ISSN: 2456-7515

International Journal of Advances in Agriculture

Sciences
(A Monthly Scientific Journal of Kiban Research Publications)
www.kibanresearchpublications.com

REVIEW ARTICLE

Pathogenicity of Sclerotium Rolfsii on Different Host, and Its over

Wintering Survival; A Mini Review
K.M. Masum Billah1*, Md. Billal Hossain1, Mahamud Hasan Prince2, Md.
Masud Parvez Sumon1
1Department of Plant Pathology, Patuakhali Science and Technology University, Dumki, Patuakhali,
Bangladesh.
2Department of Horticulture, Patuakhali Science and Technology University, Dumki, Patuakhali,
Bangladesh.

*Corresponding author: K. M. Masum Billah

Abstract

Sclerotium rolfsii is found to be pathogenic on sunflower, moonbeam, betel vine, lentil, sugar beet,
tomato, sweet pumpkin also attack the plants like maize, chick pea, apple, cotton, potato, soybean, oat
and some ornamentals. Sclerotium rolfsii can attack any parts of a plant that touch the soil, but it most
commonly attacks a plant at or just below the soil line. The fungus produces white fungal strands
(mycelia or hyphae) around infected plant parts and can be observed on the soil surrounding the plant.
The pathogens of sclerotial diseases cause damping-off of seedlings, stem canker, crown blight, root,
crown, bulb, tuber and fruit rots. The mycelia of S. rolfsii spread rapidly and can remain active in soil for
long period as sclerotia. Losses due to affect of this pathogen can vary considerably depending on the
environmental conditions, crop type and soil conditions.

Keywords: Pathogenicity, Sclerotium rolfsii, Host, Over-wintering, Survival.

Introduction
Sclerotium rolfsii, the causal agent of
collar/foot rot of many crops [1] having a
wider host range [2] attracted the attention
of plant pathologist and professional
researcher throughout the world. The
pathogen is known to cause diseases of
cereals, pulses, oil crops, potatoes,
vegetables, ornamentals, and nursery
seedlings of fruits and forest trees. Sclerotial
diseases frequently affect a wide variety of
plants, including most vegetables, flowers,
legumes, cereals, forage plants and weeds [3].
Aycock [1] stated that host range of S. rolfsii
is very wide and includes not only many
important horticultural and agronomic crops
but many of noneconomic importance. It is
not possible to establish precise totals for the
species reported as host; nevertheless the soil
borne plant pathogenic fungus S. rolfsii
attacking more than 500 spp. of plants
belonging to over 100 families. The pathogen
causes a great economic loss on various crops.
On a number of other hosts like chilli,
tomato, groundnut etc. it caused a collar rot
of the plants. Madhavi et al [4] reported that
Chilli is recently affected by dry root rot
disease caused by S. rolfsii (Sacc.) under rain
fed conditions at Andhra Pradesh, India. It
has been reported that S. rolfsii caused about
25% seedling mortality in the groundnut
cultivar JL-24 [5].
Its occurrence on cross andra has been
observed about 40 to 50% mortality of plants.
In peppermint; this pathogen caused about 5
to 20% of crop loss was observed under field
condition [6]. This pathogen also affect the
tuber rose plant. Mohanty et al [7] worked
with S. rolfsii (Coller rot pathogen) in tuber
rose. Kumer et al [8] worked with stem rot
disease of ground nut caused by S. rolfsii. In
India, peppermint is grown throughout the
year and it is affected by several fungal
diseases; of which, collar rot caused by S.
rolfsii is a major constraint in the peppermint

Billah et. al.| July 2017| Vol.2| Issue 7 |01-06 1

 Available online at:http://ijaas.kibanresearchpublications.com/index.php/IJAAS
cultivation in Tamil Nadu [9]. About 27% or
more yield loss due to this disease has been
reported from India [10] An estimated loss of
up to US$ 10-20 million because of S. rolfsii
has been reported in southern peanut
growing region of USA with yield depletion
ranging from 1-60% in different fields [1].In
Bangladesh, diseases caused by S. rolfsii in
different crops have been reported by Meah
and Khan [11] and many others. Sclerotia of
S. rolfsii survived 2 months to 3 years in field
soil [1].
Beute [12] reported that 28 to 73% of
sclerotic of S. rolfsii in soil survived up to
10months from fall through summer in the
southern states Alabama and North
Carolina, Respectively In this review,
researchers tried to show the pathogen city of
this pathogen on different host and its
economic importance also reviewed how it
survives during unfavorable condition.
Pathogenicity of Sclerotium Rolfsii on
Different Host
Tomato
Ahmed and Hossain [13] reported that collar
rot, foot and root rot disease caused by
Sclerotium rolfsii caused considerable
damage both in seedling and adult stages of
tomato plant and there existed variations in
the incidence of the disease in different parts
of Bangladesh. Tomato plant suffers from
many diseases. Ahmed and Hossain [13] and
Meah [14] listed a number of diseases of
tomato plant caused by fungi, bacteria, virus,
nematode and mycoplasma. Of them,
collar/foot rot caused by S. rolfsii is damaging
to the crop. Collar rot (S. rolfsii [Corticium
rolfsii]) is one of the major threats in
Himachal Pradesh, India, with an incidence
of 10-45%.
Collar rot of tomato plant caused by S. rolfsii
occurs at any growth stage of the plant.
Existence and occurrence of the disease has
been reported from South Eastern Nigeria by
Nwufo and Onysagba [15] and from India by
Sugha et al. [16]. Meah [17] tested the
pathogen city of 10 isolates of S. rolfsii on
tomato plant (var. Dohazari) and he found
that all the isolates of S. rolfsii significantly
influenced the germination, pre-emergence
death, damping off, foot rot and plant stand.
Lievens et al. [18] observed a severe
collar/foot rot on two month old wilted tomato
(Lycopersicum esculentum) plants in a large
scale (2.5 ha) commercial greenhouse setting
in Belgium. Symptom development was
Billah et. al.| July 2017| Vol.2| Issue 7 |01-06
restricted to lower plant parts with severe
rotting of the entire root system and dark
lesions girdling the stem base.
Sunflower
Scleotium rolfsii were found to be associated
with damping-off and charcoal-rot of
sunflower in Etay Elbaroud region, Behera
governorate, Egypt. Chakravarty and
Bhowmik [19] studied symptoms and
techniques of inducing collar-rot of sunflower
caused by S. rolfsii Sacc. The fungus caused
pre- and post-emergence damping off of
sunflower seedlings and collar rot of adult
plants. Okoli et al. [20] reported that S.
rolfsii caused heavy infestation on sunflower;
plants wilted and dried out with basal stem
dry rot.
Affected plants developed round-elliptical
basal lesions, brown-tan colored with a
whitish centre and producing sclerotic.
Diseased plants wilted and died after
producing chaff seeds. Symptoms included an
initial acropetal wilting of the entire plants.
Affected plants gradually dry-out but remain
erect. Initially leaves remained green and
attached to the stem .It causes pre- and post-
emergence damping-off collar rot and wilt of
sunflower and is considered as one of the
economically important diseases of sunflower
in India [21]. Mirza and Aslam [22] states
that a root rot disease of wild sunflower
species (Helianthus ubeross L) was observed
during May, 1992 at National Agricultural
Research Centre (NARC), Islamabad.
Brinjal
Choudhury [23] states that, foot rot disease
of eggplant/brinjal is caused by Sclerotium
sp.. Minute mustard like structure, adheres
to the stem at ground level. These put out
mycelia which enter the stem and choke the
vessels. This is spread from one plant to the
other by irrigation. Rangaswami, [24] states
that more than ten diseases have been
reported on brinjal from India. Among the
mfoot-rot of brinjal is most common disease
caused by S. rolfsii sacc. Sugha et al. [16]
earlier reported collar rot of brinjal from
India. Chourasia et al. [25] describes the
pathological studies of S. rolfsii causing foot-
rot disease of brinjil.
Betel Vine
Mridha and Alamgir [26] observed sclerotial
wilt of betel vine in thirty selected gardens in
Chittagong. Plants showed decay at the collar
region and below the soil level. It has been
2
 Available online at:http://ijaas.kibanresearchpublications.com/index.php/IJAAS
reported that infected plants lost luster,
leaves turned yellow and the whole plant
wilted and died. The infected portion of the
stem was covered with white cottony mycelial
strands with small, light to deep brown
sclerotic on the stem as well as adjacent soil
surface. Mostofa [27] stated that the presence
of any amount of S. rolfsii in soil would
produce collar rot and ultimately wilting of
betel vines. Islam [28] reported that Farmers
growing Piper betel in three upazilas of
Rajshahi incurred a huge loss as foot rot
disease damaged about 60% of the cultivation
in the year of 2004. Mandal and Jana [29]
said that betel vine production accounts for
extensive economic loss due to collar rot
caused by S. rolfsii.
Lentil
Iqbal et al.[30] made the first report
sclerotium rolfsii on lentil (Lens culinaris)
in Pakistan. Sowing of lentil during third
week of November was found to reduce the
incidence of collar rot and root rot caused by
S. rolfsii and Fusarium oxysporum compared
to early sowing. Artificial inoculation of ten
selected genotypes of lentil to collar rot
pathogen, S. rolfsii showed that all the lines
were susceptible to the test pathogen.
Other Hosts
Sugha et al. [31] reported that Sclerotium
rolfsii caused collar rot of chickpea. Yasmin-
Ahmed et al. [32] reported that Sclerotium
rolfsii caused collar rot of maize. Wangihar et
al. [33] reported that an outbreak of collar
and root rot was observed on Capsicum in
Maharashtra, India during the first week of
October, 1985. The disease was most severe
on cultivars Jurala and CA960. The causal
agent was identified as S.(Corticium) rolfsii.
Thammasak made an investigation on the
Pathogenicity of S. rolfsii, and reported that
the pathogen could infect its host cotton
severely; disease severity in average was
84%.
The pathogen caused pre and post emergence
damping off symptoms of cotton seedlings.
Hsiehh [34] reported from Taiwan that S.
rolfsii was found to cause rot of three
ornamentals viz., Saintpaulia, Jonantha
gloxinia and Streptocarpus hybridus.
Debnath [35] in an experiment on the
reaction of twelve cultivars of soybean to
collar rot and root rot disease caused by S.
rolfsii, found that, all the varieties were
susceptible and infected by the pathogen.
Giganate [36] stated that potatoes grown in
Billah et. al.| July 2017| Vol.2| Issue 7 |01-06
northern and central Italy were occasionally
attacked by S. rolfsii Ahmed et al., [37] made
the first report of S. rolfsii from Pakistan on
maize (Zea mays). The fungus was
subsequently reported from oat (Avena
sativa) and mash bean (Vigna mungo) [38],
apple (Malussylvestris) [39], and seeds of
sugar beet (Beta vulgaris) [40].
According to Wydra [41], S. rolfsii is
especially severe on legums, solanaceous
crops, cucurbits and other vegetables grown
in rotation with beans. Bag T.K.[42] reported
two new host (Phaius flavus and
Paphiopedilum venustum) of s. rolfsii from
India .In the year 2001 root rot of chilli
caused by S. rolfsii was first time reported
from Rajasthan near Jaipur chilli growing
areas, where the sever mortality of chilli
plants during March-April was observed
Kalmesh and Gurjar [43].They also said that
among the fungal diseases, in recent years
dry root rot of chilli caused by S. rolfsii is of
major concern and causing the economic
losses in chilli.
Disease cycle of Sclerotium Rolfsii
Sclerotia of S. rolfsii easily spread in
soilattached to shoes, hand tools, vehicle
tires, or machinery, or in splashing water.
Long-distance movement occurs by means of
sclerotic in plant material or soil during
shipment [44]. During favorable weather
conditions, sclerotia resume activity by either
eruptive or hyphal germination [45].
Eruptive germination means that aggregates
of white mycelium burst out of the sclerotial
rind. An external food source is not required
for this type of germination. Sclerotic can
germinate eruptively only after being
induced by dry conditions or volatile
compounds [45]. Sclerotia can germinate
hyphally more than once. Growth of
individual hyphae from sclerotia is in
response to availability of exogenous
nutrients [46].
Infection Mechanism of the Pathogens
During infection, S. rolfsii secrete oxalic acid
and tissue degrading enzymes such as
cellulose [1] [46]. Oxalic acid is corrosive to
tissues of hundreds of genera of plants [47].
Oxalic acid can combine with calcium in
plant tissues, removing it from association
with the pectic compounds in plant cell walls,
lowering cell wall pH, and thereby favoring
activity of the cell wall-degrading enzymes
end opolygalacturonase and cellulose [48].
3
 Available online at:http://ijaas.kibanresearchpublications.com/index.php/IJAAS
Massivemycelial growth on plant tissues
produces large quantities of oxalic acid that
facilitate penetration of hyphae into tissue
[1].Oxalic acid and tissue-degrading enzymes
work together to break down cell walls,
resulting in tissue maceration. The
pathogens then absorb nutrients from the
macerated tissue [1]. Maceration interrupts
transport of water and nutrients in plant
tissues, thereby causing wilting, yellowing,
and necrosis [49].
Survival of Sclerotic
Sclerotia are the primary structures that
enable S. rolfsii to survive periods of
unfavorable conditions. Sclerotia are formed
from masses of hyphal strands. Mature
sclerotia include an outer layer (rind), an
underlying cortical layer, and a central
medullary region comprised of loosely
interwoven hyphae [50-48]. Sclerotia of S.
rolfsii survived from 2 months to 7 years in
field soil depending on experimental
conditions [1].
Temperature and moisture may interact in
influencing survival of S. rolfsii under field
conditions [12]. Matti [51] reported little
difference in the proportion of viable sclerotia
of S. rolfsii recovered under a range of
controlled temperature regimes (0 to 40 °C)
or under moderate to low soil water holding
capacity. Cycles of drying and wetting, as
well as cycles of freezing and thawing, may
decrease survival of sclerotia of S. rolfsii [52].
Stimulation of eruptive germination during
drying following wetting was associated with
rind cracking and leakage of nutrients,
permitting activity of lytic microorganisms
[53]. Matti [51] found that only 11% of
sclerotia survived on the soil surface,
whereas 94% survived at 10-cm soil depth,
after alternating 7-day cycles of wetting and
drying over 8 weeks. The relative absence of
References
1. Aycock R (1966) Stem rot and other diseases
caused by S. rolfsii. Tech. Bull. 174. Agric.
Expt. Station, North Carolina State
University, Raleigh. 202.
2. Bhattacharrya SK, Phadtare SG, Sharma VC
(1977) fungal diseases of potato. Recent
Technology in potato improvement and
production. CPRI. Simpla. India. 209-237.
3. Agrios GN (1998) Plant Pathology. 4th ed.
Academic Press. London.395-397.
4. Madhavi GB, Bhattiprolu SL (2011) Integrated
disease management of dry root rot of chilli
Billah et. al.| July 2017| Vol.2| Issue 7 |01-06
soil drying at 10-cm depth might account for
greater survival than at the soil surface [51].
Smith et al. [54] found that survival of S.
rolfsii decreased when depth of burial was
greater than 2.5 cm, and that survival
decreased in proportion to depth of burial.
Punja and Jenkins [52] attributed this trend
in part to increasing gravitational pressure
at greater depths, which may enhance
substrate leakage from sclerotia. Soil texture
and pH may also affect survival of sclerotia.
For S. sclerotiorum, Mitchellet al. [55] and
Alexander and Stewart [56] showed more
rapid sclerotial degradation and reduced
survival in soil with higher clay content and
relatively low pH (~6), and lower survival in
clay loam than in sandy loam. Alexander and
Stewart [56] attributed lower survival in clay
loam to greater water holding capacity, which
affected drying and wetting of soil, resulting
in greater microbial activity.
Factors such as drying, wetting, and heating
that increase activity of soil microorganisms
near sclerotia and predispose sclerotia to
antagonism may accelerate their mortality
rate [56]. Ubiquitous soil microorganisms
such as Trichoderma spp., Fusarium spp.,
Penicillium spp. And Aspergillus spp. can
penetrate the rind and destroy the inner
sclerotial tissues [57-58]. For Trichoderma,
this process is facilitated by production of
theenzymes β–1,3 glucanase and chitinase
[59].Impact of size of sclerotia on survval
Alexander and Stewart [56] found that the
relatively large sclerotia of S. rolfsii and
Sclerotinia sclerotiorum survived longer than
the smaller sclerotia of Sclerotinia minor and
Sclerotium cepivorum. They related greater
durability to the fact that larger sclerotia
may contain more nutrients in the cortex and
thus be more resistant to prolonged periods
of unfavorable conditions [56] [60-61]
.
incited by Sclerotium rolfsii (SACC.). Inter. J.
of plant, animal & env. Sci.1(2)
5. Ingale RV, Mayee, CD (1986) Efficacy and
economics of some management practices of
fungal diseases of groundnut. J. Oilseeds Res.
3: 201-204.
6. Anand S, Singh H B (2004) Controls of collar
rot in mint (Mentha spp) caused by Sclerotium
rolfsii using biological means. Current Sci.
87(3):632-366.
7. Mohanthy AD, S Kar, Behera P (2016)
Investigation on fungicidal sensitivity of
4
 Available online at:http://ijaas.kibanresearchpublications.com/index.php/IJAAS
sclerotium rolfsii(coller rot pathogen) in tuber
rose. Inter. J. of Human. and Soci. Sci.
5(1):179-182
8. Kumar V, AL Rathnakumar , Bagwan NB
(2012) Effect of crop residues and root exudates
on mycelial growth, sclerotial formation, and
Sclerotium rolfsii-induced stem rot disease of
groundnut. Indian Phytopath. 65 (3):238-243
9. Shukla PK, Haseeb AS, Sharma S (1998) Soil
texture, root lesion nematodes and yield of
peppermint (Mentha piperita). J. Herbs Spices
Med. Plants 6:1-8.
10. Chohan JS (1974) Recent Advances in diseases
of groundnut in India. In: Current Trends in
Plant Pathology, Uttar Pradesh, India,
Lucknow University Press, 171-178
11. Meah MB (1987) Diseases in Rabi crops under
crop diversification programme Report. Crop
Diversification Programme, Dept. Agric, Ext.,
Dhaka. 10 .
12. Beute K, Rodriguez-Kabana R (1981) Effects of
soil moisture,n temperature, and field
environment on survival of Sclerotium rolfsii
in Alabama and North Carolina.
Psychopathology 71:1293-1296.
13. Ahmed HU, Hossain M (1985) Crop disease
survey and establishment of a herbarium at
BARI. Final report of the project (1982-85).
Plant Pathology Division, Bangladesh
Agricultural Research Institute (BARI),
Joydebpur, Gazipur 107.
14. Meah MB (2003) Integrated Management of
Eggplant Cultivation-1. IPM laboratory,
Department of Plant Pathology, Bangladesh
Agricultural University, Mymensingh.
Bangladesh. 3-15.
15. Nwufo MI, Onysagba A (1989) Studies on foot
and root rot diseases of eggplant (S.
melongena) caused by Sclerotium rolfsii in
southeastern Nigeria Beitraege-zur-tropischen-
landwirtschatt-und-veterinaermedizin. 27(4):
449-453.
16. Sugha SK, Pathania NK, Sharma BK (1990)
Reaction of brinjal cultivars to collar rot
(Sclerotium rolfsii). South Indian Hort. 38(6):
351-352.
17. Meah MB (2007) Formulation of bio-pesticides
in controlling phomopsis rot, foot/collar rot and
shoot and fruit borer of eggplant. Annual
research report, USDA-Bangladesh
collaborative research. 4-11.
18. Lievens B, Hanssen IRM, Vanachter ACRC,
Cammue BPA, Thomma BPHJ (2004) Root and
foot rot on tomato caused by Phytophthora
infestans detected in Belgium. Plant Disease.
88(1): 86.
19. Chakravarty S, Bhowmik TP (1983) Symptoms
and techniques of inducing collar rot of
Billah et. al.| July 2017| Vol.2| Issue 7 |01-06
sunflower caused by Sclerotium rolfsii Sacc.
Indian J. Agric. Sci. 53(7):570-573.
20. Okoli CAN, Erinle ID, Misari SM, Poswal
MAT, Emechebe AM (1991) Basal stem rot
and wilt of sunflower in Nigeria caused by
Sclerotium rolfsii. Plant Disease. 75(7): 750.
21. Hebbar KP, Berge O , Heulin T, Singh SP
(1991) Bacterial antagonists of sunflower
(Helianthusanuus L.) fungal pathogens. Plant
and Soil 133: 131- 140.
22. Mirza MS, Aslam M (1993) Helianthus
tubrosus : A new host of sclerotium rolfsii in
pakistan. Oilseed Program, National
Agriculture Research Centre (NARC), PARC,
Islamabad, Pakistan. HELIA,16, Nr. 18:85-88
23. Choudhury B (1967) Vegetables. Sixth revised
edition. National book trust, India.56-57.
24. Rangaswami G (1972) Disease of crop plants in
India. Prientice-Hall of India, Private Limited,
New Delhi.
25. Chaurasia S, Chaurasia AK, Chaurasia S,
Chaurasia S (2014) pathological studies of
sclerotium rolfsii causing foot-rot disease of
brinjil. Inter. J. of Pharm. Life Sci., 5(1): 3257-
3264.
26. Mridha MAU, Alamgir SM (1989) Prevalence
of sclerotial wilt of Betelvine (Piper betle L.)
caused by Sclerotium rolfsii Bangladesh J.
Plant Pathol. 5(1&2):107-108.
27. Mostofa GM (1973) A study on the disease of
pan (Piper betle) occurring in the village
around the BAU Campus. M. Sc. Ag. Thesis,
Dept. of Plant Pathology, Bangladesh
Agricultural University, Mymensingh. 45-46.
28. Islam M (2005) Country news, Holiday
Publication Limited, 8: 3-4.
29. Mandal M, Jana SC (2015) Antagonistic
Effects of Bacteriocin and Bacteriocinogenic
Lactobacillus on stem rot causing Sclerotium
rolfsii in Betel. International Journal of
Bioassays 4.(11):4454-4457.
30. Iqbal SM, A Bakhsh, S Hussain, Malik BA
(1995) Microbial antagonism against
Sclerotium rolfsii, the cause of collar rot of
lentil. Lens-Newsletter, 22: 48-49.
31. Sugha SK, Sharma BK, Tyagi PD (1991) A
modified Technique for screening chickpea
(Cicer arietinum) varieties against collar rot
caused by Sclerotium rolfsii. Indian J. Agril.
Sci. 61(4): 289-290.
32. Yasmin-Ahmed Mirza MS, Aslam M, Ahmad Y
(1988) Collar rot of maize caused by Sclerotium
rolfsii in Pakistan. Pakistan J. Agril. Res.
9(4):604-605.
33. Wangihar PD, Somani RB, Bobade KP (1988)
Sclerotium collar rot a new menace to chilli in
vidarbha. PKV Res. J. 12(1) 88-89.
5
 Available online at:http://ijaas.kibanresearchpublications.com/index.php/IJAAS
34. Hsiehh J (1979) Sclerotium rots of three
ornamental plants-new for Taiwan. Plant
Protec. Bull. 2(2): 247-249.
35. Debnath H (1979) Reaction of 12 cultivars of
soybean to foot and root rot disease. M. Sc. Ag.
thesis, Dept. of Plant Pathology Bangladesh
Agricultural University, Mymensingh. 53.
36. Giganate R (1950) Dry rot of potato tubers
caused by Sclerotium. Italian Agril. 83: 263-
265.
37. Ahmed Y, MS Mirza, Aslam M (1984)
Sclerotium rolfsii on maize. FAO Plant Prot.
Bull, 32: 147.
38. Shahzad S, Ghaffar A (1995) New records of
soilborne root infecting fungi in Pakistan. Pak.
J. Bot., 17: 209-216.
39. Jahangir A., MK Mohibullah, M Ayub, Khan
M (1995) Detection of fungi causing root rot of
apple nurseries in Swat. Sarhad J. Agri., 11:
754-748.
40. Ruqia B (2001) Studies on seed-borne
mycoflora of sugarbeet (Beta vulgaris). M.Sc.
Thesis, Department of Botany, University of
Karachi, Karachi. 30.
41. Wydra K (1996) Collection and determination
of root and stem rot pathogens. Annuals report
II T.A., Ibadan, Nigeria:6
42. Bag TK. (2004) two new orchid hosts of
Sclerotium rolfsii from India. Plant Pathology
53, 255.
43. Kalmesh M, Gurjar RBS (2001) Sclerotium
rolfsii – A new Threat to chilli in Rajasthan.
Mycology and Plant Pathology, 31(2): 261.
44. Mullen J (2001) Southern blight, Southern
stem blight, White mold. The Plant Health
Instructor. DOI: 10.1094/PHI-I-2001-0104-01.
Updated, 2006.
45. Punja ZK, Grogan RG (1981) Mycelial growth
and infection without a food base by eruptively
germinating sclerotia of Sclerotium rolfsii.
Physiopathology 71:1099-1103.
46. Punja ZK, Damiani A (1996) Comparative
growth, morphology, and physiology of three
Sclerotium species. Mycologia 88:694-706.
47. Ghaffar A (1976) Inhibition of fungi as affected
by oxalic acid production by
Sclerotiumdelphinii. Pak. J. Bot. 8:69-73.
48. Deacon J (2006) Fungal Biology. Blackwell
Publishing. New York.
Billah et. al.| July 2017| Vol.2| Issue 7 |01-06
49. Bateman DF, Beer SV (1965) Simultaneous
production and synergistic action of oxalic acid
and polygalacturonase during pathogensis by
Sclerotium rolfsii. Physiopathology 55:204-211.
50. Chet I, Henis Y, Mitchell R (1967) Chemical
composition of hyphal and sclerotial walls of
Sclerotium rolfsii Sacc. Can. J. Microbiol.
13:137-141.
51. Matti S, Sen C (1988) Effect of moisture and
temperature on the survival of sclerotia of
Sclerotium rolfsii in soil. J. Physiopathology
121:175-180.
52. Punja ZK, Jenkins SF (1984) Influence of
temperature, moisture, modified gaseous
atmosphere, and depth in soil on eruptive
sclerotial germination of Sclerotium rolfsii.
Psychopathology 74:749-754.
53. Smith AM (1972) Drying and wetting sclerotia
promotes biological control of Sclerotium rolfsii
Sacc. Soil Biol. Biochem. 4:119-123.
54. Smith VL, Jenkins SF, Punja ZK, Benson DM
(1989) Survival of sclerotia of Sclerotium
rolfsii: Influence of sclerotial treatment and
depth of burial. Soil Biol. Biochem. 21:627-632.
55. Mitchell SJ, Wheeler BEJ (1990) Factors
affecting the production of apothecia and
longevity of sclerotic of Sclerotinia
sclerotiorum. Plant Pathol. 39:70-76.
56. Alexander BJR, Stewart A (1994) Survival of
sclerotia of Sclerotinia and Sclerotium spp in
New Zealand horticultural soil. Soil Biol.
Biochem. 26:1323-1329.
57. Coley-Smith JR, Ghaffar A, Javed ZUR (1974)
the effect of dry conditions on subsequent
leakage and rotting of fungal sclerotia. Soil
Biol. Biochem.6:307-312.
58. Elad Y, Barak R, Chet I (1984) Parasitism of
sclerotia of Sclerotium rolfsii by Trichodermah
arzianum. Soil Biol. Biochem. 16:381-386.
59. Elad Y, Chet I, Henis Y (1982) Degradation of
plant pathogenic fungi by Trichoderma
harzianum. Can. J. Microbiol. 28:719-725.
60. Hsiang T, Chastagner GA (1992) Production
and viability of sclerotia from
fungicideresistant and sensitive isolates of
Botrytis cinerea, B. elliptica and B. tulipae.
Plant Pathol. 41:600-605.
61. Thammasa S, W Chaliphom, Wong KC (1982)
Studies on damping off of cotton caused by
Sclerotium rolfsii sacc., Bangkok (Thailand) 33
leaves. Kasetsart University, Bangkok, 69.
6