q
q
q
q
q
q
one (physical layer) and two (data link layer) Identify the communication proces
s that Ethernet standards define Identify common terminology used in the IEEE se
t of Ethernet standards Identify the role of the Ethernet bus and the concept of
collision domains Identify the function and characteristics of Ethernet NICs, h
ubs, repeaters, bridges and switches Identify the operation of the CSMA/CD algor
ithm Identify each field in an Ethernet frame and its purpose, as well as the co
nstruction of specific Ethernet frame types Identify the similarities of and dif
ferences between Ethernet running at 10Mbps and 100Mbps Identify the basic speci
fications for Gigabit Ethernet and the basic configuration guidelines for 10Mbps
, 100Mbps and 1000Mbps Ethernet Identify the basic operation and characteristics
of Ethernet over copper media and optical fiber media, as well as the differenc
es between the Cat 3, 4 and 5 UTP cabling certifications Identify the concepts o
f half-duplex and full-duplex Ethernet operation, auto-negotiation of speed and
duplex operation Identify Ethernet's relationship to other networking technologi
es
Duration The course consists of an introduction and eleven separate course modul
es. Estimated time of completion is six hours, depending on your reading speed a
nd the level of detail you desire.
* Legal Information © 1998 Intel Corporation
Fundamentals of Ethernet Technology
Welcome! Welcome to the Fundamentals of Ethernet Technology course! Before you b
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ETHERNET OVERVIEW
Module Description In addition to providing a high-level overview of the role Et
hernet plays in network computing, this module also provides an historical persp
ective on the development of Ethernet. Lesson 1.1 defines Ethernet s relationshi
p to upper-layer network protocols and introduces some of the basic components o
f an Ethernet network. Lesson 1.2 focuses on the historical development of Ether
net, and concludes by identifying the reasons for Ethernet s success in the mark
etplace. Module Objectives
q q q q q q
Identify Ethernet s basic role in computer networking Identify the components us
ed on an Ethernet LAN Identify the key milestones in the historical development
of Ethernet Identify the benefits of distributed processing Identify the benefit
s of Open Systems solutions Identify the reasons for Ethernet s success in the m
arketplace
What is Ethernet?
Lesson Objectives
q q
Identify Ethernet s basic role in computer networking Identify the components us
ed on an Ethernet LAN
Ethernet Defined Ethernet is a highly popular and internationally standardized n
etworking technology that enables computers to communicate with each other. Ethe
rnet s role in the landscape of network communication is limited, however, to th
e hardware-level transfer of data from one point to another. Beyond the hardware
-level, or physical layer, of networking, data transport is handled by software
protocols, such as TCP/IP, IPX, NetBEUI, DECnet and others. Network operating sy
stems, such as Windows NT*, UNIX, NetWare* and others, along with the applicatio
ns that run on them, use these protocols, which in turn use Ethernet, to provide
the broad range of networking services that people depend upon. Ethernet equipm
ent is manufactured by a wide variety of vendors. Today, nearly every brand of m
odern computer can be equipped to communicate on an Ethernet network. Ethernet t
echnology can provide network speeds from 10Mbps (10 megabits per second) to 1Gb
ps (1 gigabit per second), which makes Ethernet equally suitable for both small
and large networks.
What is Ethernet? (Continued)
Course Introduction The basic concepts of Ethernet are very easy to understand.
Like all inventions, Ethernet originates from a series of innovations on older t
echnologies. The basic concepts of Ethernet evolve directly from the basic conce
pts behind telegraph, telephone and radio technology. As you work through the mo
dules of this course, you will learn that just like the communication technologi
es that have come before it, Ethernet is nothing more than a practical solution
to practical problems. The basic components of an Ethernet network include cabli
ng, network interface cards (NICs), clients, servers, hubs and switches. The fig
ure on the previous page shows you these basic components of an Ethernet network
and how they fit together. By the end of this course, you will understand how e
ach of these components works and how the Ethernet standard as a whole works to
make communication between computers, printers and other office devices possible
.
Ethernet Development
Lesson Objectives
q q q q
Identify the key milestones in the historical development of Ethernet Identify t
he benefits of distributed processing Identify the benefits of Open Systems solu
tions Identify the reasons for Ethernet s success in the marketplace
Overview Understanding a little about the history of Ethernet is important for t
wo reasons:
1. It gives you a foundation for understanding the practical and technical compu
ting
problems that Ethernet addresses. 2. It gives you the cultural background you ne
ed to feel competent when discussing network technology with advanced systems ad
ministrators and engineers. The High Cost of Mainframe Computing In the 1970 s a
nd 1980 s, mainframe computing began to present a number of significant limitati
ons for large and small businesses alike. First, mainframes are not easily scala
ble. Companies must either plan to continually upgrade an entry-level mainframe,
or they must make a significant, capital investment in a large mainframe (and l
ater upgrade it as well, as technology improves). Both options are expensive. Se
cond, the demand for advanced word processors, window-based graphical user inter
faces, computer-aided design programs and statistical analysis tools requires an
amount of computing power and quick response time that mainframes simply cannot
not provide at any cost. Third, and finally, because most mainframe solutions f
rom different vendors are incompatible with each other, once a company chooses a
particular vendor, it is generally cost prohibitive to change vendors later on.
As an alternative to the mainframe-centric world of the 1970 s, the search for
a decentralized, distributed and multivendor approach to data processing, now kn
own as Open Systems, becomes the driving force behind the development and adopti
on of Ethernet, as well as other LAN technologies.
Ethernet Development (Continued)
The Development of Ethernet Standards In September 1980, Digital, Intel and Xero
x jointly published the first commercial Ethernet standard for connecting comput
ers together. This original Ethernet standard, sometimes referred to as the DIX
standard (D[igital] I[ntel] X[erox]), evolved directly from the Xerox Palo Alto
Research Center s (PARC) experimental networks of the 1970 s. Prior to the joint
publication of this standard, it was generally not possible to network computer
s manufactured by different vendors. By publishing the first Ethernet standard j
ointly, Digital, Intel and Xerox made openly available an easy-to-understand, ea
sy-to-implement and easy-to-maintain technology for high-speed communication bet
ween computers from either the same or different manufacturers. In 1985, the Ins
titute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) published the first intern
ationally approved set of Ethernet standards under the somewhat obscure title IE
EE 802.3 Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision Detection (CSMA/CD) Access
Method and Physical Layer Specifications. Shortly thereafter, this standard was
adopted by the International Standards Organization (ISO), which effectively po
sitioned Ethernet technology in a way that enabled it to become the most widely
used method for connecting Local Area Networks (LANs). The widespread adoption o
f distributed computing and Open Systems (the concept of a modular, vendor-indep
endent set of "open" interoperability standards) offers companies an economical
way to purchase additional computing power in the form of file servers and PC wo
rkstations on an as needed basis, and from whatever vendor they believe will del
iver the best value for their money. Open communications technologies like Ether
net provide the basis for a modular solution that:
1. Gives users mainframe-like access to shared information. 2. Distributes the p
rocessing load required for advanced applications. 3. Allows companies to networ
k a mixture of hardware and software solutions from
different vendors. 4. Provides a scalable network architecture at an affordable
cost.
In 1973, Robert Metcalfe (later founder of 3Com*) designed the first Ethernet ne
twork, named the Alto Aloha Network, while working for Xerox at the now famous P
alo Alto Research Center (PARC). In the mid- to late 1970 s a number of exciting
things were happening at PARC, including the development of a graphics-based mo
nitor, the windowed display concept, the mouse, the laser printer, the desktop w
orkstation and even something called the Worm, which was originally a software m
anagement and network maintenance strategy, yet later became a prototype for the
modern computer virus. Somewhere along the line, the name Alto Aloha (derived f
rom the FM radio-based ALOHA Network System built at the University of Hawaii) w
as dropped in favor of the slightly more mystical sounding, Ethernet. The ether
of Ethernet is a reference to the hypothetical element, "lumeniferous ether," wh
ich from the 18th century up until Einstein s theory of relativity, many physici
sts believe to permeate the entire universe, holding it together and providing a
medium for electromagnetic (light) waves. The abstract concept of an Ethernet i
s, then, of a network of wires that can serve as a binding medium across which a
ll the different parts of the computer universe can communicate.
Ethernet Development (Continued)
Ethernet Today Today, Ethernet technology has achieved commodity status and is a
vailable from a wide range of manufacturers and distributors, generally leaving
consumers free to pick and choose from a variety of alternatives.
1997 shipments of network interface cards by technology. Source: IDC 1997 PC NIC
Market Forecast Summary, 1995-2001.
Since the first Ethernet components appeared on the market in the beginning of t
he 1980 s, Ethernet has gone on to become the most successful LAN technology in
the marketplace. As the figure above shows, Ethernet dominates the market today
and is likely to continue to do so for the foreseeable future. There are several
reasons why:
q
q
q
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Ethernet interfaces are available for almost any type of computer, from laptops
to mainframes. Ethernet devices are relatively easy to design and manufacture, a
nd as a result, relatively inexpensive. Ethernet is easy to install, maintain an
d troubleshoot, keeping the cost of ownership down. Ethernet has proved capable
of meeting demands for higher LAN speeds in a costeffective manner. 100Mbps Fast
Ethernet, only recently introduced, has been highly successful, and an IEEE sta
ndard for Gigabit Ethernet is expected to be finalized by the end of 1998.
ETHERNET BASICS
Module Description This module describes details of Ethernet operation and is th
e largest module of the course. Lesson 2.1 introduces the Ethernet Bus wire, and
describes the roles that network interface cards (NICs) and data frames play in
Ethernet communications. Lesson 2.1 also describes Ethernet s method for contro
lling access to the shared broadcast medium by drawing an analogy between Ethern
et and two-way radio. Lesson 2.1 also introduces and explains the CSMA/CD algori
thm, and illustrates the importance of configuration guidelines. Lesson 2.2 desc
ribes the place Ethernet occupies in the OSI reference model, and identifies the
basic network services that Ethernet provides. Lesson 2.3 describes in general
terms Ethernet cabling schemes, and explains the difference between physical and
logical topologies. Lesson 2.4 identifies the role of the MAC sublayer and the
Ethernet operations that take place at the MAC sublayer. Lesson 2.5 concludes Mo
dule 2 with an explanation of repeaters, switches and bridges. Module Objectives
q q q q q q q q q q q q
Identify the basic characteristics of the Ethernet bus Identify the function of
network interface cards Identify the basic components of the Ethernet frame Iden
tify the fundamental process of Ethernet communication Identify the basic concep
ts of the CSMA/CD algorithm Identify the importance of configuration guidelines
Identify the place Ethernet occupies in the OSI model Identify Ethernet s relati
onship to the upper layers of the OSI model Identify Ethernet bus and star topol
ogies Identify the difference between physical network topology and the logical
topology Identify the role of the MAC sublayer Identify the roles that repeaters
, switches and bridges play
Transmitting and Receiving Data
Lesson Objectives
q q q q q q
Identify the basic characteristics of the Ethernet bus Identify the function of
network interface cards Identify the basic components of the Ethernet frame Iden
tify the fundamental process of Ethernet communication Identify the basic concep
ts of the CSMA/CD algorithm Identify the importance of configuration guidelines
The Ethernet Bus Computers on an Ethernet network communicate with each other by
broadcasting packets of data on a shared wire, called an Ethernet bus. The Ethe
rnet bus is a single, continuous length of wire that serves as a medium for pack
et broadcasts. Each computer that participates in the network must connect direc
tly to the Ethernet bus. In the hypothetical small office environment shown in t
he figure below, the Ethernet bus winds through the entire office, passing close
ly by each computer. Each computer s physical connection to the network is compo
sed of a network interface card (NIC), a short drop line and a connector that ta
ps directly into the bus-wire.
Bus-type, coaxial cabling scheme for a small office.
Network Interface Card (NIC) Addresses and Ethernet Frames Ethernet distinguishe
s one computer from another by a unique address assigned to each NIC. Each NIC i
s both a sender and receiver of packets of data called Ethernet frames. When a c
ommunication technology, like Ethernet, packages or frames, data, it means simpl
y that routing information is being added to the beginning and the end of the or
iginal data. Once the data has been routed successfully, the routing information
is discarded, just like a postal envelope is often discarded once its contents
have been extracted. Furthermore, like postal envelopes, Ethernet frames can tra
nsport only a certain amount of data at a time. (For a standard frame, the maxim
um size of the data field is 1500 bytes.) Like sending a large letter in a serie
s of envelopes, Ethernet transports larger amounts of data in multiple frames. U
pon receiving each frame, the receiving computer discards the routing data and p
uts the original data back in order.
Transmitting and Receiving Data (Continued)
Unlike postal envelopes, however, which arrive all at once, an Ethernet frame ar
rives one bit at a time. Each Ethernet frame contains a structured series of dat
a fields that identify:
1. 2. 3. 4.
The beginning of the frame The address of the intended receiver The address of t
he sender The type of data being sent
Immediately following this information, the Ethernet frame includes the original
data, or the "content" of the frame. The frame ends with a mathematical value (
called a cyclic redundancy check, or CRC) that the receiving NIC uses to verify
the frame has been received correctly. The figure below illustrates the structur
e of a standard Ethernet frame.
Structure of a standard Ethernet frame.
Listening, Sending and Receiving Ethernet was designed to be a relatively simple
communications protocol. As a result, Ethernet bears many characteristics simil
ar to common technologies such as telephone, telegraph and radio. Though recent
advances in Ethernet switching technology have allowed Ethernet to operate more
like a telephone system, the original Ethernet bus actually operates more like a
two-way radio network of taxicab drivers.
Listening, Sending and Receiving (Continued) Taxicab fleets often use two-way ra
dios to share information about changing traffic patterns, pick-up locations, de
stinations and emergencies. All radio operators on the taxicab network hear all
messages that are broadcast. Most messages, however, are intended for use by onl
y one out of the many drivers. A typical radio message might sound as follows: "
Message to Taxi 99. This is Central. Pick-up at 144th and Broadway. Reply." Very
much like an Ethernet frame, the routing data ("Message to Taxi 99. This is Cen
tral") frames the core message (" Pick-up at 144th and Broadway"). There may be
thousands of messages like this broadcast over the radio each day. A taxicab ope
rator becomes accustomed, however, to overhearing all of the messages on his or
her radio, yet paying close attention, or "processing," only those messages spec
ifically addressed his or her taxicab. Computers on an Ethernet network function
essentially the same way. Like the two-way radio network of taxicab drivers, al
l computers connected to the Ethernet bus hear all broadcasts. Whenever one comp
uter sends a frame (or message) to another computer, the frame is broadcast over
the entire length of the bus-cable, which all computers share. As the frame arr
ives at each computer, the network interface card (NIC) checks the frame s addre
ss information. If the destination address of the frame matches the NIC s addres
s, the NIC processes the frame by checking the data packet s integrity and remov
ing the routing information. If the frame s destination address does not match t
he NIC s address, the NIC does not process any of the information and waits for
the next frame to arrive. Just like a taxicab driver, each NIC "listens" to all
messages, but only processes those messages specifically addressed to it.
Collisions On the taxicabs radio network, if no one is currently speaking, all
operators are free to contend for the open channel. Because only one radio opera
tor can be heard at a time, if one driver is already speaking, every other drive
r must wait until that person finishes before broadcasting a message of his or h
er own. If two operators begin to speak at the same time, both messages are garb
led, and each operator must stop speaking and wait until the channel is free. On
e of the operators may not realize that his or her message was garbled; in which
case, a third operator will ask him or her to restate the message. Once again,
Ethernet communication takes place in essentially this same way. When a computer
s NIC has a frame ready to send, it first listens to the network for any frames
from other computers already being broadcast. If there is a frame already being
transmitted on the bus, the NIC waits until that frame is completed and the bus
is free. It is possible, however, that two or more computers with frames to sen
d will listen to the network at the same time and thinking that the bus is free,
broadcast their frames simultaneously. The resulting garbled transmission is ca
lled a collision. The first NIC to detect the garbled transmission, sends out wh
at is called a jam signal that informs all the computers on the network that a c
ollision has occurred. The computers whose frames collided must then wait for a
random time before trying again to resend their frames. Because the time to wait
is randomly chosen, one computer s wait time will likely be shorter than the ot
her. The computer with the shorter wait time will gain access to the open bus fi
rst, and the second computer will then wait until the first computer s broadcast
is completed. Collisions are a normal part of Ethernet operations. The set of r
ules by which Ethernet handles collisions is called the CSMA/CD algorithm. CSMA/
CD stands for "carrier sense multiple access with collision detection," which si
mply is a technical way to refer to the sense-to-see-ifthe-line-is-free-before-y
ou-send method that the multiple computers on an Ethernet network use to share a
ccess to the broadcast channel. The collision detection part of the CSMA/CD algo
rithm defines many of the physical limitations of Ethernet and directly affects
how Ethernet networks must be configured.
The Fundamental Rule The fundamental rule of all Ethernet configuration guidelin
es is that collisions must be detected before a sending station completes the tr
ansmission of its frame. Basically, this means that the network connection betwe
en the two computers with the greatest distance between them must be short enoug
h, and the frame transmission long enough, so that if one of these two computers
happens to begin a transmission the instant before a transmission from the othe
r computer arrives, the consequent collision can be detected before either trans
mission is completed. Once a sending station completes its frame transmission, w
ithout having been interrupted by a jam signal, it assumes that the frame has be
en received intact and that it has been processed correctly. If a jam signal is
received by a sending station after it has completed its transmission, the sendi
ng station will assume that the collision belongs to a set of stations elsewhere
on the network. The importance of Ethernet stations being able to detect collis
ions before the completion of each frame transmission cannot be understated. If
the jam signal that results from a collision is not detected by the sending stat
ion before the sending station completes its transmission, the sending station h
as no way of knowing that it must retransmit its frame. Properly configured Ethe
rnet networks ensure that the distance between the two stations farthest apart o
n the network is short enough that when a collision occurs neither of these two
stations will have had time enough to finish its transmission before being inter
rupted by the jam signal.
Usually, the upper-layer protocol responsible for the frame s data packet will e
xpect a reply from the same upper-layer protocol on the receiving station. If th
e upper-layer protocol does not receive the expected reply within a certain time
frame, it will use Ethernet to resend the data. But as far as Ethernet is conce
rned, once the Ethernet NIC has been able to transmit its frame without the inte
rruption of a jam signal, Ethernet assumes the frame has arrived intact and has
been processed correctly.
Ethernet and the OSI Reference Model
Lesson Objectives
q q
Identify the place Ethernet occupies in the OSI model Identify Ethernet s relati
onship to the upper layers of the OSI model
Though Ethernet plays a critical role in network communications, this role is li
mited to a specific set of services that combine with upper-layer networking ser
vices to produce practical benefits such as network management, data security, f
ile transfer, remote access and messaging. Let s say, for example, you have crea
ted a document in a word processor, and you would now like to save this document
to a file in a directory on your workgroup s server before you attach it to an
e-mail message. When you give the command to save your file, in addition to the
actual transfer of data from your word processor to the hard disk on the server,
a variety of communications takes place between your computer and the server, i
ncluding requests for directory information, access rights and file creation. Th
ough all of these communications are broadcast by Ethernet over the Ethernet bus
, Ethernet neither initiates these kinds of network communications nor controls
them in a substantive way. Network services like file transfer, network manageme
nt, remote terminal access and network security are all facilitated by what are
called upper-layer protocols. Technically, Ethernet is merely a taxi service for
these upper layer protocols, which employ Ethernet to help accomplish their wor
k. According to Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) standards, in the hierarchy o
f network services, Ethernet works at the bottom as a servant to all the layers
above it. Open Systems Interconnection Reference Model The International Standar
ds Organization and the IEEE published the first Open Systems Interconnection st
andards in 1977. OSI standards are explained graphically using the OSI reference
model, shown in the figure below. The OSI reference model provides a comprehens
ive and modular framework for interconnecting computer systems from different ma
nufacturers. The OSI model defines seven separate and distinct layers of communi
cation that together provide a comprehensive suite of network services.
The Open Systems Interconnection reference model.
The OSI model does not define a specific technology for each layer. The OSI mode
l requires only that every technology be able to accept data from the immediate
layer below it and deliver data to the immediate layer above it using universall
y accepted methods. Though most networking solutions today do not strictly confo
rm to the boundaries of the OSI model, the OSI model still provides a solid fram
ework for understanding how networking technologies interoperate.
Layers of the OSI Model Layer Function
Layer 7 Layer 6 Layer 5 Layer 4 Layer 3 Layer 2 Layer 1
Application
This layer provides services to user applications.
Presentation This layer describes how data should be formatted when presented to
applications. It can also provide services like encryption and compression. Ses
sion Transport Network Data Link Physical This layer establishes, manages and en
ds connections between users and resources. This layer provides a reliable end-t
o-end connection across a network. This layer is responsible for routing packets
between end stations in a network. This layer can provide error handling, flow
control and arbitrates medium access. This layer defines the electrical, optical
and mechanical characteristics of a network connection.
Ethernet and the OSI Reference Model (Continued)
Ethernet and the OSI Model The Ethernet specification covers only the bottom lay
ers of the model, the physical layer and the lower half of the data link layer.
Ethernet provides two general services:
1. Ethernet connects computers together physically with cabling and network inte
rface
cards. 2. Ethernet transports data packets from the network layer service on one
computer to the network layer service of either one or a number of other comput
ers. As an Open Systems technology, Ethernet does not specifically exclude any p
articular network layer technology. For example, when Ethernet receives a TCP/IP
packet from the network layer, it treats the TCP/IP packet exactly the same as
it would a NetBEUI or IPX/SPX packet. Like a taxicab, Ethernet simply transports
the fare; it does not ask for names, only the destination.
Ethernet and the OSI Model
The Physical Layer
Lesson Objectives
q q
Identify Ethernet bus and star topologies Identify the difference between physic
al network topology and the logical topology
At the physical layer, the lowest layer of the OSI reference model, Ethernet spe
cifications cover details about the cabling requirements for Ethernet, including
the use of coaxial cable, twisted-pair wire, optical fiber and connectors. Phys
ical layer specifications also define data rates, as well as the electrical, mec
hanical and signaling characteristics of the physical medium. Physical layer spe
cifications describe how Ethernet represents data as either electrical signals s
ent over a wire or as light pulses sent through a fiber optic cable. Physical la
yer specifications also describe how Ethernet activates and deactivates connecti
ons. Today, a variety of specific cabling schemes can be used in the design of E
thernet networks. The advantages, disadvantages and limitations of each are disc
ussed in more detail in Modules 7 through 9, which cover operations, guidelines
and specifications for Ethernet running at 10Mbps, 100Mbps and 1000Mbps. In gene
ral, the physical configuration of an Ethernet network conforms to one of two ba
sic network topologies: bus or star. Ethernet Bus Topology Originally, the Ether
net bus was constructed using coaxial (10Base-5 and 10Base-2) cable, and compute
rs connected to the bus using coaxial drop cables, or by connecting directly to
the bus itself. On these networks, the Ethernet bus-cable stretches from one end
of the building to the other. Terminating resistors placed at each end of the b
us ensure that each broadcast signal travels the length of the wire only once. A
series of T-connectors, inserted along the length of the bus, provide fixed tap
points for individual computers. The bus winds though the building close enough
to each computer s NIC that each computer can be connected to a Tconnector eith
er directly or by using a short drop cable. The figure below shows the basic sch
ematic of Ethernet bus topologies.
Bus Topology
The Physical Layer (Continued)
Ethernet Star Topology Today, Ethernet LANs are built almost exclusively using t
wisted-pair wire to connect computers to a central hub (sometimes called a conce
ntrator). There are several reasons for this:
q q q
q
Twisted-pair wiring is easier to install than coaxial cable. Twisted-pair wiring
is significantly less expensive than coaxial cable. Twisted-pair wiring can be
used for other purposes besides Ethernet, for example, to carry voice. The star
configuration makes data traffic easier to monitor and troubleshooting simpler b
y concentrating the location of physical network connections in a small space (t
he hub).
Star network topology
In the star configuration shown in the figure above, the hub forms a central wir
ing closet that physically takes the place of the long, coaxial Ethernet bus. Ev
en though the star topology shown in the figure above looks radically different
from the bus topology shown in the figure before it, the basic operations of Eth
ernet are the same for both. The evolution from bus to star topologies is perhap
s best understood as simply a dramatic shortening of the Ethernet bus and an equ
ally dramatic elongation of the drop lines that connect individual computers to
the shared broadcast medium.
The Physical Layer (Continued)
The figure below shows the same office space shown in Lesson 2.1, this time cabl
ed using a star topology.
Star-shaped, twisted-pair wiring scheme for a small office.
A Physical Star, A Logical Bus Both Ethernet star and bus topologies connect com
puters in such a way that packet broadcasts from one station are received by all
other stations on the network. The network cabling still forms a shared broadca
st medium. Regardless of the shape of the network cabling scheme (star or bus),
the logical topology of Ethernet networks is a bus. The logical scheme for the b
us topologies shown in the previous figures is the same as depicted for the star
topologies.
If you find the concept of a star being a bus difficult to grasp, simply imagine
a very short bus enclosed inside the hub and very long drop cables connecting t
he network stations to the bus.
The MAC Sublayer
Lesson Objective
q
Identify the role of the MAC sublayer
The IEEE 802 series of network standards divides the second layer of the OSI ref
erence model, the data link layer, into two sublayers called the medium access c
ontrol (MAC) layer and the logical link control (LLC) layer. The IEEE 802.3 Ethe
rnet specification covers the physical layer and the MAC sublayer, but not the L
LC sublayer. The LLC sublayer uses the MAC sublayer to provide medium-independen
t link functions to the network layer above it.
MAC sublayer
When a computer transmits a frame, Ethernet operations at the MAC sublayer assem
ble the destination and source addresses for each Ethernet frame and calculate t
he frame s CRC checksum. At the receiving end, Ethernet operations at the MAC su
blayer process the destination address and verify the integrity of the frame usi
ng the CRC checksum. Ethernet s collision detection and handling protocol, the C
SMA/CD algorithm also operates at the MAC sublayer.
Repeaters, Switches and Bridges
Lesson Objectives
q
Identify the roles that repeaters, switches and bridges play in Ethernet network
ing
Repeaters, switches and bridges are physical networking components that will be
discussed in some detail later in the course. They are introduced here, however,
to provide a complete overview of the basic components of Ethernet networking.
Repeaters Technically, an Ethernet hub is also a repeater because it regenerates
the strength of all incoming signals and repeats them individually to each port
. Because collisions on an Ethernet network must be detected before a station co
mpletes the transmission of its frame (IEEE 802.3 standards actually limit the m
inimum collision detection time to 512 bits), the maximum allowable distance bet
ween any two stations on an Ethernet network operating at 10Mbps is 2500 m (mete
rs). Over a distance much less than this, however, electrical signals transmitte
d from an NIC lose their clarity and strength due to a natural weakening called
attenuation. 10Mbps signals over twisted-pair wire, for example, become undeciph
erable at a distance of a little over 100 m. For thick coaxial cable, this dista
nce is 500 m. Network hubs and repeaters work at the physical level to regenerat
e the strength of electrical signals so that distant segments of a network can s
hare the same broadcast medium. Switches Ethernet switches operate like intellig
ent hubs that repeat incoming frames only to the computer (or computers) to whic
h each frame is addressed. Thus, on a switched network with four computers (A, B
, C and D), computer A can broadcast to computer B, and computer C can broadcast
to computer D simultaneously, without a collision. In this simple example, Ethe
rnet switching effectively doubles total throughput of the network by allowing c
omputers A and C to broadcast at full network speed without having to wait for t
he first computer s broadcast to finish. As a result of their ability to signifi
cantly increase overall network throughput, switches are becoming an increasingl
y popular replacement for Ethernet hubs. Bridges Bridges operate at both the phy
sical layer and the MAC sublayer and connect otherwise completely separate Ether
net networks. Bridges sit between each network and repeat only those frames that
are specifically addressed to computers on the other side. By designing separat
e network domains connected with bridges, network traffic can be isolated withou
t sacrificing system-wide connectivity. Bridges can also connect networks runnin
g at different speeds with different topologies or communication protocols.
ETHERNET OPERATIONS
Module Description This module describes the details of data transmission and ac
cess control on Ethernet networks. Lesson 3.1 covers the CSMA/CD algorithm and f
ocuses particularly on the process of collision detection. Lesson 3.2 explains t
he reason for Ethernet s maximum distance specifications and, also, explains in
general how maximum distances are calculated. Lesson 3.3 defines the exponential
backoff algorithm, and discusses the role it plays in collision detection and r
etransmission process. Lesson 3.4 discusses the effect of collisions and excessi
ve collisions on performance. Lesson 3.5 concludes Module 3 by illustrating a nu
mber of ways that Ethernet networks can be configured to reduce collisions and i
ncrease performance. Module Objectives
q q
q q
q
q
Identify the operation of the CSMA/CD algorithm Identify the reasons there is a
limit to the distance between stations on an Ethernet network Identify Ethernet
s distance limitation in bit times Identify the operation and purpose of the bac
koff algorithm used to control retransmissions on an Ethernet Identify how to de
termine whether an Ethernet network is experiencing too many collisions Identify
some of the ways Ethernet networks can be segmented to reduce collisions
The CSMA/CD Algorithm
Lesson Objectives
q q
Identify the operation of the CSMA/CD algorithm Identify the reasons there is a
limit to the distance between stations on an Ethernet network
Module 2 briefly introduced the CSMA/CD algorithm and how it works to control ac
cess to Ethernet s shared, physical medium. The CSMA/CD algorithm defines when s
tations are allowed to transmit and for how long, as well as how to manage situa
tions in which two or more stations attempt to transmit at the same time. The fo
llowing two flow charts illustrate the decision making processes that an Etherne
t NIC completes when sending and receiving frames.
Flow chart for Ethernet frame transmissions.
The CSMA/CD Algorithm (Continued)
Flow chart for receiving Ethernet frame transmissions.
Because an Ethernet network uses a shared broadcast medium, network stations mus
t take turns transmitting data across the medium. If more than one station trans
mits data at the same time, the transmissions collide and the signal becomes und
ecipherable as a result. CSMA/CD stands for Carrier Sense, Multiple Access with
Collision Detection. "Carrier Sense"
means that network stations with data to transmit should first listen to determi
ne if another station is sending data. "Multiple Access" means that Ethernet pro
vides a number of stations the opportunity to transmit on the single cable. "Col
lision Detection" refers to the process by which stations detect simultaneous tr
ansmissions.
The CSMA/CD Algorithm (Continued)
Even though data signals travel near the speed of light, they still take time to
travel over the network medium. As illustrated by the series of figures below,
collisions can occur even though each station must check first to see if the med
ium is free. As a result, stations must continue to monitor for collisions even
after gaining access to the medium.
Station A transmitting
The figure above shows two stations connected to an Ethernet bus and 500 m apart
(about 1,640 ft [feet]). After station A begins to transmit, the signal travels
away from station A in both directions. The speed of signal propagation through
the cable varies slightly, depending on the cable type used. (Propagation is a
technical term for the process by which signals, or waves, travel across a mediu
m, such as wire, water or atmosphere.) Generally, signal propagation speed throu
gh copper and fiber cable is 2/3c, where c is the speed of light in a vacuum. He
nce, it will take the transmitted signal about 2.5 µs (microseconds) to travel 500
m. On a 10Mbps Ethernet network, this means that station A will have transmitte
d 25 bits (2.5 µs multiplied by (x) 10,000,000 bits/second) by the time the first
of the bits reaches station B. Now, assume that station B decides to begin a tra
nsmission immediately before the first bit from A s transmission has traveled th
e 500 m distance between the two stations. Because station B believes that the c
able is free, it will begin to transmit. Consequently, the two signals collide o
n the wire immediately afterwards, as shown in the figure below.
Collision
Station B discovers the collision right away and transmits a jam pattern to ensu
re that all stations on the network detect the collision. A jam pattern is a seq
uence of bits that is put together in such a way that the signal cannot be mista
ken for a valid transmission.
Station A detects the collision
It takes another 2.5 µs before the jam signal has traveled 500 m from station B to
station A. By the time station A discovers the collision and stops the transmis
sion, 5 µs have elapsed and, station A has already transmitted 50 bits.
Maximum Distance between Stations
Lesson Objectives
q
q
Identify the reasons there is a limit to the distance between stations on an Eth
ernet network Identify Ethernet s distance limitation in bit times
If the distance between station A and station B increases, station A will transm
it more and more bits without discovering a collision. If the stations are place
d too far apart, station A will complete its transmission before the collision i
s discovered. If this happens, when station A receives the jam signal, it will n
ot assume that its transmission was involved in the collision. Station A will, i
nstead, assume that the collision belongs to some other set of computers. One of
the significant assumptions of Ethernet operations is that once an Ethernet sta
tion is able to finish its transmission without being interrupted by either a ja
m signal or a collision, that station assumes that its transmission has been rec
eived successfully. Usually, the upper-layer protocol responsible for the frame
s data packet expects a response from the same upper-layer protocol on the recei
ving station. When the expected reply is not received within a specified time un
ique to each protocol, the upper-layer protocol on the sending station will use
Ethernet to resend the original data. These kinds of retransmissions, however, n
ot only result in unacceptable delays and network inefficiency, but they are als
o unnecessary. The Ethernet standard contains several specifications that ensure
collisions will be detected before a station finishes its transmission. First,
the standard limits that the maximum distance between two stations in such a way
that a station will not have transmitted more than 512 bits before a collision
is discovered. On a 10Mbps Ethernet network, the maximum distance between two st
ations cannot exceed 2,500 m (about 8,200 ft). On a 100Mbps Ethernet network, th
e maximum distance is much shorter because data is transmitted ten times faster;
thus, stations have less time to discover collisions. Second, the standard spec
ifies that an Ethernet frame must always be at least 512 bits (64 bytes) long. T
hird, Ethernet standards require transmitting stations to monitor the cable for
collisions throughout the first 512 bits of every transmission. After that, stat
ions are free to assume that a collision will not occur.
The round-trip propagation delay at 2,500 m is about 25 µs or only 250-bit times a
t 10Mbps. (Propagation is a technical term for the process by which signals, or
waves, travel across a medium, such as wire, water or atmosphere. The phrase "ro
und trip propagation delay" refers specifically to the time it takes for a singl
e Ethernet transmission to travel the length of the wire twice. The first signal
is assumed to be a data transmission and the second a jam signal.) What about t
he remaining 262-bit times? Some of it is there to allow a small delay in electr
onics circuits such as repeaters and network interface cards; the rest is a safe
ty margin. The maximum allowable distance between any two stations on an Etherne
t network operating at 10Mbps is 2500 m. Over a distances much less than this, h
owever, electrical signals transmitted lose their clarity and strength due to a
natural weakening called attenuation. Thus, repeaters are used to regenerate the
strength of electrical signals so that distant segments of a network can share
the same broadcast medium. (Technically, an Ethernet hub is also a repeater beca
use it regenerates the strength of all incoming signals and repeats them individ
ually to each port.)
Exponential Backoff Algorithm
Lesson Objective
q
Identify the operation and purpose of the backoff algorithm used to control retr
ansmissions on an Ethernet
After checking the broadcast medium and finding it is free, the sending station
assumes that no other station has frames to send, and so begins to transmit. Aft
er a collision has occurred, however, there are always at least two stations on
the network with frames to send. If after a collision, the affected stations wer
e to simply retransmit their frames immediately after the jam signal has finishe
d, the exact same collision will occur again. To avoid repeated collisions, Ethe
rnet uses an exponential backoff algorithm that requires each station affected b
y a collision to wait a randomly selected amount of time before retransmitting.
The station which randomly chooses the shortest backoff time will, then, be able
to transmit its frame without interference from the station that contributed to
the prior collision. Once the transmission from the station which randomly chos
e the shortest backoff time has been recognized by all other stations on the net
work, all stations must then wait until the transmission is completed before onc
e again contending for access to the network. According to Ethernet s exponentia
l backoff algorithm, once a collision occurs, all stations involved in the colli
sion will wait for an amount of time, called a slot time, before transmitting ag
ain. The slot time depends on the transmission speed. On 10Mbps Ethernet network
s, it is 51.2 µs. On Fast Ethernet networks, it is only 5.12 µs.
Exponential Backoff Algorithm (Continued)
If two stations both wait for the same number of slot times, the transmissions w
ill collide again. Thus, there is a range of slot times from which stations must
randomly choose after each unsuccessful transmission. Specified ranges for slot
times are shown in Table 3-3 below. Each time the station tries to retransmit a
nd encounters a collision, the maximum waiting time is doubled. If a first trans
mission attempt fails due to a collision, all stations involved in the collision
will wait between 0 and 2 slot times before attempting to transmit the frame a
second time. On 10Mbps Ethernet, this means that the waiting time will be either
0x51.2 µs, 1x51.2 µs or 2x51.2 µs. On the third attempt to transmit the frame, the wa
iting time will be between 0 and 4 slot times, on the fourth attempt between 0 a
nd 8 slot times and so on. After eleven successive collisions, maximum number of
slot times stays at 1,023. An Ethernet station will attempt to transmit the sam
e frame up to 16 times. After that, if the transmission has not been successfull
y completed, it will give up and discard the frame. Transmission Attempt 1 2 3 4
5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 Minimum Wait Slot Times N/A 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 Maximum Wait Slot Times N/A 2 4 8 16 32 64 128 256 512 1023 1023 1023
1023 1023 1023
17
Give up
Table 3-3. Backoff algorithm slot times
Give up
Collisions and Performance Considerations
Lesson Objective
q
Identify how to determine whether an Ethernet network is experiencing too many c
ollisions
It is important to understand that collisions are a normal occurrence on an Ethe
rnet; a collision Too many collisions will, however, decrease network is not an
error. performance. To decrease the number of collisions, you must, among other
things, limit the number of stations that share an Ethernet collision domain. To
determine whether a network is experiencing too many collisions, a network admi
nistrator must first determine the quality of service he or she expects to maint
ain. A good rule of thumb is that the following inequality should hold true: (Nu
mber of deferred transmissions + number of retransmissions) / Total number of tr
ansmissions < 5 percent.) In other words, if 95 percent of all transmissions are
not deferred (have to wait because another transmission is already taking place
) and do not have to be retransmitted because of a collision, the delay experien
ced by users is probably within acceptable limits. The definition of "acceptable
limits" is, of course, subjective. In some cases, users and management may be w
illing to accept a poorer quality of service from the network, and in other situ
ations, a 95 percent average availability may not be sufficient. Another way to
measure if an Ethernet network is experiencing too many collisions is to calcula
te the number of successive collisions that a transmitting station experiences.
In general, a transmitting station should experience a collision no more than tw
o times before it successfully transmits data.
Common Ethernet Errors The following is brief description of the most common err
ors on Ethernet networks and their most likely causes. Error statistics can be o
btained from several different sources, such as dedicated troubleshooting equipm
ent like network monitors and probes as well as from network equipment such as b
ridges, switches and routers. Short. A frame which is shorter than the minimum 6
4 bytes. Short frames can be caused by noisy connections, cable faults and fault
s in network hardware. If they occur often, remedial action should be taken. Cor
recting the problem usually means replacing defective cables or equipment. CRC E
rror. A frame which has been corrupted during transmission. A CRC error is regis
tered when the 4-byte checksum is invalid, that is the CRC information in the FC
S field does not match the CRC value computed by the receiving station. Frames w
ith CRC errors are discarded by the receiving hardware. CRC errors are usually c
aused by cable faults and other faults in the network. Correcting the problem us
ually means replacing defective cables or equipment. Alignment Error. Frames wit
h alignment errors are frames that are longer than 64 bytes, have a bad CRC and
are not an integral number of bytes in length; that is, the number of bits in th
e frame is not divisible by 8. Frames with alignment errors are discarded by the
receiving station because they have an invalid CRC. Alignment errors are usuall
y caused by cable faults or problems with network interface cards. Correcting th
e problem usually means replacing defective cables or network interface cards Lo
ng. A frame that is longer than the legal maximum length of 1518 bytes but short
er than 6000 bytes. Longs can have a negative impact on general network performa
nce and may result in users being disconnected. The station transmitting the ove
rsized frames has a hardware or software error. It should be found and removed f
rom the network. Giant. A frame that is longer than 6,000 bytes. The station tra
nsmitting the oversized frames
has a hardware or software error. It should be found and removed from the networ
k. Jabber. A long frame with a CRC or alignment error. "Jabbers" are usually cau
sed by a malfunctioning network interface card or external transceiver. The faul
ty equipment should be replaced. Late Collision. Occurs after the first 512 bits
have been transmitted by the sending station. Late collisions should never occu
r in a healthy Ethernet network or segment. A late collision can cause severe pe
rformance degradation because it cannot be detected by the sending station. Late
collisions are typically caused by misconfiguration, such as having too long ca
ble distances or by having more than 4 repeaters between one or more network sta
tions in a 10Mbps environment. The problem must be solved by changing the networ
k configuration so it complies with the guidelines. Excessive Collisions. As pre
viously described, an Ethernet station will try up to 16 times to transmit a fra
me. If all transmission attempts fail due to collisions the frame is discarded b
y the sending station. This situation is called an excessive collision. If this
occurs frequently due to heavy network traffic, the network should be redesigned
to relieve the congestion.
Collisions and Performance Considerations (Continued)
The figure below shows an example of how collision statistics might look on an E
thernet segment that is performing well. Notice that most transmissions succeed
after only two successive collisions. The number of transmissions that experienc
e more than six successive collisions is too small to be visible on the chart.
An Ethernet segment that is performing well. The total of all blue bars in the g
raph represents the total number of collisions on the network.
By contrast, following figure shows collision statistics on a heavily loaded Eth
ernet segment. Note that more of the transmissions experience multiple collision
s on this segment.
A heavily loaded Ethernet segment. The total of all blue bars in the graph repre
sents the total number of collisions on the network. Most of the retransmissions
on this network experience two or more successive collisions. Network congestio
n is so great that some transmissions reach the excessive collision limit and ar
e dropped by the sending station s NIC.
Network Segmentation
Lesson Objective
q
Identify some of the ways Ethernet networks can be segmented to reduce collision
s
Network managers can decrease the total number of collisions on a network in sev
eral ways. Network managers can:
q q q
Create multiple, small collision domains by segmenting network traffic. Increase
network efficiency by using switches in the place of hubs. Increase network spe
ed by implementing Fast Ethernet and Gigabit Ethernet on hightraffic backbones,
links between servers and clusters of power workstations.
Bridges Between Segments Later courses in advanced network design and management
will discuss these solutions in detail. The lesson focuses only on the general
concept of network segmentation. The figure below shows a basic network configur
ation that uses a single collision domain.
Network Segmentation (Continued)
The figure below shows a segmented network configuration that includes multiple
collision domains.
In the figure above, a bridge is used to connect segments. The bridge functions
as a selective repeater that retransmits the frames it receives only when they a
re specifically addressed to devices on the other side. As a general rule, netwo
rk engineers try to keep at least 80% of all traffic generated by a collision do
main within that same domain.
Network Segmentation (Continued)
Separate Domains on a Single Server Some network operating systems allow a singl
e server to use multiple NICs to create segmented networks. In this situation, e
ach NIC in the server functions as a separate network segment. Software running
on the server performs the function of a bridge. The server reads the destinatio
n address of each frame and repeats only those frames addressed to devices on th
e other segment. Using segmented collision domains on a single server not only d
ecreases the number of total collisions on the network, but also allows the serv
er to receive packets from two or more segments simultaneously. The figure below
illustrates a network configuration that includes two collision domains and onl
y one server.
ETHERNET FRAME COMPOSITION
Module Description This module discusses the composition of the Ethernet frame.
Lesson 4.1 gives a general overview of the contents of the Ethernet frame. Lesso
ns 4.2 through 4.7 each discuss in detail the content and purpose of each of the
Ethernet frame s six fields. Module Objectives
q q q q q
Identify the fields found in an Ethernet frame Identify the purpose of the pream
ble/SFD, type/length, data and FCS fields Identify the structure of MAC addresse
s Identify the difference between unicast, multicast and broadcast addresses Ide
ntify the purpose of having an interframe gap
Basic Ethernet Frame Composition
Lesson Objective
q
Identify the fields found in an Ethernet frame
The Ethernet frame can, perhaps, best be thought of as a container for safely an
d efficiently transporting data packets from one station to another. The general
format of an Ethernet frame is shown in the figure below.
Ethernet frame composition
Ethernet frames contain six fields in total. Each field, with the exception of t
he data field, is precisely defined both in length and content. Announcing the a
rrival of each frame, a 7-byte preamble serves to synchronize the sending statio
n s and the receiving stations clocks, ensuring that each frame is received at
the same speed it was sent. Following the preamble a 1-byte start-of-frame delim
iter signals to the receiving station that the substantive portion of the frame
is about to start. The destination address, source address and typeIlength field
s together form what is commonly referred to as the Ethernet header. The Etherne
t header contains control information used by Ethernet to identify the source, d
estination, size and protocol of the upperlayer data packet contained in the dat
a field. The data field immediately follows the header fields and varies in leng
th between 46 and 1500 bytes. All other fields in the frame have fixed lengths.
A frame check sequence field marks the end of the Ethernet frame and contains a
checksum value that can be used to verify the frame has not been corrupted in tr
ansit. The checksum is the result of a calculation of bit values derived from of
all other fields in the frame. Since the original Ethernet standard was publish
ed in 1980, a number of variant Ethernet frame types have been developed and are
now in common use. All of them, however, follow the basic structure shown in th
e figure above. Lessons 4.2 through 4.6 describe in detail the six basic fields
of an Ethernet frame.
Preamble/SFD
Lesson Objective
q
Identify the purpose of the preamble/SFD field
Ethernet frame composition: preamble/SFD field
Timing Ethernet is sometimes described as a bit-serial, synchronous transmission
facility. Bit-serial means that frames are transmitted and received one bit at
a time across the medium. The phrase synchronous transmission refers to the fact
that the clocks in both the sender and receiver must be synchronized in order f
or each bit to be correctly detected. Clock synchronization is important because
Ethernet uses precisely timed changes in signal strength to create recognizable
high-to-low and low-to-high patterns that, upon receipt, are interpreted as dig
ital 0 s or 1 s. An unsynchronized clock will time the signal incorrectly and wi
ll either not be able to interpret the signal at all or will misinterpret the si
gnal by reading high-to-low sequences as low-to-high sequences, and vice versa.
In such instances, the frame is said to be misaligned. Synchronization The Ether
net frame enables the receiving station to synchronize its clock with the sendin
g station by using a 7-byte (56-bit) series of alternating 1 s and 0 s, called a
preamble. The steady alteration of 1 s and 0 s in the preamble constitutes a si
mple way to encode clocking information in the signal itself. Like a drum roll u
sed to synchronize the feet of soldiers in a very fast march, the preamble s 56-
bits of alternating 1 s and 0 s allow the receiving station to adjust its clock
until the steady alterations of the preamble are timed correctly. Start of Frame
Delimiter The start of frame delimiter (SFD) is also an alternating binary 1 s
and 0 s pattern, except for the last two bits which are "11." The binary "11" se
quence alerts the receiver to the fact the preamble has ended and the Ethernet h
eader will now begin. At a first glance, the SFD appears unnecessary, because it
may seem that the receiver could simply count bits until 8 bytes (64 bits) have
been received and then start copying the frame to memory. However, the sender a
nd receiver clocks may be so far out of synchronization that
the receiver will not be able to synchronize on the signal immediately, thus all
owing an indeterminable portion of the preamble to pass by unrecognized.
Destination Address and Source Address Fields
Lesson Objectives
q q
Identify the structure of MAC addresses Identify the difference between unicast,
multicast and broadcast addresses
Ethernet frame composition: destination address and source address fields
The Structure of MAC Addresses Every NIC attached to an Ethernet network must ha
ve a unique 6-byte hardware address, usually called a MAC address. Illustrated i
n the figure below, the MAC address consists of two parts: a 3-byte manufacturer
ID and a unique 3-byte NIC ID number, assigned by the manufacturer. (On certain
first and second generation NICs, the MAC address can be manually set using a s
eries of jumper connections on the circuit board.)
MAC address structure
Technical manuals usually record the bytes of the MAC address using hexadecimal
notation, as opposed to writing out the binary digits. In an example MAC address
such as "00-A0-C9CE-20-03," the first three bytes, 00-A0-C9, represent the manu
facturer ID (Intel), the second three bytes, CE-20-03, represent the NIC ID. Usi
ng this same example, the first two bytes written using binary notation would re
ad 00000000-10100000. (Although, to make things somewhat interesting, Ethernet a
ctually reverses the bit-ordering of each byte when it is transmitted. So, the s
ame two bytes would actually be transmitted as 00000000-00000101.) Destination A
ddress The MAC address is, of course, each station s unique destination address
(DA). When a station recognizes its own MAC address in the destination address f
ield of an Ethernet frame, the station copies the rest of the frame to memory fo
r further processing by the CPU. When a station recognizes that the destination
address is not its own, that station simply disregards the rest of the frame. So
urce Address The source address (SA) field contains the MAC address of the sendi
ng station. The source
address field gives a receiving station the opportunity to respond to the origin
ating station either by confirming receipt of the frame, requesting the frame be
resent or answering a particular request. Unicast, Multicast and Broadcast Fram
es In addition to Ethernet s ability to send individual frames to a single works
tation (sometimes called a unicast), Ethernet also has the ability to send frame
s either to a group of stations on a single segment (a multicast) or to all Ethe
rnet stations on the network (a broadcast). Unicast Addresses. The unicast addre
ss for a particular destination is simply another name for an NIC s unique MAC a
ddress. An Ethernet frame sent to a unicast address is intended for one station
only. Unicast transmissions are used by clients requesting application or file s
ervices from a particular sever, and by servers responding to client-specific re
quests.
Destination Address and Source Address Fields (Continued)
Multicast Addresses. A multicast address identifies an entire group of stations
attached to the same Ethernet segment. Routing information updates, for instance
, are often sent to a multicast address. Routers on the network copy these frame
s from the wire, while other stations disregard them. Other examples of the use
of multicast addresses are video distribution and bridge packets used by the spa
nning tree algorithm. So that NICs instantly recognize a multicast address, the
first bit of a multicast address is always a binary 1. Broadcast Addresses. Each
network has only one broadcast address. The broadcast address, as it appears in
the destination address field, is composed entirely of binary 1 s. All stations
on the network are expected to copy Ethernet frames sent to the broadcast addre
ss and pass them to the CPU for further processing. Ethernet LAN services such a
s address resolution and service advertisements that rely on recurrent transmiss
ions to all stations frequently send packets to the broadcast address. Specific
examples include, the services provided by Address Resolution Protocol (ARP [a c
omponent of the TCP/IP suite]) and NetWare* SAPs. Multicast and broadcast addres
ses can appear only in the destination address field, never in the source addres
s field. A frame can be intended for a group of stations, but it will always be
sent from a specific station on the network.
The spanning tree algorithm is an IEEE 802 standardized method of communication
between bridges and switches. Most switches and bridges keep track of the layout
of a network by building a table of address information. The table tells the br
idge or switch which packets to forward and which to not forward. Sometimes brid
ges and switches contain conflicting address information, and, as a result, fram
es can become trapped in an endless loop of bridges and switches. In this case a
group of bridges or switches mistakenly forwards the packet in a circle among t
hemselves without ever forwarding the packet to the actual segment to which the
packet is addressed. The spanning tree algorithm works to help bridges and switc
hes communicate in order to both avoid loops and operate efficiently.
Type/Length Field
Lesson Objective
q
Identify the purpose of the type/length field
Ethernet frame composition: type/length field
Ethernet frames come in slightly different variants, with the main difference be
ing the type of information that is placed in the 2-byte field following the sou
rce address field. Generally speaking, this portion of the frame is used to desi
gnate either the size of the data field or the upper-layer protocol to which the
contents of the data field should be delivered (i.e., IPX, IP, DECnet, AppleTal
k, etc.). The contents and purpose of the type/length field are discussed in det
ail in Module 5, which discusses four of the most common Ethernet frame types.
Data Field
Lesson Objective
q
Identify the purpose of the data field
Ethernet frame composition: data field
Minimum Length Requirements The data field contains the data packet that will be
delivered to an upper-layer protocol, such as TCP/IP, IPX or DECnet. To ensure
correct detection of collisions on the network, the total length of an Ethernet
frame cannot be less than 64 bytes. The destination and source address fields, t
he type/length field and the frame check sequence field together account for 18
bytes. So the data field can never be less than 46 bytes long. Frames received t
hat are less than 64 bytes long are usually the byproducts of collisions and are
called runts. Switches and bridges, which examine an entire frame before forwar
ding it, immediately discard all runts, preventing them from propagating through
out the rest of the network. NICs, as well, immediately discard all frames that
do not meet the 64-byte minimum length requirement. Transmitting Small Amounts o
f Data What happens, though, if a station has less than 46 total bytes to transm
it? In a Telnet session, for instance, a single keystroke may be the only data a
station needs to transmit. In this case, the upper-layer protocol that requests
Ethernet to transmit the data simply pads the remaining portion of the data fie
ld with extra bytes until the 46-byte minimum requirement is met. At the receivi
ng end, the same upper-layer protocol is then required to remove the extra bytes
before passing the content of the data field (in this case, a single keystroke)
to the application.
Transmitting small amounts of data.
Data Field (Continued)
Transmitting Larger Amounts of Data The upper-limit size of the data field is 15
00 bytes, meaning that the total length of an Ethernet frame, including the DA,
SA, type/length and FCS fields, cannot exceed 1518 bytes. The 1500byte data fiel
d limit denotes Ethernet s compromise between transmission efficiency on the one
hand and network availability on the other. Striking a Balance If Ethernet were
to allow the transmission of very large frames, of say, 65,536 bytes or more, E
thernet s 18-byte overhead for each frame becomes comparatively insignificant to
the datapacket portion of the frame. It would take, however, approximately 52 m
s to transmit a frame of this size at 10Mbps. By computer standards 52 ms is a l
ong time and could lead to unacceptably long wait times for other stations. Thou
gh smaller upperlimits on frame size can substantially decrease wait times for a
ccess to the network, they unfortunately increase the overall amount of overhead
on the wire, and thus decrease the total amount of data throughput that the net
work can provide. Using Ethernet s minimum 64-byte frame size, with a minimum 46
bytes for data packets, overhead for small packets is 28% of the total transmis
sion. For maximum-sized, 1518-byte Ethernet frames, overhead falls to 11% of the
total transmission. While it is true that certain applications would benefit fr
om a larger maximum Ethernet frame size, many other applications would benefit e
qually as well from a smaller frame size. As Ethernet speeds continue to increas
e, however, from 10Mbps to 100Mbps, and now 1000Mbps, the relative efficiency or
inefficiency of Ethernet compared to other possible networking schemes continue
s to diminish in importance.
Frame Check Sequence
Lesson Objective
q
Identify the purpose of the FCS field
Ethernet frame composition: frame check sequence
The frame check sequence (FCS) field contains a checksum called a cyclic redunda
ncy check (CRC) that can be used to verify that the frame has not corrupted in t
ransit. The frame check sequence is simply the result of a complex division prob
lem applied to the contents of the frame. The transmitting station calculates th
e CRC value as the frame is transmitted and places the result in the FCS field.
When the frame is received, the receiving station performs the same calculation
and compares the resulting CRC value with the one found in the FCS field. If the
two values match, the receiving station accepts the frame. If the two values do
not match, the receiving station assumes the frame has been corrupted, and cons
equently discards it.
Note that the FCS field does not constitute a security mechanism. A sophisticate
d user with malicious intentions and the appropriate tools could change the fram
e, recalculate the CRC value and place it in the FCS field. The receiver would t
hen be unable to detect that the frame has been tampered with. The FCS is intend
ed only to protect against errors caused by noise on the transmission medium or
by malfunctioning network equipment.
Interframe Gap
Lesson Objective
q
Identify the purpose of having an interframe gap
After a frame has been successfully transmitted and received, Ethernet specifica
tions require that an interframe gap of at least 96 bit-times pass before any st
ation on the network can transmit the next frame. At 10Mbps, 96 bit-times transl
ates to 9.6 µs. The reason for the 9.6 µs interframe gap is to allow enough time for
station that last transmitted to cycle its circuitry from transmit mode to rece
ive mode. Without the interframe gap, it is possible for a station that has just
completed a transmission to miss a frame destined for it because it has not yet
cycled back into receive mode. Even though modern Ethernet devices are capable
of cycling from send mode to receive mode in a shorter time than the 9.6 µs allowe
d, the 96 bit-time interframe gap specification is still a part of the official
standard, and is included in the specifications for Fast Ethernet as well. At Fa
st Ethernet speeds, however, 96 bit-times translates to 960 ns (nanoseconds), on
e-tenth of the time for 10Mbps Ethernet. Some Ethernet manufacturers currently m
arket NICs (and Ethernet switches, as well) that use an interframe gap that is s
maller than 96 bit-times specified by IEEE 802.3 standards. By shortening the in
terframe gap, manufacturers can claim an increased overall network throughput co
mpared to their competitors. Network administrators must be cautious, however, w
hen devices that meet the 9.6 µs specification are combined with devices that use
a shorter interframe spacing. Mixing devices that use different interframe gap t
imes increases the potential for dropped packets, which in turn results in upp
er-layer protocol initiated retransmissions. Dropped packets can significantly r
educe overall network performance, and, in certain instances, cause client stati
ons to lose their connection to the network. Optional Exercise** Check your unde
rstanding of an Ethernet Frame! This interactive exercise allows you to apply yo
ur knowledge of frame fields and sizes.
**This exercise requires the Macromedia Shockwave* plugin.
Drag the components of an Ethernet frame into their correct positions. The field
names go in the empty blue squares; the field sizes go in the empty black squar
es.
ETHERNET FRAME TYPES
Module Description Since the publication of the original DIX Ethernet standard i
n 1980, a variety of Ethernet frame types have been developed. This module ident
ifies these variant frame types and in what situations they are most commonly us
ed. Module Objectives
q q q
Identify the structure of variant Ethernet frame types Identify the reasons behi
nd the development of each variant frame type Identify naming conventions for va
riant Ethernet frame types
Overview
Lesson Objectives
q q
Identify the concept of data overhead Identify the use of multiple frame types
From the point of view of a network-layer protocol, everything in an Ethernet fr
ame, excluding the data field, must be considered overhead. Generally speaking,
the amount of overhead a frame uses is directly related to the sophistication of
the services it can support. Each of the frame types covered in this module att
empts to strike a useful balance between efficiency and sophistication. The Ethe
rnet II frame, for example, includes only 26 bytes of overhead information (coun
ting the preamble) for each data packet. The Ethernet SNAP frame, on the other h
and, includes 34 bytes of overhead information (counting the preamble) for each
data packet. Though the Ethernet II frame provides a more efficient use of netwo
rk bandwidth, the Ethernet SNAP frame is able to support a broader range of uppe
r-layer protocols, including AppleTalk. Many networks support several frame type
s at the same time. A network using TCP/IP, IPX and AppleTalk, for example, may
support up to three different frame types: Ethernet II for TCP/ IP, Novell 802.3
for IPX, and Ethernet SNAP for AppleTalk support. The purpose of this module is
to describe the overhead information unique to each Ethernet frame type, and re
asons why particular information is included in some frames and excluded in othe
rs.
Ethernet II Frame
Lesson Objectives
q q
Identify the structure of Ethernet II frame Identify the reasons behind the deve
lopment the Ethernet II frame
The original Ethernet standard published by Digital, Intel and Xerox defines the
format for the Ethernet II frame. (What might be called the Ethernet I frame wa
s used only in the developmental stages of Ethernet and was not published as par
t of the jointly developed standard.) As illustrated in the figure below, the Et
hernet II frame includes a 2-byte type field that immediately follows the source
address.
Ethernet II Frame
The type field is used to contain a value called an EtherType that identifies th
e type of data in the data field. By assigning a unique value to each upper-laye
r protocol, the type field indicates to the receiving station which protocol (i.
e., IPX, IP, DECnet, AppleTalk, etc.) should handle the contents of the data fie
ld. If the data field contains IP data, for example, the EtherType value is set
to 0x0800. If the data field contains IPX data, the EtherType value is set to 0x
8137, and for AppleTalk the value is 0x809B. All EtherType values are equal to d
ecimal numbers greater than 1500, which serves to distinguish Ethernet II frames
from IEEE 802.3 frames, which replace the type field with a size field (which i
s always less than 1500). Generally speaking, the Ethernet II frame is the most
commonly used frame-type. TCP/IPbased networks use the Ethernet II frame almost
exclusively, as does DECnet. Many Novell networks, as well, are configured to us
e Ethernet II frames. Optional Exercise** Check your understanding of an Etherne
t II Frame! This interactive exercise allows you to apply your knowledge of fram
e fields.
Drag the fields of an Ethernet II frame into their correct positions.
IEEE 802.3 Ethernet Frame with IEEE 802.2 LLC Header
Lesson Objectives
q q q q
Identify the structure of the IEEE 802.3 frame Identify the 802.2 LLC header Ide
ntify the reasons behind the development of the IEEE 802.3 frame Identify naming
conventions for variant frame types
Most networks can be configured to use either Ethernet II or IEEE 802.3 frames,
and sometimes both. For example, Novell networks now use the IEEE 802.3 frame by
default for IPX/SPX packets and the Ethernet II frame for TCP/IP packets, thoug
h some network administrators prefer to use the Ethernet II frame for both. A ne
twork administrator s decision to support the Ethernet II frame but not the IEEE
802.3 frame, or vice versa, is highly dependent upon the particular circumstanc
es and is often a matter of mere preference. Generally speaking, even though the
IEEE 802.3 frame is the officially recognized international standard, the Ether
net II frame is still the most widely implemented and widely supported frame typ
e. The IEEE 802.3 frame replaces Ethernet II s 2-byte type field with a 2-byte l
ength field and adds a 3-byte LLC (logical link control) header to the data fiel
d. The figure below illustrates the format of the IEEE 802.3 frame.
Ethernet IEEE 802.3 frame with IEEE 802.2 LLC header
You will remember that the IEEE 802 standard breaks up the OSI model s data link
layer into the MAC (medium access control) sublayer and the LLC sublayer. While
the IEEE 802.3 standard specifies operations for the physical layer and the MAC
sublayer, the IEEE 802.2 standard specifies operations for the LLC sublayer. Th
e LLC header, thus, contains information that enables the LLC layer to hand off
the contents of the data field to the appropriate network layer protocol. The LL
C header is actually comprised of three 1-byte fields: the destination service a
ccess point (DSAP), the source service access point (SSAP) and the control field
. Length Field The length field identifies the combined length of the LLC and da
ta fields in number of bytes. The value of the length field will always be equal
to a number between 46 – 1500. Since EtherType values always equal a number great
er than 1500, and 802.3 length values always equal a number 1500 or less, it is
possible for most network hardware and software to distinguish between Ethernet
II and IEEE frame types, and thus support both types of frames running on the sa
me network.
IEEE 802.3 Ethernet Frame with IEEE 802.2 LLC Header (Continued)
DSAP and SSAP Fields The DSAP (destination service access point) field serves th
e same purpose as the EtherType used in the Ethernet II frame. The DSAP field id
entifies which protocol should handle the contents of the data field. For instan
ce, if the data field contains a NetWare* IPX/SPX packet, the DSAP field s hexad
ecimal value is set to 0xEO. The SSAP (source service access point) field identi
fies the upper-layer protocol that sent the data packet. Because the source prot
ocol and the destination protocol are typically the same for each data field, th
e corresponding values for the SSAP and DSAP fields are, also, typically the sam
e. Ctrl Field The ctrl field s value distinguishes between different types of LL
C headers. The operation of the LLC layer is not, however, specified by Ethernet
standards. IEEE 802.3 Naming Conventions Because a number of frame types are ba
sed on the IEEE 802.3 frame, commonly-used naming conventions for both the IEEE
802.3 frame and its variants can be confusing. For example, certain networking v
endors refer to the IEEE 802.3 frame as the IEEE 802.3/802.2 frame, while other
vendors, such as Novell, refer to the IEEE 802.3 frame simply as the IEEE 802.2
frame. The following table correlates commonly-used naming conventions with tech
nically correct terminology. Common Name DIX frame 802.3/802.2 frame 802.2 frame
SNAP frame Ethernet II frame IEEE 802.3 frame with 802.2 header IEEE 802.3 fram
e with 802.2 header and Sub-Network Access Protocol encapsulation Technical Desc
ription
Novell 802.3 frame A frame type that uses the structure of the IEEE 802.3 frame
without 802.3 raw the 802.2 header. It is used only on Novell networks. Optional
Exercise** Check your understanding of an IEEE 802.3 Ethernet Frame with IEEE 8
02.2 LLC Header! This interactive exercise allows you to apply your knowledge of
frame fields.
Drag the fields of an IEEE 802.3 Ethernet Frame with IEEE 802.2 LLC Header into
their correct positions.
IEEE 802.3 Frame with SNAP Encapsulation
Lesson Objectives
q q
Identify the structure of the SNAP frame Identify the reasons behind the develop
ment of the SNAP frame
Driven largely by the TCP/IP community, the addition of sub-network access proto
col (SNAP) to the IEEE 802.3 frame was designed to expand the number of upper pr
otocols that Ethernet can support. Manufacturers have not, however, implemented
SNAP on even a modest scale. Today, the Ethernet SNAP frame is most commonly use
d to support Ethernet Macintosh* clients running AppleTalk. Expanding Protocol S
upport Because the DSAP and SSAP fields of the IEEE 802.2 frame are only eight b
its (one byte) long, with two of the eight bits reserved for other purposes, the
IEEE 802.2 frame can assign unique values to only 64 protocols. In order to pro
vide support more than 64 protocols, the Ethernet SNAP frame includes an additio
nal 5 bytes of header information, usually called the SNAP ID. The SNAP ID is di
vided in two parts: a 3-byte organizationally unique identifier (OUI), sometimes
called a code field, and a 2-byte type field (equivalent to the EtherType field
in the Ethernet II frame).
Ethernet SNAP Frame
On networks that support multiple frame types, Ethernet SNAP frames are recogniz
ed by the content of the DSAP, SSAP and ctrl fields. For Ethernet SNAP frames, t
he hexadecimal value of both the DSAP and SSAP fields equals 0xAA, and the value
for the ctrl field equals 0x03. The SNAP ID Fields The purpose of the OUI, or c
ode, field is to give individual vendors the ability to assign their own unique
values for protocols running on their own equipment. In practical use, however,
with the exception of certain Apple protocols, the content of the code field is
always set to "0000-00" and the value in the "type" field is the same value that
is used in the Ethernet II type field. Optional Exercise**
Check your understanding of an IEEE 802.3 Frame with SNAP Encapsulation! This in
teractive exercise allows you to apply your knowledge of frame fields.
Drag the fields of an IEEE 802.3 Frame with SNAP Encapsulation into their correc
t positions.
Novell 802.3 Frame
Lesson Objectives
q q
Identify the structure of Novell 802.3 frame Identify the reasons behind the dev
elopment of the Novell 802.3 frame
Novell Ethernet 802.3 frame
Like the IEEE 802.3 frame, the Novell 802.3 frame differs from the Ethernet II f
rame by using a length field in the place Ethernet II s type field. The Novell 8
02.3 frame is used exclusively on Novell networks. The Novell 802.3 frame is oft
en called "802.3 raw" because it does not use the 802.2 LLC header in the data f
ield. Because the Novell 802.3 frame does not provide a "type" or "DSAP" field f
or encoding protocol information, the Novell 802.3 frame cannot support upper-la
yer protocols of different types, and is used for Novell IPX data only. As the f
igure above shows, the Novell 802.3 frame contains less overhead than either the
IEEE 802.3 frame or the SNAP frame and the same amount of overhead as the Ether
net II frame. Because of its low overhead, the Novell 802.3 frame is extremely e
fficient. Its lack of sophistication, however, has caused even many Novell netwo
rk administrators to resist its use. Optional Exercise** Check your understandin
g of a Novell 802.3 Frame! This interactive exercise allows you to apply your kn
owledge of frame fields.
Drag the fields of a Novell 802.3 Frame into their correct positions.
FULL-DUPLEX ETHERNET
Module Description This module explains how full-duplex Ethernet works, where it
is commonly implemented and what its benefits are. Lesson 6.1 compares full-dup
lex and half-duplex operation by using analogies that include telephone and two-
way radio communication models. Lesson 6.2 explains how full-duplex links can be
used to increase overall network throughput, and Lesson 6.3 explains how distan
ce limitations are affected by full-duplex operation. Lesson 6.4 concludes the m
odule by briefly identifying the role full-duplex plays in the use of Gigabit Et
hernet. Module Objectives
q q q q q
Identify how full-duplex Ethernet works Identify the benefits and limitations of
full-duplex Ethernet Identify how full-duplex Ethernet affects distance limitat
ions Identify connection limits of full-duplex Ethernet Identify use of full-dup
lex with Gigabit Ethernet
Full-duplex and Half-duplex Compared
Lesson Objective
q
Identify how full-duplex Ethernet works
To understand the difference between full-duplex and half-duplex communication m
odes, consider the difference in convenience there is using modern telephones ve
rsus using twoway radios. Two-way radio operates in half-duplex communication mo
de, where all communicants share a single broadcast channel and when one person
speaks, all must listen if anybody is to be heard at all. Ethernet, of course, w
orks in a similar way and uses the CSMA/ CD algorithm to establish rules for sha
ring the same broadcast channel. Modern telephones, on the other hand, operate i
n full-duplex mode using two broadcast channels simultaneously. Full-duplex mode
allows one person s transmission channel to function exclusively as the other p
erson s receive channel, and vice versa. Using full-duplex communication, both p
arties can speak and listen at the same time without encountering garbled transm
issions that would otherwise result from simultaneous broadcasts.
The Benefits of Full-duplex Ethernet
Lesson Objectives
q q
Identify the benefits of full-duplex Ethernet Identify connection limits of full
-duplex Ethernet
Using twisted-pair, twinax, or fiber optic cabling and full-duplex compatible NI
Cs, full-duplex Ethernet allows two stations to transmit and receive data simult
aneously.
Full-duplex Ethernet operation. In this case, two computers are directly connect
ed using a medium type that has two separate channels. Full-duplex operation all
ows Station A to transmit on Station B s receive channel at the same time Statio
n B is transmitting on Station A s receive channel.
Full-duplex links not only double potential throughput, but also eliminate colli
sions, as well as the need for each station to wait until the other station fini
shes transmitting. If reads and writes on a full-duplex link are symmetric, data
throughput can be doubled. In actual usage, however, bandwidth improvements are
more modest. Full-duplex Ethernet and Fast Ethernet links are particularly usef
ul for server-to-server, server-to-switch and switch-to-switch connections. On a
switch equipped with a full-duplex port, a packet arriving at a half-duplex por
t can be relayed on the full-duplex port, as soon as it has determined that the
incoming packet on the half-duplex port has not been damaged by a collision. Add
itionally, packets arriving from a fullduplex port can be forwarded as soon as t
he destination is determined, since there are no collisions on a full-duplex lin
k. With both Ethernet and Fast Ethernet, full-duplex segments are, however, limi
ted to a single connection between two devices (for example, between a server an
d a switch). For three or more devices attached to the same segment, only half-d
uplex operation is possible.
Full-duplex and Distance Limitations
Lesson Objective
q
Identify the distance limitations of full-duplex Ethernet
Because full-duplex operation eliminates the need to detect collisions, distance
s between devices can be extended to the full length that the medium is able to
transmit a recognizable data signal. For example, with Fast Ethernet running on
multimode fiber the maximum distance between devices is extended from about 400
m to approximately 2000 m. Due to UTP cable s higher rate of attenuation, the ma
ximum distance between devices for UTP cable is 100 m, the same as for half-dupl
ex.
Full-duplex Mode and Gigabit Ethernet
Lesson Objective
q
Identify use of full-duplex with Gigabit Ethernet
Gigabit Ethernet has been developed to use full-duplex mode almost exclusively.
Running at Gigabit Ethernet speeds a switch-like device called a buffered distri
butor will connect multiple full-duplex Gigabit Ethernet devices. Initially, all
Gigabit Ethernet devices manufactured will support full-duplex operation.
ETHERNET OPERATION AT 10MBPS
Module Description The IEEE 802.3 specification designates Ethernet implementati
on types according to the cabling used and the speed of data transfer. This modu
le covers the specifications for Ethernet operating at 10Mbps over coaxial, unsh
ielded twisted-pair and fiber optic cabling. Lesson 7.1 covers Ethernet designat
ions 10Base-5 and 10Base-2, which specify the use of coaxial and thin coaxial ca
ble. Lesson 7.2 covers the designation 10Base-T, which specifies the use of unsh
ielded twisted-pair cabling, the most widely used medium for new Ethernet implem
entations. Lesson 7.3 covers the designation 10Base-FL, which specifies the use
of fiber optic cabling. Lastly, Lesson 7.4 reviews a number of configuration gui
delines for 10Mbps Ethernet implementations. Module Objectives
q q q q q q q q
Identify the characteristics of 10Base-5 and 10Base-2 Identify the topology and
limitations of 10Base-5 and 10Base-2 networks Identify the differences and simil
arities between 10Base-T and 10Base-5/10Base-2 Identify the characteristics of 1
0Base-T and 10Base-FL Identify twisted-pair (UTP) wiring categories Identify UTP
connectors Identify important guidelines to follow when building 10Mbps Etherne
t networks Identify rules specific to 10Base-FL
10Base-5 and 10Base-2
Lesson Objectives
q q q
Identify the differences and similarities between 10Base-T and 10Base-5/10Base-2
Identify the characteristics of 10Base-FL Identify important guidelines to foll
ow when building 10Mbps Ethernet networks
The 10Base-5 designation was the first Ethernet implementation type to be define
d by Ethernet standards. 10Base-5 designates a network that is implemented at 10
Mbps, uses baseband transmission, and can carry a signal a maximum distance of 5
00 m without the use of a repeater. Unfortunately, cabling used for 10Base-5 is
rigid, difficult to work with and expensive to install. 10Base-2 was, however, i
ntended to be easier to use. Because it is thinner, 10Base-2 cable is cheaper to
buy and to install than 10Base-5. 10Base-2 cable segments can only be 185 m (ab
out 600 ft) long. Both 10Base-5 and 10Base-2 networks use a physical bus topolog
y. On 10Base-5 networks, workstations attach to the bus cable using drop cables
over distances up to 40 m (about 130 ft) long. On 10Base-2 networks, a computer’s
network interface card attaches directly to the bus, using a T-connector. Both t
ypes of coaxial bus cables require terminating resistors placed at each end of t
he cable. Without terminators, signals are reflected back into the medium from t
he end of the bus cable, causing each transmission to collide with itself. The f
igure below shows how computers are attached to the bus cable on 10Base-5 and 10
Base-2 networks.
10Base-5 and 10Base-2 bus
10Base-5 and 10Base-2 (Continued)
Because the 10Base-5 and 10Base-2 specifications require networks to use the phy
sical bus topology, these implementations present a number of limitations, inclu
ding the following:
q
q
A cable or connection problem anywhere on the network’s bus is likely to cause pro
blems for all users. For instance, if a user on a 10Base-2 cable segment breaks
the bus by removing his or her workstation’s T-connector, the users on that cable
segment lose access to the network, as shown in the animation below. There is no
central location from where users can be added to or removed from the bus witho
ut disrupting the entire network. Adding a new user to a 10Base-2 cable requires
that the cable be cut to insert a new T-connector. If a workstation on a 10Base
-5 network must be moved more than 40 m from the cable, the bus cable must be mo
ved to accommodate that workstation.
If a user on a 10Base-2 cable segment breaks the bus by removing his or her work
station’s T-connector, the users on that cable segment lose access to the network.
10Base-T
Lesson Objectives
q q q q
Identify the differences and similarities between 10Base-T and 10Base-5/10Base-2
Identify the characteristics of 10Base-T Identify twisted-pair (UTP) wiring cat
egories Identify UTP connectors
The IEEE addressed the implementation and maintenance difficulties of Ethernet b
us topologies with specifications for Ethernet 10Base-T. The 10Base-T designatio
n not only includes the use of inexpensive, unshielded twisted-pair cabling (whi
ch is similar to telephone wire), but it also specifies the use of a star topolo
gy which makes both the implementation and maintenance of Ethernet 10Base-T netw
orks significantly easier compared to 10Base-2 and 10Base-5. In addition, becaus
e 10Base-T uses two wire pairs, one for transmitting data and one for receiving
data, 10Base-T makes full-duplex operation possible. 10Base-2 and 10Base5, on th
e other hand, allow only half-duplex operation. The definitive advantages of 10B
ase-T over coaxial-based networks have made it the most widely implemented Ether
net standard. 10Base-T networks use Category 3, or higher, unshielded twisted-pa
ir (UTP) cable. UTP cabling categories are defined in the Electronic Industry As
sociation and Telecommunications Industry Association (EIA/TIA) 568 cabling stan
dards, which currently include 5 categories for UTP cable. Categories are distin
guished by the quality of the cable, or the speed at which reliable communicatio
n can take place. In appearance, all UTP cables look similar to telephone wire.
The figure below shows a Category 5 UTP cable.
Category 5 Unshielded twisted-pair
10Base-T (Continued)
The table below lists all five UTP cabling categories and their associated perfo
rmance standards: UTP Category Rated Performance Applications
Category 1 (cat 1) No performance criteria Used in some older telephone systems.
Category 2 (cat 2) Rated to 1MHz Category 3 (cat 3) Rated to 16MHz Category 4 (
cat 4) Rated to 20MHz Category 5 (cat 5) Rated to 100MHz Used for telephone wiri
ng. Used for 10Base-T. Widely deployed, especially in older installations. Used
for 10Base-T and Token Ring. Used for 10Base-T, 100Base-T (Fast Ethernet), and o
ther high-speed network technologies.
On 10Base-T networks each computer is attached to a central hub using UTP cables
over distances up to 100 m (328 ft) long. When the maximum 100 m distance is us
ed, the cable running from the wall plate to the cable closet should be no longe
r than 90 m, leaving 10 m for the connection between the computer and the wall p
late and for the patch cables used in the wiring closet. Computers are attached
to the UTP cable by an RJ-45 style connector, shown in the figure below.
RJ-45 jack and connector
10Base-T (Continued)
The hubs at the center of a 10Base-T network are actually multiport repeaters. A
signal from one station enters the hub on one port and is repeated on all the o
ther hub ports as illustrated in the figure below.
Repeater hub operation
Because 10Base-T networks use a star topology with hubs at the center, 10Base-T
networks provide several advantages over 10Base-5 and 10Base-2.
1. The hubs repeat only valid signals, so if there is a problem on a cable, it a
ffects only the
workstation directly attached to the cable, as shown in the animation below. 2.
With a hub, administrators can add or remove computers from the network without
disrupting other computers. 3. On 10Base-T networks, both hubs and NICs show whe
ther a connection is active or not by using green LEDs that give users live feed
back about the status of the connection. This makes troubleshooting a 10Base-T n
etwork much simpler than troubleshooting 10Base-5 and 10Base-2 networks.
10Base-FL
Lesson Objective
q
Identify the characteristics of 10Base-FL
The 10Base-FL specification resembles 10Base-T in several respects. Each compute
r on a 10Base-FL network connects to a central hub. In addition, 10Base-FL can o
perate in fullduplex mode. The main difference between 10Base-T and 10Base-FL is
10Base-FL s use of optical fiber cable instead of UTP. Fiber optic cabling is m
ost commonly used to connect hubs to other hubs. The fiber used is multimode 62.
5/125 fiber. Each fiber connects to networking equipment using a bayonet-type co
nnector known as an ST connector. Optical fiber cable (specifically, the transmi
tters and receivers designed to work with fiber) is more expensive than UTP cabl
e. However, optical fiber cable can span much greater distances than UTP cable.
Thus, on 10Base-FL networks, full-duplex links between hubs can be up to 2,000 m
(about 6,560 ft). Moreover, optical fiber cable can potentially support future
data transmission rates of several hundreds of megabits per second.
62.5/125 means that the fiber s core is 62.5 microns in diameter, with an outer
cladding of 125 microns. Multimode fiber has a relatively large core diameter an
d uses inexpensive light emitters and receivers. It is the type of fiber optic c
abling most often used on LANs. By contrast, monomode fiber has a narrow core di
ameter and uses expensive transmitters and receivers. It can be used over longer
distances than multimode fiber cable.
Implementation: 10Mbps Ethernet Configuration Guidelines
Lesson Objectives
q q
Identify important guidelines to follow when building 10Mbps Ethernet networks I
dentify rules specific to 10Base-FL
In addition to the Ethernet specifications described in the previous lessons, th
ere are a number of general guidelines that must be followed when implementing a
10Mbps Ethernet LAN. The 5-4-3 Rule All 10Mbps Ethernet networks must follow th
e 5-4-3 rule. (The 5-4-3 rule applies only to 10Mbps Ethernet. Fast Ethernet and
Gigabit Ethernet s faster wire speeds reduce the maximum allowable distance bet
ween stations, and also reduce the number of repeaters that can be used in a sin
gle collision domain.) The 5-4-3 rule states that a single 10Mbps collision doma
in can consist of five cable segments connected by four repeaters. Only three of
the cable segments, however, may be populated with network stations. The figure
below shows one possible configuration that the 5-4-3 rule allows.
This configuration consists of 5 total segments of 100 m each, 4 repeaters, with
only 3 of the segments populated with network devices. The longest distance bet
ween any two stations is between the PCs on the left and the servers on the righ
t. The total network diameter is 500 m.
Because only three of the five Ethernet segments are allowed to be populated wit
h network devices, this means that one of the four repeaters must serve only to
connect one repeater to another, as the third repeater from the left does in the
figure above. At first, this repeater may seem unnecessary. Why couldn t you si
mply connect the second and fourth repeaters to each other directly? The simples
t answer is that the second and fourth repeaters are too far apart (200 m) to he
ar each other.
Implementation: 10Mbps Ethernet Configuration Guidelines (Continued)
As Ethernet signals travel across the wire, they diminish in strength until they
are no longer is the technical term recognizable as valid data transmissions. A
ttenuation used to describe this natural degradation in signal quality as signal
s travel across the network medium. Even fiber optic transmissions are affected
by attenuation. Repeaters serve to restore data signals to their original streng
th so that they may be heard at distances that would otherwise not be possible.
The two following figures (on this page and the next) illustrate the diminutive
effect of attenuation, as well as the restorative effect of Ethernet repeaters.
On 10Base-5 and 10Base-2 networks, repeaters are inserted between the individual
cable segments, chaining the cables together. The resulting topology is shown i
n the figure below.
Repeater use on 10Base-5 and 10Base-2 networks.
10Base-5 and 10Base-2 Ethernet segments that are connected using repeaters form
a single collision domain. Inside a collision domain, all stations must contend
for access to the shared medium. Collision domains are bounded by switches and r
outers. For networks that have a router or a switch, each of the network segment
s that connect to a switch or router port belong to their own collision domain.
Inside a single collision domain, the following simple configuration rules apply
:
q
q
There cannot be more than five cable segments and four repeaters between any two
stations in a collision domain. Only three of these segments can be multistatio
n segments (e.g., 10Base-2 or 10Base5). The last two segments must connect only
a station to a hub or a hub to a hub.
The word attenuation comes from the Latin word attenuatus, which means made thi
n.
Implementation: 10Mbps Ethernet Configuration Guidelines (Continued)
The same rules apply to 10Base-T networks; there can be no more than four 10Base
-T repeater hubs between any two stations on the network. A typical configuratio
n is shown in the figure below. All the servers and workstations in this figure
are in the same collision domain, sharing the same half-duplex transmission medi
um.
Network with multiple repeater hubs
Even though there are six hubs in the network in the figure above, the 5-4-3 rul
e is not violated because there are no paths between stations in the network tha
t involve more than three repeater hops. 10Base-FL-Specific Rules In addition to
following the 5-4-3 rule described above, 10Base-FL networks must be built acco
rding to the rules listed below:
q
q
q
With four repeaters and five cable segments, 10Base-FL segments must not exceed
500 m (1,640 ft). With three repeaters and four cable segments, 10Base-FL segmen
ts must not exceed 1,000 m (3,280 ft). With two repeaters and three cable segmen
ts, 10Base-FL segments can be up to 2,000 m (6,561ft).
FAST ETHERNET
Module Description Fast Ethernet operates at a data transfer speed of 100Mbps. L
esson 8.1 explains that because of upward trends in network growth, Fast Etherne
t will soon surpass 10Mbps Ethernet in sales. Lesson 8.2 discusses some of the b
asic differences between 10Mbps Ethernet and Fast Ethernet operations. Lessons 8
.2 and 8.3 cover Ethernet types 100Base-TX and 100Base-FX. Lesson 8.4 includes a
comprehensive discussion of Fast Ethernet implementation guidelines, and Lesson
8.5 concludes this module by describing how Fast Ethernet s auto-negotiation fe
ature enables 10/100Mbps devices to automatically configure themselves for eithe
r 10Mbps or 100Mbps operation. Module Objectives
q q q q q q
q
Identify reasons for the development of Fast Ethernet Identify the similarities
and differences between 10Mbps Ethernet and Fast Ethernet Identify the basic cha
racteristics of 100Base-TX and 100Base-FX Identify and use simple Fast Ethernet
configuration guidelines Identify advanced Fast Ethernet configuration calculati
ons Identify how the limitations to the size of a Fast Ethernet network can be a
voided through the use of Ethernet switches Identify the purpose of auto-negotia
tion
The Growth of Fast Ethernet
Lesson Objective
q
Identify reasons for the development of Fast Ethernet
In the early 1990s, it is clear that 10Mbps Ethernet implementations are not fas
t enough for many larger networks. Network backbones, in particular, are becomin
g clogged with traffic. While other high-speed LAN technologies, such as FDDI (F
iber Distributed Data Interface) exist, they represent, for most companies, a si
gnificant challenge to implement and maintain, and, for many companies, technolo
gies such as FDDI and ATM are simply too expensive. In 1995, however, with the I
EEE publication of the 100Mbps Fast Ethernet specification, companies soon had a
relatively inexpensive way to significantly increase the speed of their high-tr
affic links. With Fast Ethernet, organizations can install high-speed LAN segmen
ts at a very reasonable cost. And because it uses the same basic technology as 1
0Mbps Ethernet, Fast Ethernet equipment is easy to install and manage. As shown
in the figure below, Fast Ethernet will soon become the most widely used Etherne
t implementation, with sales of 100Mbps network interface cards expected to surp
ass sales of 10Mbps cards in 1998. Many network interface cards already support
both 10Mbps and 100Mbps transmission rates and the prices of Fast Ethernet hub a
nd switch ports are dropping rapidly.
IDC World-wide adapter market forecast. Source: IDC
10Mbps Ethernet vs. Fast Ethernet
Lesson Objective
q
Identify the similarities and differences between 10Mbps Ethernet and Fast Ether
net
In almost all respects, Fast Ethernet is simply Ethernet scaled by a factor of t
en. Like Ethernet, Fast Ethernet uses the CSMA/CD algorithm to control access to
a shared broadcast medium. Ethernet frame types are also the same 10Mbps and Fa
st Ethernet networks. With Fast Ethernet, the interframe gap is still 96 bit tim
es, but because transmission speeds are multiplied by ten, the interframe gap is
only 960 ns instead of 9.6 µs. The major difference between 10Mbps Ethernet and F
ast Ethernet is that the maximum diameter of Fast Ethernet networks is smaller t
han the maximum diameter of 10Mbps Ethernet networks. On Fast Ethernet networks,
stations must still be able to detect collisions within the first 512 bits tran
smitted, yet since the data transmission rate is ten times as fast, stations on
an Ethernet network must be ten times as close in order to detect collisions wit
hin the same number of bit times as for 10Mbps. 10Mbps maximum distance of 2500
m between stations is reduced to 250 m for Fast Ethernet. Another difference bet
ween the two technologies is that on Fast Ethernet networks, there can be only o
ne or possibly two repeaters or hubs between transmitting stations.
100Base-TX
Lesson Objective
q
Identify the basic characteristics of 100Base-TX
100Base-TX is very similar to 10Base-T. Stations on 100Base-TX networks are conn
ected to a central hub using UTP cable. The RJ-45-type connector is also used. T
he maximum distance between the workstation and the hub is 100 m (328 ft). Like
10Base-T, 100Base-TX provides separate transmit and receive channels, so full-du
plex operation is possible. Servers and other high-performance network stations
attached using 100Base-TX can transmit at 100Mbps and receive at 100Mbps at the
same time, effectively boosting the bandwidth on the link to 200Mbps. However, 1
00Base-TX requires Category 5 cable, so if an organization wants to upgrade a 10
Mbps Ethernet network using Category 3 cable to Fast Ethernet, it must either re
cable or implement a 100Base-T4 network. A 100Base-T4 network enables an organiz
ation to run Fast Ethernet over Category 3 or 4 cables; however, all four wire p
airs are required. 100Base-T4 supports only half-duplex operation, and 100Base-T
4 equipment is much less common than 100Base-TX equipment.
10Base-T uses a Manchester encoding scheme that results in a digital signal with
a fundamental frequency of 10Mhz, meaning that the signal that can be transmitt
ed in a cable certified for 15Mhz signals or better. Cat 3 is certified for 16Mh
z, Cat 4 for 20Mhz and Cat 5 for 100Mhz, so each of these can be used. 100Base-T
X uses a different encoding scheme that results in a signal with a fundamental f
requency of 31.25Mhz, which requires a cable that is certified for at least 46.8
75Mhz. This makes Cat 5 as the only option for 100Base-T.
100Base-FX
Lesson Objective
q
Identify the basic characteristics of 100Base-FX
The specification for Fast Ethernet over optical fiber cable is known as 100Base
-FX. Like 10Base-FL, 100Base-FX uses two strands of multimode 62.5/125 fiber. Th
e connectors can be ST connectors, which are also used on 10Base-FL networks, bu
t more commonly, the cheaper SC connector is used. The SC connector is keyed to
reduce the risk of accidentally swapping the transmit and receive fibers. 100Bas
e-FX is typically used for one of two reasons:
1. Optical fiber cable spans greater distances than UTP cable, up to 2,000 m (6,
561 ft) is
possible on full-duplex links.
2. Optical fiber cable can support much higher bandwidths than UTP cable, so if
an
organization anticipates upgrading to an even faster LAN technology in the futur
e, it might install optical fiber cable.
Implementation: Fast Ethernet Configuration Guidelines
Lesson Objectives
q q q
Identify simple Fast Ethernet configuration guidelines Identify advanced Fast Et
hernet configuration calculations Identify how the limitations to the size of a
Fast Ethernet network can be avoided through the use of Ethernet switches
At 100Mbps, collisions must be detected within 5.12 µs. If stations are too far ap
art or have too many repeaters between them, the timing requirements cannot be m
et. Both simple and advanced configuration rules can be used to verify that a pa
rticular Fast Ethernet network meets configuration requirements. Simple Configur
ation Rules Hubs and repeaters add a small delay (or latency) when an Ethernet f
rame is received and retransmitted. Using simple configuration rules, hubs are p
laced in two groups depending on the length of this delay:
q q
Class I hubs add less than 0.7 µs of latency. Class II hubs add less than 0.46 µs of
latency.
Because Class II hubs are faster, two Class II hubs are allowed between stations
in a single collision domain, but only one Class I hub is permitted. The length
of each cable segment is also restricted:
q q
A UTP segment can be up to 100 m long. A (half-duplex) fiber segment can be up t
o 412 m long.
Simple configuration rules are summarized in Table 8-1. Hub Type Single Segment
One Class I Hub UTP Fiber (FX) UTP and Fiber (FX) N/A 260 m (100 m UTP)
100 m 412 m 200 m 272 m
One Class II Hub
200 m 320 m
308 m (100 m UTP) 216 m (105 m UTP)
Two Class II Hubs 205 m 228 m
Table 8-1. Simple Fast Ethernet configuration rules.
In Table 8-1, you will notice the following:
q
q
q
With a Class I hub, you can have a maximum distance between any two stations on
the repeated segment of 200 m using UTP cable and of 272 m using fiber optic cab
le. If you combine UTP cable and fiber optic cable, you can have 100 m of UTP an
d 160 m of fiber. With one Class II hub, the maximum distance using UTP is uncha
nged since no UTP segment can exceed 100 m. The maximum distance increases to 32
0 m when fiber is used because the Class II hub adds less latency than the Class
I hub. With two Class II hubs, you can have 205 m of UTP cable (e.g., two 100 m
segments and a 5 m segment between the hubs). The maximum distance using fiber
is 228 m. The maximum distance using fiber and UTP is 216 m (two UTP segments of
100 m and 5 m, plus one 111 m fiber segment).
Implementation: Fast Ethernet Configuration Guidelines (Continued)
Advanced Configuration Guidelines Rather than relying on the "canned" configurat
ion rules given above, the exact delay between any two stations can be calculate
d using the following guidelines. In some cases, these guidelines allow a greate
r network diameter than the configuration rules given above. The advanced config
uration rules rely on calculating the exact delay between any two stations in th
e network, based on the exact specifications for network interface cards, networ
k cables and hubs. The delay between two stations in a network can be calculated
using the following formula: Total delay = Hub delay + Cable delay + Network in
terface delay. To enable a station at one end of the network to detect a collisi
on with a station at the other end, the following inequality must hold true: 2 x
Total delay < 5.12 µs. To comply with the Fast Ethernet configuration guidelines,
you must ensure that this requirement is fulfilled between any two stations in
the network. To perform this calculation, fill in the delay values in the center
column in Table 8-2 with the actual values that apply to your network. Sample v
alues are given in the right column. Component Two Network Interface Cards UTP c
able Fiber cable Class I hub Class II hub(s) Total delay Round-trip delay (Sum o
f the above) Total delay x 2 Must be less than 5.12 µs Delay Typical value 0.25 µs x
2 0.0055 µs/m. 100m maximum. 0.0050 µs/m. 412m maximum. Less than 0.7 µs Less than 0.
46 µs
Table 8-2. Calculating round-trip delays.
To be on the safe side, you should add a safety margin to your calculations. If
you get very close to the limit you may have problems later on, for instance if
a network component is exchanged for another with a slower response time. While
performing the exact calculation of round-trip delays using the exact specificat
ions of network adapters, cable and hubs used in the network may in some instanc
es allow you to go beyond the distances specified in the simple configuration ru
les, this approach cannot in general be recommended because it adds a significan
t extra administrative burden to network maintenance. Every time a network compo
nent or cable is exchanged for another, you must repeat the calculations above t
o verify that the maximum delay is still within the specified limits.
Implementation: Fast Ethernet Configuration Guidelines (Continued)
Fast Ethernet Switches By using switches on a Fast Ethernet network, you can hav
e a network much larger than would be allowed normally. Each port on an Ethernet
switch forms its own collision domain. The network segments attached to each sw
itch port must still conform to the configuration guidelines, but the total size
of a switched 100Mbps network can grow much larger.
Auto-negotiation
Lesson Objective
q
Identify the purpose of auto-negotiation
The Fast Ethernet specification defines a process called auto-negotiation that e
nables Ethernet devices to exchange information about their capabilities, such a
s the speed and duplex mode at which they operate. Auto-negotiation also provide
s a method that enables network administrators to:
1. Discover the reason a connection has been refused. 2. Determine what capabili
ties the network devices have. 3. Change connection speeds.
Making Migrations to Fast Ethernet Easier Many recently manufactured Ethernet de
vices, including NICs, hubs and switches, use dualspeed interfaces that allow a
single device to operate at either 10Mbps or 100Mbps. Autonegotiation enables an
Ethernet device, such as an NIC, to automatically configure itself for either 1
0Mbps or 100Mbps mode depending upon the capabilities of the device on the other
end of the connection. Perhaps the most significant benefit of auto-negotiation
is that it allows network administrators the ability to incrementally upgrade t
heir network hardware easily, without having to perform manual configurations fo
r each device. For example, a company that cannot afford to upgrade their entire
network all at once can pursue an incremental migration by purchasing 10/100 NI
Cs for all new machines, and perhaps a 10/100 hub or switch as well, and then up
grading the NICs of older machines over a period of time. Using auto-negotiation
, the 10/100 hub will automatically configure itself to achieve the highest poss
ible performance for the devices attached to it.
Auto-negotiation (Continued)
How Auto-negotiation Works Auto-negotiation is an extension of the link test met
hods used by 10Base-T and 10Base-FL to verify the integrity of the link between
devices. Auto-negotiation advertises a device s abilities by encoding a 16-bit d
ata packet, called a link code word (LCW), within a burst of 17 to 33 link pulse
s, called a fast link pulse (FLP) burst. FLP bursts have an approximate duration
of 2 µs and are transmitted in 16.8 µs intervals (the same interval as for the norm
al link pulses used by 10Base-T and 10Base-FL). The link code word contains two
fields (called the selector field and the technology ability field), which toget
her serve to identify a device s capabilities. It may seem that because the fast
link pulse and the normal link pulse use the same interval at the same frequenc
y, older devices may not be compatible with auto-negotiation. This is, however,
not the case. For example, a 10Base-T device that does not have auto-negotiation
capabilities sees fast link pulse bursts simply as a link test signal. A 10Base
-T device will respond to the fast link pulse burst with its usual normal link p
ulse signal. At the other end of the link, a 10/100-capable device will recogniz
e normal link pulse and choose 10Mbps mode operation. Auto-negotiation attempts
to find the greatest common denominator for the two devices on the link in the f
ollowing order of preference:
1. 2. 3. 4. 5.
100Base-TX full-duplex 100Base-T4 100Base-TX 10Base-T full-duplex 10Base-T half-
duplex
Once the greatest common denominator of settings is determined, each device equi
pped with auto-negotiation will configure itself automatically. In certain cases
where automatic configurations are not desired, auto-negotiation provides a way
for these settings to be overridden manually.
GIGABIT ETHERNET
Module Description The first two lessons in this module identify the basic opera
tions of Gigabit Ethernet and some of the reasons that Gigabit Ethernet is neede
d in the marketplace. Lesson 9.3 covers Gigabit Ethernet implementation strategi
es, and also introduces a device new to Ethernet technology, the buffered distri
butor. Lesson 9.4 discusses Gigabit Ethernet s use of the CSMA/CD algorithm, and
Lesson 9.5 concludes the module by identifying certain issues that network admi
nistrators must consider when implementing first-generation Gigabit Ethernet equ
ipment. Module Objectives
q q q q q q q q
Identify factors contributing to the need for Gigabit Ethernet Identify the key
characteristics of Gigabit Ethernet Identify Gigabit Ethernet types 1000Base-SX,
-LX, -CX and -T Identify possible migration strategies for Gigabit Ethernet Ide
ntify how the buffered distributor works Identify Gigabit Ethernet s use of full
-duplex mode Identify modified specifications for Gigabit Ethernet running in ha
lf-duplex mode Identify considerations for early Gigabit Ethernet implementation
Why Gigabit Ethernet is Needed
Lesson Objective
q
Identify factors contributing to the need for Gigabit Ethernet
The growing need for network bandwidth in excess of the 100Mbps delivered by Fas
t Ethernet is driven by several factors.
q q
q
q
q
q
Intranet and Internet traffic is growing at an exponential rate. Mission critica
l mainframe applications continue to be replaced with distributed solutions. Hig
h-traffic document management, workflow, imaging and other information managemen
t and distributed database applications are becoming integral parts of core busi
ness strategies. Due to the increasing complexity of desktop publishing, scienti
fic modeling, highresolution imaging and three-dimensional engineering applicati
ons, average file size is expanding. Increasingly popular applications like mult
imedia computer-based training, desktop video conferencing and interactive white
boarding require high-bandwidth connections that can deliver a constant and reli
able data stream. Finally, the extension of Fast Ethernet to the desktop reintro
duces the congestion that Fast Ethernet backbones were originally designed to el
iminate.
Compared to the alternative solutions for high speed networking, such as ATM and
FDDI, Gigabit Ethernet offers the advantage of using protocols directly compati
ble with currently implemented Ethernet standards, making lower-cost, incrementa
l migrations from Ethernet and Fast Ethernet possible.
Gigabit Ethernet Defined
Lesson Objectives
q q
Identify the key characteristics of Gigabit Ethernet Identify Gigabit Ethernet t
ypes 1000Base-SX, -LX, -CX and -T
The growing need for network bandwidth in excess of the 100Mbps delivered by Fas
t Ethernet is driven by several factors.
q q q q
q
q
q
The transmission speed for Gigabit Ethernet is 1,000Mbps – 100 times that of Ether
net. The IEEE specification for Gigabit Ethernet will be IEEE 802.3z. Gigabit Et
hernet uses the 802.3 Ethernet frame format. Gigabit Ethernet uses the CSMA/CD a
ccess method with support for one repeater per collision domain. At the MAC laye
r, Gigabit Ethernet is equivalent to Fast Ethernet scaled by a factor of ten. Th
e upcoming IEEE 802.3z standard is expected to define Gigabit Ethernet running o
ver multimode fiber and, over short distances, on shielded copper wire. A separa
te standards effort (IEEE working group 802.3ab) will specify Gigabit Ethernet o
peration for Cat 5 UTP cabling over distances up to 100 m.
Gigabit Ethernet Alliance The Gigabit Ethernet Alliance is an open forum that pr
omotes industry cooperation in an effort to accelerate the development and stand
ardization of Gigabit Ethernet. Over 120 Ethernet vendors, including Intel, curr
ently participate in the Gigabit Ethernet Alliance by contributing technical exp
ertise, testing interoperability standards and fostering open communications bet
ween potential suppliers and consumers. Because Fast Ethernet s success can be a
ttributed largely to its compatibility with 10Mbps Ethernet, leaving unchanged a
s much of the original Ethernet specification as possible is a core strategy for
making Gigabit Ethernet successful as well. The IEEE Standards Board expects to
achieve final ratification of the 802.3z standard in either June or September 1
998. However, since many vendors are developing products concurrently with the s
tandardization effort, many Gigabit Ethernet products are currently available. I
nternational Data Corporation (IDC), a commonly referenced research firm, expect
s the value of the market for Gigabit Ethernet products to exceed USD 1 billion
by the year 2000.
Gigabit Ethernet Defined (Continued)
1000Base-SX and 1000Base-LX Two physical-layer standards, 1000Base-SX and 1000Ba
se-LX, designate Gigabit Ethernet transmitted over fiber optic cabling. In order
to minimize the time-to-market for new products, Gigabit Ethernet incorporates
optical signaling components and encoding and decoding schemes borrowed from Fib
re Channel. 1000Base-SX works best as a short-distance (up to 260 m) backbone an
d utilizes low-cost, multimode, 62.5 micron fiber optic cabling. Designed for lo
nger-distance connections, 1000Base-LX uses multimode fiber to allow connections
over distances up to 440 m and single-mode fiber for distances up to 3000 m. 10
00Base-SX and 1000Base-LX use the same SC connectors (shown in the figures below
) used for 100Base-FX systems.
SC fiber optic connectors
SC connector cross section
1000Base-CX 1000Base-CX designates Gigabit Ethernet transmitted over twinax, a 1
50-Ohm balanced, shielded, specialty cable. 1000Base-CX s distance limitation of
up to only 25 m makes 1000Base-CX best suited for interconnecting switching clo
sets, server farms and power workgroups. 1000Base-CX supports two kinds of conne
ctors: standard 9-pin D connectors (below) and HSSC (High Speed Serial Card) con
nectors, also referred to as 8-pin Fibre Channel Type 2 connectors (also below).
HSSC/8-pin Fibre Channel Type 2 Connector
Gigabit Ethernet Defined (Continued)
1000Base-T 1000Base-T designates Gigabit Ethernet transmitted over Category 5 UT
P cable. Under the IEEE 802.3ab standard, 1000Base-T connections can run up to 1
00 m. The standard for 1000Base-T comprises the second phase of the Gigabit Ethe
rnet standards process and falls under the purview of the IEEE 802.3ab task forc
e. 1000Base-T will be designed to take advantage of existing UTP cable already w
idely deployed for Ethernet and Fast Ethernet. The IEEE Standards Board does not
expect to ratify the 1000Base-T standard until early 1999. To accommodate the u
se of cost-effective UTP cabling, IEEE 802.3z, which is designed primarily for f
iber cabling, will specify a way to use encoding schemes other than the Fiber Ch
annel encoding scheme used by 1000Base-SX, -LX, and -CX. The table below summari
zes Gigabit Ethernet media types and their distance limitations. Specification M
edium Maximum Distance 260 m 440 m 3000 m 25 m
1000Base-SX Multimode Fiber 1000Base-LX 1000Base-LX Multimode Fiber Single-mode
Fiber
1000Base-CX Twin-ax copper 1000Base-T
Four Pairs of Category 5 UTP 100 m
Optional Exercise** Check your understanding of Gigabit Ethernet! This interacti
ve exercise allows you to apply your knowledge of Gigabit Ethernet specification
s.
For each Gigabit Ethernet specification, drag the medium and maximum distance in
to the correct positions.
Implementation of Gigabit Ethernet
Lesson Objectives
q q q
Identify possible migration strategies for Gigabit Ethernet Identify how the buf
fered distributor works Identify Gigabit Ethernet s use of full-duplex mode
For the most part, Gigabit Ethernet implementation scenarios will mirror those f
or Fast Ethernet. As the general availability of Gigabit Ethernet products incre
ases, the most likely targets for Gigabit Ethernet implementation will be links
between routers, switches, hubs, repeaters and servers. Early implementations of
Gigabit Ethernet may, however, include lesser-risk, non-mission-critical target
s such as the server-to-router and server-to-switch connections of power workgro
ups. Migration and Rollout Strategies The Gigabit Ethernet Alliance identifies f
ive, most likely upgrade scenarios for Gigabit Ethernet, including:
1. 2. 3. 4. 5.
Upgrading switch-to-switch links Upgrading switch-to-server links Upgrading swit
ched Fast Ethernet backbones Upgrading shared FDDI backbones Upgrading high-perf
ormance workgroups
Due to the inherent risk of any first generation technology, rather than jeopard
izing missioncritical applications, many network managers will initially impleme
nt Gigabit Ethernet in lowerrisk segments of the network, where, at the same tim
e, they will be able to clearly measure a return on investment. Once companies h
ave been able to deploy Gigabit Ethernet successfully on a limited scale, expand
ing the implementation of Gigabit Ethernet to mission-critical backbones, server
links and wiring closets will become more natural. The Buffered Distributor Mos
t Gigabit Ethernet products are simply faster versions of the Ethernet component
s you already know quite well. They include: switches, uplink/downlink modules,
NICs and router interfaces. Gigabit Ethernet does, however, introduce one new de
vice, called a buffered distributor. The buffered distributor is a full-duplex,
multiport, hub-like device that interconnects two or more Ethernet links operati
ng at 1000Mbps. Like a standard repeater, the buffered distributor
forwards all incoming packets to all connected links (except the original incomi
ng link) creating a shared broadcast domain, comparable to an Ethernet collision
domain. Unlike a standard repeater, the buffered distributor is permitted to bu
ffer one or more incoming frames on each link before forwarding them, thus avoid
ing collisions. Full-duplex Gigabit Ethernet Ethernet and Fast Ethernet support
full-duplex operation only as a single link between two devices. Adding a third
device to full-duplex Ethernet and Fast Ethernet links is not possible. The swit
ching capabilities of the Gigabit Ethernet buffered distributor, however, enable
fullduplex network to be created using a hub-like star configuration for server
farms and power workgroups. All first generation Gigabit Ethernet devices curre
ntly slated for production by major manufacturers are full-duplex devices. Optio
nal Exercise** Check your understanding of Gigabit Ethernet! This interactive ex
ercise allows you to apply your knowledge of migration and rollout strategies.
On the following network diagram, select the links that are the most likely cand
idates for upgrading to Gigabit Ethernet, according to the Gigabit Ethernet Alli
ance. Once you have completed the exercise, click on the Done button to find out
how you did.
Gigabit Ethernet and CSMA/CD
Lesson Objectives
q q
Identify modified specifications for Gigabit Ethernet running in half-duplex mod
e Identify considerations for early Gigabit Ethernet implementation
Depending upon the market success of the buffered distributor, half-duplex Gigab
it Ethernet devices may not ever be manufactured. Even so, the Gigabit Ethernet
standard has preserved the CSMA/CD algorithm so that Gigabit Ethernet half-duple
x operation is at least possible. 512-byte Minimum Carrier Event As transfer spe
eds increase, the time that each frame is on the wire decreases, and as a result
, the maximum allowable distance between stations also decreases. For example: F
ast Ethernet uses the same the minimum frame size of 64 bytes (512 bits) that is
used for 10Mbps Ethernet. As a result, the maximum allowable distance between s
tations for Fast Ethernet is only 250 m, compared to 2,500 m for 10Mbps Ethernet
. However, because the maximum allowable distance for UTP cabling is much shorte
r than 250 m (100 m for both 10Mbps Ethernet and Fast Ethernet), Fast Ethernet s
smaller maximum distance limitations directly affect only the number of repeate
rs that may be used between stations, and not the maximum distance for UTP cabli
ng itself. Even with its restrictions on the total number of repeaters, Fast Eth
ernet still allows for a reasonably-sized maximum network diameter. If, on the o
ther hand, Gigabit Ethernet were to use the same 64-byte minimum frame size, the
maximum allowable distance between stations for Gigabit Ethernet would be less
than 25 m. Gigabit Ethernet, in order to support a distance limitation comparabl
e to Fast Ethernet (100 m from a repeating hub to each device), extends the mini
mum CSMA/CD carrier event time from 64 bytes to 512 bytes. For packets shorter t
han 512 bytes, Gigabit Ethernet adds a non-data carrier extension to the end of
the packet transmission, allowing stations to occupy the wire long enough to det
ect collisions without modifying the 802.3 frame structure. The minimum Ethernet
frame length of 64 bytes remains the same. Packet Bursting For small packets, e
xtending minimum carrier event time decreases the ratio of data to nondata by as
much as eight. For example, a 64-byte frame would need to be extended with a 44
8-byte-size non-data carrier signal. To offset the inefficiency of transmitting
small packets individually, Gigabit Ethernet will allow servers, switches and ot
her devices to use a method called packet bursting to send multiple small packet
s in a single transmission event. By replacing non-data carrier extensions with
additional packets, packet bursting increases the ratio of data to non-data for
each transmission, effectively increasing the overall speed of the network by ut
ilizing bandwidth more efficiently.
Considerations for Early Adoption
Lesson Objective
q
Identify considerations for early Gigabit Ethernet implementation
Compatibility Some vendors are already shipping Gigabit Ethernet devices even th
ough the 802.3z standard is not yet finalized. Despite the fact that exhibits at
the Fall 1997 Networld+Interop in Atlanta demonstrated interoperability between
Gigabit Ethernet equipment from different vendors, early adopters of Gigabit Et
hernet technology run a slight risk that the equipment they buy may not conform
to the final standard. Pricing Pricing for first generation Gigabit Ethernet dev
ices may present a barrier to entry for many companies. Currently, it is possibl
e to purchase Fast Ethernet NICs, for example, for under USD 100, and Fast Ether
net switches for under USD 200 per port. Initially, Gigabit Ethernet NICs may be
priced as high as USD 1700, and Gigabit Ethernet switches will likely be priced
between USD 2000 and USD 4000 per port. Over the past two years, however, Fast
Ethernet switches have decreased in price approximately 36%. Gigabit Ethernet co
mponents are expected to follow a similar trend.
ETHERNET AND OTHER PHYSICAL-LAYER TECHNOLOGIES
Module Description This section describes Ethernet s relationship to major netwo
rking technologies, such as Token Ring, FDDI and ATM, that either provide altern
atives to or work in conjunction with Ethernet. Module Objectives
q
q
Identify the relationship between Ethernet and other networking technologies suc
h as Token Ring, ATM and FDDI Identify the advantages Ethernet has in comparison
to these technologies
Overview: Ethernet and Other Technologies
Lesson Objective
q
Identify real-world situations in which understanding the relationship between E
thernet and other networking technologies is useful
As an Open Systems technology, Ethernet helps to illustrate the basic concepts o
f modularity and hierarchy from which the OSI reference model was born. The purp
ose of this module, and Module 11, is to deepen your understanding of the place
Ethernet occupies in the overall landscape of computer networking. Having a clea
r understanding of the relationship between Ethernet and other popular technolog
ies will help you to more quickly understand what your customers are saying, mor
e intelligently address their concerns and more competently provide solutions to
their problems. If you were told that Company X has already implemented FDDI an
d ATM, and has decided against using Frame Relay, does that mean Company X has a
lso decided against using Ethernet? Or to use a slightly different situation, if
you know that Company Y uses Token Ring in their order processing center, and t
hey ask you about upgrading the engineering department s network to accommodate
a new document imaging and workflow application, is it reasonable that they shou
ld consider using Ethernet? (Specific answers for each of these questions appear
in Lesson 10.3.)
Ethernet Compared
Lesson Objectives
q
q
Identify the relationship between Ethernet and other networking technologies suc
h as Token Ring, ATM and FDDI Identify the advantages Ethernet has in comparison
to these technologies
Token Ring IBM first adopted Token Ring technology as a core networking strategy
in the early 1980s. Today, many IBM-based, distributed networking solutions are
implemented on Token Ring networks. Compared to Ethernet s approximately 85% ma
rket share, only 10% of total network components sold in 1997 were Token Ring. C
ompared to Token Ring, the reasons for Ethernet s success include:
1. Ethernet networking is less complex than Token Ring and easier to troubleshoo
t. 2. Ethernet components are simpler relatively and, thus, less expensive to ma
nufacture. 3. Even though token passing uses bandwidth more efficiently than the
contention method
used by Ethernet, overall Ethernet performance has generally kept pace with Toke
n Ring and, with the introduction of Fast Ethernet and Gigabit Ethernet, has out
paced Token Ring. Token Ring controls access to the physical medium by passing a
control frame from one computer to the next. Only the computer possessing the c
ontrol frame has the right to send data. Token Ring generally works best for net
works with a large number of workstations that must constantly exchange data wit
h a centrally located resource such as a distributed database or mainframe appli
cation. In contrast, Ethernet s contention method works best on networks that tr
ansmit large amounts of data intermittently. Such situations would include engin
eering groups using CAD/CAM applications and three-dimensional modeling tools, o
r a customer service department that uses workflow and document imaging to proce
ss customer complaints and access customer account information. Companies do not
, however, always have to choose to implement only Token Ring or only Ethernet t
hroughout the enterprise. As is often the case, Ethernet segments can be connect
ed to existing Token Ring networks (as shown in the figure below) using a router
that serves to bridge the two networks together.
Token Ring network connected to an Ethernet network using a router.
In the future, Token Ring s market share will likely continue to decrease. Ether
net s recent advances in speed have made the slim performance advantages of Toke
n Ring over 10Mbps Ethernet virtually disappear.
Ethernet Compared (Continued)
FDDI Companies usually implement FDDI as a high-speed, shared backbone connectin
g servers, switches, bridges and routers. FDDI operates at 100Mbps and uses a to
ken passing access control method on fiber optic cabling configured as a dual ri
ng (the second ring serves a backup in case the primary ring is broken). An Ethe
rnet hub or switch, equipped with one or more FDDI interfaces, connects Ethernet
workstations to the FDDI backbone. The figure below illustrates a typical FDDI
configuration.
Network configuration using an FDDI ring for the network backbone.
FDDI is one of the most expensive networking solutions to implement. Consequentl
y, with the introduction of Ethernet switches, 100Base-T and 100VG AnyLAN, most
network managers consider 100Mbps Ethernet backbones viable and economical alter
natives to FDDI. In general, the economic advantages of 100Mbps Ethernet over FD
DI are two-fold:
1. 100Mbps Ethernet NICs are less expensive than FDDI NICs. 2. 100Mbps Ethernet
can run on copper wire, which is substantially less expensive than
fiber.
For companies interested in migrating to fiber optic cable for either security o
r future bandwidth needs, Ethernet 100Base-FX and Gigabit Ethernet also provide
cost-effective solutions compared to FDDI. The figure below shows the same basic
network configuration used in the figure above, but uses switched Ethernet inst
ead of FDDI on the backbone.
Network configuration using switched Fast Ethernet in place of the FDDI ring sho
wn in the previous figure.
Network engineers should keep in mind that it takes only ten 10Mbps Ethernet cli
ents transmitting files at the same time to reach FDDI s 100Mbps maximum through
put on a shared ring. Switched Ethernet configurations, however, can provide mul
tiple 100Mbps pipelines by routing each packet only to the station addressed, th
us allowing multiple stations to transmit and receive simultaneously. Though swi
tched FDDI solutions are available, in general FDDI switches have proven less ef
ficient than Ethernet switches, and on average cost up to eight times more per p
ort.
ATM Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM) is both a LAN and a WAN technology. Much of
the original lure of ATM was its potential to become a single, widely supported
protocol for wide area networking, backbone connectivity and workstation connec
tivity as well. Recently, however, even ardent supporters of ATM have given up h
ope for success against Ethernet at the workstation. In general, ATM has failed
to achieve widespread adoption for three reasons:
1. Lack of standards 2. High price 3. Complexity
ATM uses fixed-sized packets (53 bytes) called cells and provides data transfer
rates from 25Mbps to 2400Mbps (OC-3 = 155Mbps and OC-12 = 622Mbps). Using standa
rd-sized cells enables ATM to provide constant, high-speed data streams that aud
io, video and imaging applications require. ATM can be used with a variety of tr
ansmission media including twistedpair and fiber optic cable. The figure below d
epicts a network configuration that uses ATM on the backbone.
Network configuration using ATM for both backbone and WAN connectivity.
Most Ethernet component manufacturers will market Gigabit Ethernet as an alterna
tive to ATM
backbones. In the past, network managers have looked to ATM as the only reliable
way to achieve Quality-of-Service (QoS) grade connectivity for applications suc
h as real-time databases, medical imaging and video conferencing. Gigabit Ethern
et will provide QoS connectivity by working in combination with upper-layer QoS
protocols such as RSVP and 802.1Q. QoS protocols enable individual packets to be
prioritized so that high-priority, timesensitive data streams, like those requi
red for real-time video, are not interrupted by lowerpriority, non-time-sensitiv
e applications, such as e-mail. If Gigabit Ethernet becomes successful as quickl
y as Fast Ethernet has, the future of ATM will likely remain at the WAN level of
connectivity. Compared to ATM, Gigabit Ethernet promises to be simpler to imple
ment, more cost-effective and more compatible with existing LANs.
Summary For workstation-level interconnectivity, Ethernet and Token Ring should
generally be thought of as competitors. FDDI and ATM, on the other hand, have in
the past filled particular needs that Ethernet running at 10Mbps could not. Wit
h the advent of Fast Ethernet and Gigabit Ethernet, however, Ethernet technology
can now meet the bandwidth needs of high-traffic backbones and in many instance
s compete directly with FDDI and ATM solutions. Currently, Ethernet is not often
thought of as a WAN technology. Though Ethernet-based satellite communications
systems have been researched, solutions like Frame Relay and ATM running over pu
blic, telecommunications networks will continue for some time to be the WAN tech
nologies of choice for linking local, Ethernet-based networks.
Specific Examples
Lesson Objective
q
Identify answers for the hypothetical questions posed in Lesson 10.1
In reference to the questions posed at the end of Lesson 10.1, Company X who has
chosen to implement ATM as opposed to Frame Relay for wide area connectivity, a
nd who has implemented FDDI on their backbone, must still choose a physical-laye
r technology to link individual workstations to the backbone. More often than no
t, their preferred workstation-level connection strategy will be Ethernet. Later
on, as Company X grows and its backbone becomes saturated with traffic, extendi
ng Fast Ethernet or Gigabit Ethernet solutions to the backbone, as opposed to im
plementing ATM or a new switched FDDI solution, will likely be the most cost-eff
ective strategy for Company X to adopt. In the case of Company Y, implementing E
thernet, or Fast Ethernet, in the engineering department and using a router as a
bridge to the order processing center s Token Ring network is both technically
and economically a reasonable option. Because network traffic between the engine
ering department and the order processing department is likely to be very low, b
ridging the two networks is not likely to produce a bottleneck. In the final ana
lysis, Ethernet s better performance for large-file-size transactions, lower cos
t of implementation and easier management makes considering Ethernet highly reas
onable, even for companies that currently support Token Ring.
ETHERNET AND THE UPPER-LAYER PROTOCOLS
Module Description This section explains Ethernet s practical relationship to th
e technologies it serves. Lesson 11.1 returns to a consideration of the OSI laye
r and Ethernet s role in the OSI reference model. Lesson 11.2 completes the cour
se with a consideration of Ethernet as an Open Systems technology. Module Object
ives
q q
Identify some of the upper-layer protocols that Ethernet supports directly and i
ndirectly Identify the role Ethernet plays in relationship to a number of specif
ic and popular network protocols
The OSI Model Revisited
Lesson Objective
q
Identify some of the upper-layer protocols that Ethernet supports directly and i
ndirectly
Module 10 focused on Ethernet s relationship to technologies that operate at OSI
layers 1 and 2, the same layers at which Ethernet operates. This module focuses
on Ethernet s relationship to network technologies that operate at OSI layers 3
and above. The table below reproduces the OSI model and categorizes a number of
example technologies according to the OSI layer services they provide. Clarifyi
ng Ethernet s relationship to upper-layer protocols will help you to quickly und
erstand many practical, real-world situations. LAYER 7 – Application EXAMPLE PROTO
COLS NetWare*, Vines*, NTAS, SNA
6 – Presentation NAPLPS, MAP, SMB 5 – Session 4 – Transport 3 – Network 2 – Data Link 1 – P
ysical NetBIOS, NCP, RIP TCP, NetBEUI, SNMP IP, IPX, DECnet, X.25, RSVP, 802.1Q
Ethernet, Fast Ethernet, Gigabit Ethernet, FDDI, Token Ring, ATM Twisted-pair, c
oaxial, twinax and fiber optic cabling
Table 11-1
Running Multiple Protocols
Lesson Objective
q
Identify the role Ethernet plays in relationship to a number of specific popular
network protocols
Two Networks in One At the physical and data link layers of the OSI model, it is
not possible, nor is it reasonable, to implement simultaneously two different t
echnologies on a single network segment. For example, though it is possible to u
se a bridge to link separate Ethernet and Token Ring networks, it is not possibl
e (nor would it ever be desirable) to connect a room of computers together using
both Ethernet and Token Ring hardware at the same time. At the network layer, h
owever, it is not only possible, but in many cases advantageous, to implement mu
ltiple protocols and run them at the same time. For example, most Novell NetWare
* networks use a protocol called IPX/SPX at the network layer and above. Microso
ft networks, on the other hand use TCP/IP and/or NetBEUI. Often times, Windows 9
5* workstations are configured to handle both Novell IPX/SPX packets and Microso
ft TCP/IP packets. This allows individual Windows 95* stations to establish clie
nt-server connections with NetWare* servers (over IPX/SPX) and peer-to-peer conn
ections to other Windows 95* workstations (over TCP/IP) at the same time. Ethern
et as an Open Systems Solution In the example above, how does Ethernet fit into
the picture? It almost sounds as if the example refers to two, entirely separate
networks: a Novell network and a Microsoft network. Can a single Ethernet netwo
rk, using only Ethernet cabling schemes and Ethernet NICs support both the Novel
l network and the Microsoft network described? Of course, the answer is yes. In
the example above, the terms Novell network and Microsoft network refer only to
layer 3 networking services and higher. Ethernet, in relationship to each networ
king protocol, works only at layers 1 and 2 to provide the physical transportati
on of data packets from one network client to another. At layer 3, the software
programs Client for Novell Networks and Client for Microsoft Networks run simult
aneously on each computer and accept data packets from the data link layer and p
rocesses packets according to the rules of the layer 3 protocol the client suppo
rts. When the data field of the Ethernet frame includes a TCP/IP packet, the TCP
/IP packet is handled by the Microsoft client software. When the data field of t
he Ethernet frame includes an IPX/SPX packet, the IPX/SPX packet is handled by t
he Novell client software. Upper-layer protocols are covered in more detail in o
ther courses. This lesson attempts merely
to reinforce the fact that by limiting Ethernet operations to a clearly defined
network space, Ethernet is capable of supporting a wide range of specific networ
king technologies. Ethernet can not only support networks running both Novell an
d Microsoft networking protocols simultaneously, but also other combinations of
network layer protocols as well.

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