Disk Management

CPSC 410 / 611 : Operating Systems Disk Management
Disk Management
•  Disk Structure
•  Disk Scheduling
•  RAID
•  Disk Block Management
•  Modern Secondary Storage Technologies
Disk Management
•  RAID
1
Disk Structure
sector
cylinder
track
Disk speed:
•  seek time :

head moves to correct track
•  rotational delay :
wait until sector is under head
•  transfer time :
transfer data between disk and memory
Disk Performance
Seek Time : Ts
n = number of tracks traversed TS = m × n + s
m = “track traversal time”
s = startup time
Rotational Delay (Latency Time): TR 1

TR =
r = # revolutions per time unit 2r
b
Transfer Time: TT TT =
rN
b = # bytes to be transferred
N = number of bytes on track
Disk Access Time: T = TS + TR + TT
2
Disk Management
•  RAID
Disk Scheduling
application application
kernel
file system
device
driver
disk queue
Q: Does it pay off to think about scheduling policy in disk queue?
Evaluation: Compare time for service for given request sequence.

Distinguish only by cylinder.
3
FCFS Scheduling
Request Sequence: 98, 183, 37, 122, 14, 124, 65, 67
0 24 49 74 99 124 149 174 199
total head movement: 640 tracks
FCFS Pros: FCFS Cons:

–  simple –  poor average service time
–  fair
Shortest-Seek-Time-First (SSTF)
0 24 49 74 99 124 149 174 199
Always serve “closest” request.
SSTF Pros: SSTF Cons:

–  short service times –  Starvation!
4
Elevator Algorithm (SCAN)

0 24 49 74 99 124 149 174 199
Continuously scan disk from one SCAN Cons:

end to the other. – When scanning, few requests after
us, since just past through.
– Problem: When we change direction
SCAN Pros:
at end, requests there are very
–  short service times new.
Circular SCAN (C-SCAN)

0 24 49 74 99 124 149 174 199
Reduce variance in service time by always starting at the beginning of

the disk.
5
LOOK, C-LOOK
0 24 49 74 99 124 149 174 199
Disk Management
•  RAID
6
RAID
Observation: Traditional secondary storage devices are slow!
Improve their performance by using multiple devices in parallel:
RAID
–  Redundant Arrays of Independent Disks
–  Redundant Arrays of Inexpensive Disks (Berkeley)
Common characteristics:
–  Array of physical disks that are visible as single device to OS.
–  Data is distributed across physical drives of array.
–  Redundant disk capacity is used for error detection/correction.
RAID (cont)
Approach: Replace single large-capacity disk with array of smaller-
capacity disks.
Benefits:
–  Improved I/O performance
–  Enables incremental upgrade
Problems:
–  Reliability: more devices increase the probability of failure.
-λ
R(t ) = P[t F > t ] e.g . R (t ) = e t
∞
MTTF = E[t F ] = ∫ R (t )dt

0
Solution: redundancy
7
Raid (cont 2)
Raid
= Striping
+ Redundancy
block-level
bit-level
bit-level striping
blocks
block
block-level striping
RAID Level 0
“Block-level Striped Set without Parity”
blocks
8
RAID Level 1
“Mirrored Set without Parity”
•  Problem:
–  cost (100% redundancy)
mirrors
•  Performance
–  READs : good (with multithreading and
“split reads”)
–  WRITEs: small performance penalty.
RAID Level 2
“Memory-Style
Error-Correcting Parity” block
•  Head and spindles synchronized

•  Small strips
•  Error correction code calculated over
bits of data disks. (Hamming Code)
•  Appropriate for systems with many
failures.
•  Typically not implemented.
9
RAID Level 3
“Bit-Interleaved Parity”
block
S0
S1
•  Heads and spindles synchronized.
S2
•  Small strips. S3
•  Simple parity bits instead of ECC.
S4
e.g . P ( S ) = S 4 = S 3 ⊕ S 2 ⊕ S1 ⊕ S 0
parity
Disk 1 fails:
S1 = S 4 ⊕ S 3 ⊕ S 2 ⊕ S 0
RAID Level 4
“Block level Parity”

block
•  Same as RAID 3, but with block-

level striping.
•  No synchronization across disks.
•  Large strips.
•  Each strip on parity disk contains
parity information for all
corresponding strips.
•  Parity computation upon READ:
X 4(i ) = X 3(i ) ⊕ X 2(i ) ⊕ X 1(i ) ⊕ X 0(i )

X 4' (i ) = X 3(i ) ⊕ X 2(i ) ⊕ X 1' (i ) ⊕ X 0(i )
= X 3(i ) X 2(i ) ⊕ X 1' (i ) ⊕ X 0(i ) ⊕ X 1(i ) ⊕ X 1(i )
⊕
= X 4(i ) ⊕ X 1(i ) ⊕ X 1' (i )
10
RAID Level 5
“Striped Set with Interleaved Parity”

block
•  Same as RAID 4, but parity spread

across all disks.
RAID Level 6
“Striped Set with Dual Interleaved Parity”

block
•  Same as RAID 5, but uses 2 bits to

store “parity”.
•  Uses ECC instead of parity.
•  Tolerates two failures.
•  In practice, a second drive can fail
during recovery from first drive
failure.
11
Nested Levels: RAID Level 1+0 = RAID 10

Raid 10 = “Mirrored Set in a Striped Set”
Raid 10
Raid 1
Raid 0
blocks
Raid 1
Disk Management
•  RAID
12
Disk Formatting
•  Bare disk:
•  Physical formatting:
•  “cut” into sectors
•  identify sectors
•  add space for error detection/correction
1 ecc 2 ecc 3 ecc 4 ecc 5 ecc X ecc
•  Logical formatting:
•  add blank directory, FAT, free space list, ...
1 FAT 2 DIR 3 DIR 4 F/L 5 ... X
Framing
•  Character count •  Starting and ending chars, with
character stuffing
character count
DLE STX a b DLE DLE c DLE ETX
5 1 2 3 4 8 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 2 1
stuffed DLE
•  Starting and ending flags, with bit •  Physical layer coding violations
stuffing
framing pattern: 01111110

binary
Manchester
011011111011111011111010010
stuffed bits
lack of transition
13
Bad Block Management

•  One or more blocks become unreadable/unwriteable: bad blocks
•  Off-line management of bad blocks:

–  Run bad-block detection program and put bad blocks on bad-
block list. (Either remove them from free list or mark entry in
FAT.)
–  May have to run file recovery utility.
•  On-line management:
–  Have the device driver map the bad block onto a good block
–  Block X goes bad. Whenever OS requests block X, the disk
transparently accesses a replacement block Y.
–  Problem: interferes with scheduling!
Disk Management
•  RAID
14
NAND Flash Memory
•  Flash chips are arranged in 8kB blocks.
•  Each block is divided into 512B pages.
•  Flash memory does not support “overwrite” operations.
•  Only supports a limited number of “erase” operations.
•  This is handled in the Flash Translation Layer (FTL)
Flash Translation Layer (FTL)
15
Performance Comparison: IOPS
Performance Comparison: Throughput
16
Performance Comparison: Latency
Intel 3D XPoint (Optane)
17
Optane (cont)
18

Disk Management

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Disk Management

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CPSC 410 / 611 : Operating Systems Disk Management

Rotational Delay (Latency Time): TR 1

Disk Access Time: T = TS + TR + TT

Q: Does it pay off to think about scheduling policy in disk queue?

Evaluation: Compare time for service for given request sequence.

total head movement: 640 tracks

FCFS Pros: FCFS Cons:

total head movement: 236 tracks

Always serve “closest” request.

SSTF Pros: SSTF Cons:

Elevator Algorithm (SCAN)

total head movement: 236 tracks

Continuously scan disk from one SCAN Cons:

Circular SCAN (C-SCAN)

Reduce variance in service time by always starting at the beginning of

Improve their performance by using multiple devices in parallel:

MTTF = E[t F ] = ∫ R (t )dt

“Mirrored Set without Parity”

• Head and spindles synchronized

“Block level Parity”

• Same as RAID 3, but with block-

X 4(i ) = X 3(i ) ⊕ X 2(i ) ⊕ X 1(i ) ⊕ X 0(i )

“Striped Set with Interleaved Parity”

• Same as RAID 4, but parity spread

“Striped Set with Dual Interleaved Parity”

• Same as RAID 5, but uses 2 bits to

Nested Levels: RAID Level 1+0 = RAID 10

1 ecc 2 ecc 3 ecc 4 ecc 5 ecc X ecc

1 FAT 2 DIR 3 DIR 4 F/L 5 ... X

DLE STX a b DLE DLE c DLE ETX

framing pattern: 01111110

Bad Block Management

• Off-line management of bad blocks:

NAND Flash Memory

• Flash chips are arranged in 8kB blocks.

• Each block is divided into 512B pages.

• Flash memory does not support “overwrite” operations.

• Only supports a limited number of “erase” operations.

• This is handled in the Flash Translation Layer (FTL)

Flash Translation Layer (FTL)

Performance Comparison: IOPS

Performance Comparison: Throughput

Performance Comparison: Latency

Intel 3D XPoint (Optane)

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•  Head and spindles synchronized

•  Same as RAID 3, but with block-

•  Same as RAID 4, but parity spread

•  Same as RAID 5, but uses 2 bits to

•  Off-line management of bad blocks:

•  Flash chips are arranged in 8kB blocks.

•  Each block is divided into 512B pages.

•  Flash memory does not support “overwrite” operations.

•  Only supports a limited number of “erase” operations.

•  This is handled in the Flash Translation Layer (FTL)