© 2005, American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air-Conditioning Engineers, Inc. (www.ashrae.org).

Reprinted by permission from

ASHRAE Journal, (Vol. 47, No. 9, September 2005). This article may not be copied nor distributed in either paper or digital form without
ASHRAE’s permission.

Solar Refrigeration
By Sanford A. Klein, Ph.D., Fellow ASHRAE, and Douglas T. Reindl, Ph.D., Member ASHRAE

R
efrigeration systems that use environment-friendly refriger- space and domestic hot water heating.
Solar heating applications are intuitive
ants provide a sustainability advantage when compared to since, when solar energy is absorbed on
a surface, the surface temperature rises,
other refrigerant selections. However, the energy use associated providing a heating potential. The use of
solar energy to provide refrigeration is
with refrigeration system operation and the environmental impacts less intuitive.
In this article, we review three ap-
associated with its generation and distribution often outweigh the proaches that use solar energy to provide
refrigeration at temperatures below 0°C
choice of refrigerant. To minimize environmental impacts associated (32°F). In addition to reviewing the po-
tential technologies, we compare their
with refrigeration system operation, it is reasonable to evaluate the operating characteristics. We conclude
that only one of the three technologies,
prospects of a clean source of energy.
From a sustainability perspective, impact, and low or no ongoing fuel About the Authors
Sanford A. Klein, Ph.D., and Douglas T. Reindl,
directly using solar as a primary energy cost. Research has demonstrated that Ph.D., are professors at the Solar Energy Labora-
source is attractive because of its uni- solar energy is an ideal source for low- tory and Industrial Refrigeration Consortium, Uni-
versal availability, low environmental temperature heating applications such as versity of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, Wis.

S26 Building for the Future | A Supplement to ASHRAE Journal September 2005
 Research has demonstrated that solar energy is an ideal source for
low-temperature heating applications such as space and domestic hot
water heating.
photovoltaic-based vapor compression, is presently a viable solar
refrigeration technology.
Vapor Compression Refrigeration
Prior to discussing how solar energy could potentially provide
refrigeration, it is appropriate to review the basic principles of
operation for vapor compression refrigeration cycles that form
the foundation for nearly all conventional refrigeration. A sche-
matic of the vapor compression cycle is shown in Figure 1a and
a corresponding enthalpy-pressure diagram for the refrigerant
is shown in Figure 1b.
In the vapor compression cycle, cooling is provided in the
evaporator as low temperature refrigerant entering the evapora-
tor as a mixture of liquid and vapor at State 4 is vaporized by
thermal input from the load. The remaining equipment in the
system reclaims the refrigerant and restores it to a condition
in which it can be used again to provide cooling. The vapor
exiting the evaporator at State 1 in a saturated (1a) or slightly
superheated (1b) condition enters a compressor that raises the
pressure and, consequently, the temperature of the refrigerant.
The high pressure hot refrigerant at State 2 enters a condenser
heat exchanger that uses ambient air or water to cool the refrig-
erant to its saturation temperature prior to fully condensing to a
liquid at State 3. The high-pressure liquid is then throttled to a
lower pressure, which causes some of the refrigerant to vaporize
as its temperature is reduced. The low temperature liquid that
remains is available to produce useful refrigeration.
The major energy input to a vapor compression refrigeration
system is the mechanical power needed to drive the compres-
sor. The minimum compressor power is given in Equation 1.
The compressor power requirement is substantial because the
specific volume of the refrigerant vapor, v, is large. Additional
power is needed to operate the fans or pumps to move the
external fluids.
(1)
The figure of merit for a vapor compression refrigeration
system is its coefficient of performance (COP) defined as the
ratio of the cooling capacity to the total electrical power re-
quired. The COP for a system providing refrigeration at –10°C
(14°F) while rejecting heat to a temperature at 30°C (86°F) is
September 2005 Building for the Future | A Supplement to ASHRAE Journal
approximately 3. The system COP diminishes from that level
when the electrical power required for moving the external fluids
is accounted for in the coefficient of performance.
Two of the solar refrigeration systems considered here rely
on the vapor compression refrigeration cycle in some form.
The third solar refrigeration system uses thermal energy as the
primary input to the cycle. Open cycle systems that use water
as the refrigerant, such as the solar desiccant cycle, could be
used to provide cooling at temperatures above freezing, but
these alternatives are not considered here.
Photovoltaic Operated Refrigeration Cycle
Photovoltaics (PV) involve the direct conversion of solar
radiation to direct current (dc) electricity using semiconduct-
ing materials. In concept, the operation of a PV-powered solar
refrigeration cycle is simple. Solar photovoltaic panels produce
dc electrical power that can be used to operate a dc motor,
which is coupled to the compressor of a vapor compression
refrigeration system. The major considerations in designing
a PV-refrigeration cycle involve appropriately matching the
electrical characteristics of the motor driving the compressor
with the available current and voltage being produced by the
PV array.
The rate of electrical power capable of being generated by a
PV system is typically provided by manufacturers of PV mod-
ules for standard rating conditions, i.e., incident solar radiation
of 1,000 W/m2 (10 800 W/ft2) and a module temperature of
25°C (77°F). Unfortunately, PV modules will operate over a
wide range of conditions that are rarely as favorable as the rat-
ing condition. In addition, the power produced by a PV array is
as variable as the solar resource from which it is derived. The
performance of a PV module, expressed in terms of its current-
voltage and power-voltage characteristics, principally depends
on the solar radiation and module temperature. Figure 2 shows
current (solid lines) and power (dotted lines) vs. voltage for a
1.32 m2 (14 ft2) single crystalline PV module at the reference
condition and four operating conditions.
At any level of solar radiation and module temperature, a
single operating voltage will result in maximum electrical
power production from the module. The module represented in
Figure 2 shows the voltage that yields maximum power ranges
between 30 and 35 volts for this PV array.
S27
 A
B

Figure 1a: Schematic of a vapor compression refrigeration sysgtem. Figure 1b: Pressure-enthalpy diagram for the cycle.

5 5
140

4 120 4

100
Current (Amp)
Current (Amp)

3
Power (W)

3
80

2 60
2
40
1
20 1

0 0
0 10 20 30 40 50
Voltage (V) 0
0 10 20 30 40 50
Voltage (V)

Figure 2 (left): Current (solid lines) and power (dotted lines) vs. voltage for a single crystalline PV module at different operating conditions.
Figure 3 (right): Current-voltage characteristics for a PV module and two dc motor types.
The efficiency of the solar panels, defined as the ratio of and reduces its steady-state efficiency. Electrical storage may
the electrical power produced to the incident radiation is be- not be needed in a solar refrigeration system as thermal storage,
tween 8% to 10% at maximum power conditions for the PV e.g., ice or other low temperature phase storage medium, may
array represented in Figure 2. If the PV refrigeration system be more efficient and less expensive.
is to operate at high efficiency, it is essential that the voltage A final option for systems that do not use a maximum
imposed on the PV array be close to the voltage that provides power tracker or a battery is to select an electric motor having
maximum power. current-voltage characteristics closely matched to the maximum
This requirement can be met in several ways. First, a maxi- power output of the module.
mum power tracker can be used which, in effect, continuously Figure 3 superimposes the current-voltage characteristics of a
transforms the voltage required by the load to the maximum series dc motor and separately excited motor on the photovoltaic
power voltage. If the system includes a battery, the battery module. In this case, the separately excited motor would provide
voltage will control the operating voltage of the PV module. more efficient operation because it more closely matches the
PV panels can then be chosen so that their maximum power maximum power curve for the photovoltaic module. However,
voltage is close to the voltage for the battery system. neither motor type represented in Figure 3 is well-matched to
The battery also provides electrical storage so that the system the characteristics of the PV module over the entire range of
can operate at times when solar radiation is unavailable. How- incident solar radiation. Studies of solar-powered motors have
ever, the addition of a battery increases the weight of the system shown that permanent magnet or separately excited dc motors

S28 Building for the Future | A Supplement to ASHRAE Journal September 2005
are always a better choice than series excited dc motors in mum efficiency would be a maximum of 4.5% for the conditions
direct-coupled systems that are not equipped with a maximum assumed in Figure 5.
power tracker. This efficiency is significantly lower than that which can
be achieved with non-concentrating PV modules. Solar me-
Solar Mechanical Refrigeration chanical systems are competitive only at higher temperatures
Solar mechanical refrigeration uses a conventional vapor for which tracking solar collectors are required. Because of its
compression system driven by mechanical power that is produced economy-of-scale, this option would only be applicable for large
with a solar-driven heat power cycle. The heat power cycle usu- refrigeration systems (e.g., 1,000 tons or 3,517 kWT).
ally considered for this application is a Rankine cycle in which a
fluid is vaporized at an elevated Absorption Refrigeration
pressure by heat exchange Absorption refrigeration is
with a fluid heated by solar the least intuitive of the so-
collectors. A storage tank can lar refrigeration alternatives.
be included to provide some Unlike the PV and solar me-
high temperature thermal stor- chanical refrigeration options,
age. The vapor flows through the absorption refrigeration
a turbine or piston expander system is considered a “heat-
to produce mechanical power, driven” system that requires
as shown in Figure 4. The minimal mechanical power
Figure 4: Solar driven mechanical power cycle.
fluid exiting the expander is for the compression process.
condensed and pumped back 0.5 It replaces the energy-intensive
to the boiler pressure where it compression in a vapor com-
is again vaporized. pression system with a heat-
0.4
The efficiency of the Ran- activated “thermal compres-
kine cycle increases with in- sion system.” A schematic of a
creasing temperature of the 0.3 single-stage absorption system
vaporized fluid entering the using ammonia as the refriger-
Efficiency

expander, as shown in Figure 5 0.2 ant and ammonia-water as the

(bold line). The Rankine cycle absorbent is shown in Figure
efficiency in Figure 5 was esti- 6. Absorption cooling systems
0.1
mated for a high-temperature that use lithium bromide-water
organic fluid assuming that absorption-refrigerant working
saturated vapor is provided 0.0 fluids can not be used at tem-
100 120 140 160 180 200
to a 70% efficient expander Temperature (°C) peratures below 0°C (32°F).
and condensation occurs at Figure 5: Approximate efficiencies for a Rankine cycle (bold line) The condenser, throttle and
35°C (95°F). The efficiency and evacuated solar collectors (fine lines) at 30°C (86°F) ambient evaporator operate in the ex-
of a solar collector, however, and differing solar radiation values. actly the same manner as for
decreases with increasing the vapor compression system.
temperature of the delivered energy. High temperatures can be In place of the compressor, however, the absorption system uses a
obtained from concentrating solar collectors that track the sun’s series of three heat exchangers (absorber, regenerating intermedi-
position in one or two dimensions. Tracking systems add cost, ate heat exchanger and a generator) and a small solution pump.
weight and complexity to the system. If tracking is to be avoided, Ammonia vapor exiting the evaporator (State 6) is absorbed in a
evacuated tubular, compound parabolic or advanced multi-cover liquid solution of water-ammonia in the absorber. The absorption
flat plate collectors can be used to produce fluid temperatures of ammonia vapor into the water-ammonia solution is analogous
ranging between 100°C – 200°C (212°F – 392°F). to a condensation process. The process is exothermic and so cool-
The efficiency of solar collectors depends on both solar radia- ing water is required to carry away the heat of absorption. The
tion and the difference in temperature between the entering fluid principle governing this phase of the operation is that a vapor is
and ambient. Figure 5 also shows approximate solar collector more readily absorbed into a liquid solution as the temperature
efficiencies as a function of fluid delivery temperature for a of the liquid solution is reduced.
range of solar radiation values. The overall efficiency of solar The ammonia-rich liquid solution leaving the absorber (State 7)
mechanical refrigeration, defined as the ratio of mechanical is pumped to a higher pressure, passed through a heat exchanger
energy produced to the incident solar radiation, is the product and delivered to the generator (State 1). The minimum mechani-
of the efficiencies of the solar collector and the power cycle. cal power needed to operate the pump is given by Equation 1,
Because of the competing effects with temperature, there is an the same equation that applies to the minimum power needed by
optimum efficiency at any solar radiation. However, the opti- a compressor. However, the power requirement for the pump is

September 2005 Building for the Future | A Supplement to ASHRAE Journal S29
much smaller than that for the compressor since v, the specific A number of barriers have prevented more widespread use
volume of the liquid solution, is much smaller than the specific of solar refrigeration systems.
volume of a refrigerant vapor. It is, in fact, possible to design an First, solar refrigeration systems necessarily are more com-
absorption system that does not require any mechanical power plicated, costly, and bulky than conventional vapor compression
input relying instead on gravity. However, grid-connected systems systems because of the necessity to locally generate the power
usually rely on the use of a small pump. needed to operate the refrigeration cycle.
In the generator, the liquid solution is heated, which promotes Second, the ability of a solar refrigeration system to func-
desorption of the refrigerant (ammonia) from the solution. Un- tion is driven by the availability of solar radiation. Because
fortunately, some water also is desorbed with the ammonia, and this energy resource is variable, some form of redundancy or
it must be separated from the energy storage (electrical or
ammonia using the rectifier. thermal) is required for most
Without the use of a rectifier, applications, which further
water exits at State 2 with the adds to the system size and
ammonia and travels to the cost. The advantage of solar
evaporator, where it increases refrigeration systems is that
the temperature at which re- they displace some or all of
frigeration can be provided. the conventional fuel use.
This solution temperature The operating costs of a solar
needed to drive the desorption refrigeration system should be
process with ammonia-water lower than that of conventional
is in the range between 120°C systems, but at current and pro-
to 130°C (248°F to 266°F). jected fuel costs, this operating
Temperatures in this range cost savings would not likely
can be obtained using low cost compensate for their additional
non-tracking solar collectors. capital costs, even in a long-
At these temperatures, evacu- term life-cycle analysis.
ated tubular collectors may be The major advantage of
more suitable than flat-plate solar refrigeration is that it
collectors as their efficiency Figure 6: Ammonia-water absorption refrigeration system. can be designed to operate
is less sensitive to operating independent of a utility grid.
temperature. Applications exist in which this capability is essential, such as
The overall efficiency of a solar refrigeration system is the storing medicines in remote areas. Of the three solar refrigeration
product of the solar collection efficiency and the coefficient concepts presented here, the photovoltaic system is most appro-
of performance of the absorption system. The efficiency of an priate for small capacity portable systems located in areas not
evacuated tubular collector for different levels of solar radiation near conventional energy sources (electricity or gas). Absorption
and energy delivery temperatures is given in Figure 5. and solar mechanical systems are necessarily larger and bulkier
The COP for a single-stage ammonia-water system depends and require extensive plumbing as well as electrical connections.
on the evaporator and condenser temperatures. The COP for In situations where the cost of thermal energy is high, absorption
providing refrigeration at –10°C (14°F) with a 35°C (95°F) systems may be viable for larger stationary refrigeration systems.
condensing temperature is approximately 0.50. Advanced ab- The solar mechanical refrigeration systems would require track-
sorption cycle configurations have been developed that could ing solar collectors to produce high temperatures at which the
achieve higher COP values. The absorption cycle will operate heat power cycle efficiency becomes competitive.
with lower temperatures of thermal energy supplied from the If the capital cost and efficiency of tracking solar collectors
solar collectors with little penalty to the COP, although the can be significantly reduced, this refrigeration system option
capacity will be significantly reduced. could be effective in larger scale refrigeration applications.

Conclusions Additional Reading

An overall system coefficient of performance (COPsys) can
be defined as the ratio of refrigeration capacity to input solar
energy. The COPsys is low for all three types of solar refrigera-
tion systems. However, this definition of efficiency may not be
the most relevant metric for a solar refrigeration system because
the fuel that drives the system during operation, solar energy,
is free. Other system metrics that are more important are the
specific size, weight, and, of course, the cost.
2001 ASHRAE Handbook—Fundamentals, Chapter 1.
Duffie, J.A. and W.A. Beckman. 1991. Solar Engineering of
Thermal Processes, 2nd ed. Wiley Interscience.
Herold, K.E., R. Radermacher and S.A. Klein. 1996. Absorp-
tion Chillers and Heat Pumps, CRC Press.
Al-Ibrahim, A.M. 1997. “Optimum Selection of Direct-Cou-
pled Photovoltaic Pumping System in Solar Domestic Hot Water
Systems.” Ph.D. Thesis, University of Wisconsin-Madison.

S30 Building for the Future | A Supplement to ASHRAE Journal September 2005