82 Energy Harvesting: Solar, Wind, and Ocean Energy Conversion Systems

400

350

300
PV array power (W)

250

200

150

100

50

0
0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06 0.07 0.08
Time (s)

FIGURE 1.96 PV array power.

different temperature and illumination conditions with different maximum power levels
(Figure 1.100).
A 60–100 V battery bank is reasonable for a small-sized EV. In fact, most manufacturers
recommend that the solar panel nominal voltage should be at least 5% lesser than the battery
voltage for enough boosting and charging of the batteries. This sets a range for the nominal
voltage of the main panel [59].
Energy optimization and efficiency can be reached with the use of regenerative brak-
ing and ultracapacitors. A regenerative braking system is able to convert kinetic energy
to electricity, and an ultracapacitor bank acts as a high-power source, improving vehicle
performance and battery bank life.

6.5
Reference PV array current determined

6.4
by MPPT controller (A)

6.3

6.2

6.1

5.9
0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06 0.07 0.08
Time (s)

FIGURE 1.97 Reference PV array current.

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