CnH2n+2 – Paraffin Gypsum CaSO4 2H2O

CnH2n-2 – acetylene Muriatic acid HCl

CnH2n – Olefin John Dalton (British) – Dalton’s Atomic Theory

ROH – organic alcohol Antoine van Laurent Lavoisier (French) – Law of Conservation
of Matter – Father of Modern Chemistry
ROR – ether
Sir William Crookes (English) – cathode ray tube
RCHO – aldehyde
Joseph John Thompson (English) – Plum Pudding Model of
RCOR – ketone the atom – electrons (1897)
RCOOH – org. acid Robert Andrews Millikan (American) – Oil drop experiment –
RNH2 – amine 1.602x10-19 coul

R C=0 NH2 – amide Wilhelm Konrad Roentgen (German) – xray

Marsh gas – CH4 Henri Antoine Becquerel (French) – spontaneous radioactivity

Hemiacetal – alc. + ald Marya Slodowska Curie (British) – first woman to win a Novel
Prize for Physics
Hemiketal – alc. + ket.
Ernest Rutherford (New Zealand) – α- particle scattering
Nitration – nitric acid + org. cpd experiment – proton (1919) – gold foil experiment
Sulfuric acid / alumina + org cpd. = dehydration James Chadwick (British) – neutrons (1932) – paved way to
atomic bomb and uranium 235
Haber-Bosch process – ammonia manufacturing using Fe
catalyst Charles Goodyear – vulcanization
Wood alc. – methanol (today: by hydrogenation of CO) Frederick Soddy – theory of isotopes
CCl4 – Freon 10 Werner Heisenberg (German) – one of the pioneers of
quantum mechanics – matrices
Ethanol – sugar fermentation
Gilbert Lewis (American) – “octet rule”
Dextrorotatory – to the right
Democritus – matter in the form of atoms
Levorotatory – to the left
Neal Amundson – Father of Modern Chemical Engineering
Cane sugar – C12H22O11
George Davis – ‘Founding father’ of ChemEng
Formaldehyde CH2O
Arthur D Little ‘American father’ of ChemEng – Unit Ops
Urea – carbamide – CO(NH2)2
Carl Bosch – N2 from air to ammonia – fertilizers
Ethanol – C2H6O
Margaret Hutchinson Rousseau – mass production of
Glucose – dextrose – most abundant monosaccharide – penicillin – designed the first commercial penicillin plant –
C6H16O6 deep-tank fermentation
Chloroform – CHCl3 trichloromethane Dermot Manning – polyethylene to full-scale production by a
Acetyl salicylic acid – aspirin C9H8O4 (ASA) high-pressure reactor –plastics production

Stearic acid – octadecanoic acid C18H36O2 John H. Perry – Perry’s Handbook. Improved catalysts for
sulfuric acid production
O-phtalic acid C8H8O4
George Rosenkranz – norethindrone – or progesterone –
Trinitrotoluene C7H5N3O6 contraceptive pills
Soda ash – Na2CO3 Trevor Kletz – Father of inherent safety
Caustic soda – NaOH

Dianne M. Villanueva 8/31/2019

Robert Langer – was awarded the Queen Elizabeth Prize for - Take out 1 e-
Engineering for his pioneering work in chemical engineering - Determine 𝜎 ∶ 𝜎 = 0.35 ( 4e −) + 0.85 (2e-) = 3.1
and drug delivery; is the most cited engineer ever with Zeff = 7-3.1 = 3.9
170,000 citations 0.35
0.85
Edward Teller – Father of Hydrogen Bomb 1.00
Lewis Urry – Inventor of long-lasting alkaline batteries, while Quantum Numbers
working with EverReady
1. Principal Quantum Numbers , n (1,2,3,4…) – Niels Bohr
Warren K. Lewis has been called the father of modern
chemical engineering 2. Azimuthal / Angular Momentum , l ( 0 to (n-1)) – Arnold
Sommerfeld, slope of orbital
Germain Hess – Father of Thermodynamics
3. Magnetic Quantum Number , ml (-l to 0 to +l) – Arnold
Chemistry – the art of transformation- “alkemie” ; “al-kimia” Sommerfeld

4. Spin Quantum Number , ms (+1/2 , -1/2) – Wolfgang Pauli

Bose-Einstein Condensate (BEC) – arises because of quantum Pauli’s Exclusion Principle – no 2e- in an atom can have an
mechanical effects on a collection of entities called “bosons” identical set of q.no.
Cornell and Weiman – Rb Hund’s Rule of Multiplicity (Friedrich Hund) – the most
Einstein : E photon = hv = h c/‫ג‬ stable arrangement of an e- in a subshell is that with paired

This implies that if two or more orbitals of equal energy are

available, electrons will occupy them singly before filling
A: mass no. = protons + neutrons them in pairs.

Z: atomic no. = protons M I

AmXZa A E

Isotope – same Z R E

Isotone – same no. of n°

Isoelectronic – same no. of e- Ionization energy – energy needed to remove an electron

from a gaseous atom
Isobar – same A
Electron affinity – energy always associated with the
Aufbau Principle - e- fill atomic orbitals of the LOWEST avail. ADDITION of e-
Energy levels before occupying higher levels
Electronegativity – ABILITY of an atom to “attract” e- toward
Diamagnetic – all e- are spin-paired itself
Paramagnetic – there’s unpaired e- > <
Group>period ~ non-metal -ic -ous
Group = period ~ metalloid -ate -ite
Zeff – effective nuclear charge Cl- hypochlorite
Zeff = Z – 𝜎 ClO2- chlorite
Ex. 18Ar : 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 ClO3- chlorate
𝜎 = 2 + 2 + 6 = 10 ClO4- perchlorate
Zeff = 18 – 10 = 8 HClO3 – chloric acid
-
Ex. N(7) for 2p e HBrO2 – bromous acid
7N : 1s2 2s2 2p3 Colligative Properties of Solutons (Non-electrolyte solutions)
Dianne M. Villanueva 8/31/2019
Boiling Pt. Elevation (BPE) : ΔTb = Tb,soln – Tb,solvent = Kbm Cohesion – intermolecular attraction bet. like molecules

Freezing Pt. Depression (FPD) : ΔTf = Tf,solvent – Tf,soln = CCl4 doesn’t dissolve in water
Kfm
ICl4 has a square planar geometry
Vapor Pressure Lowering : ΔP = Psolvent – Psolution
118 elements; 94 occur naturally
Raoult’s Law : PA = XAPA°
Chemical Equilibrium (Gases)
ΔP = Psolvent – Xsolvent Psolvent
Kp = Kc (RT) Δng
= (1-Xsolvent)Psolvent = Xsolute Psolvent
K>1 more products
Osmotic Pressure: ∏ = iMRT
K<1 more reactants
P<∏ : osmosis low solute high solute
K=1 equal amts.
P=∏ : osmosis stops
K>Q -
P>∏: reverse osmosis
K<Q 

Le Chatelier’s Principle “Equilibrium Law”- when a system in

Van’t hoff factor chemical equilibrium is disturbed by a change in V,T,or[C], the
system shift in equilibrium composition in a way that tends to
Ί = 1 (non-electrolyte) counteract this change of variable.
i>1 (electrolyte) P V ng
Degree of ionization, α Exo- release heat
α = Ί -1 / v -1 Formal charge – the charge of the individual atom in a
v = no. of ions in the sol’n molecule or a polyatomic ion

FC = no. of valence e- - no. of nonbinding e- -1/2 of the

bonding e-
Empirical Gas Laws
Ex. –C FC = 7-6-1/2 (2) = 0
Boyle : P α 1/V

Charles : V α T
Polar NH3 SO2 H2S C2H5OH
Amonton : P α T
Polar (unsymmetrical)
Avogadro : V α n
Net dipole

Non-polar CHCl3 H2 N2 O2 CO2 CH4 C2H4 noble gases

Dalton’s Law of Partial Pressure toluene alkynes gasoline
PT = PA + PB Polar (symmetrical)
PA = nART / V ; PB = NBRT / V Non-polar bonds
PT = nT (PA/NA) No net dipoles
nA/nT = PA/PT Like dissolves likes

hybridization of I atom in IF5 is sp3d2 Intramolecular forces – keeps molecules together (i.e.
chemical bonding)
Georg Brandt – Cobalt, 1739
Intermolecular forces – attractive force bet. molecules
Henry Cavendish – Hydrogen, 1766 keeping matter in solid/liquid phase
PCl5 trigonal bipyramidal
Dianne M. Villanueva 8/31/2019
Ionic bonding NaCl, NH4NO3, LiCl Radioactive decay – the process in w/c nucleus
spontaneously disintegrates giving off radiation
Ion-dipole KBr in H2O
Nuclear fission – heavy nucleus splits into lighter nuclei and
Hydrogen bonding H2O NH3 HF C3H8O (H-N,H-O,H-F) energy is released
Dipole-dipole H2S Ch3Cl HI Nuclear fusion – two or more atomic nuclei collide at very
London forces Ar (l) Iw (s) BF3 Kr high speed and join to form a new type of atomic nucleus

Increase: melting pt, BP, Hvap, Hf,surface tension, specific Magic number (p+ or n°) : 2,8, 20, 28, 50, 82, 126
heat, viscosity Nuclear force – bet. nucleons- very short distances only
Decrease: vapor pressure (femtometers)

Neutron serves as nuclear binders of protons.

Radioactivity – spontaneous emission of radiation Transuranium elements (Z>92) – very radioactive

α (2+) β(1-) –Both affected by an electric field Binding energy – amt of energy released during a nuclear
transformation
‫ – ג‬has no particles and no charge
ΔEbind = Δmc2

Δm = mass defect = mproducts-mreactants

Amu = 1.66054x10-24 g
C=speed of light
Angstrom Å - unit of length to measure atomic dimensions
Eunbound > Ebound
1 Å = 10-10 m
Cd – used in central rods ; good n° absorber
1-5 Å : diameters of atoms
In solution, glucose exists as an equilibrium mixture of the
10-4 Å : nucleus open-chain form and cyclic hemiacetal forms

Nuclide – atom of a specific isotope An aqueous solution of glucose behaves as an aldehyde

because its cyclic hemiacetal, the predominant form, is in
Ion – charged particle formed by the removal or addition of equilibrium with the free aldehyde form.
an electron

Cation (+) :: Anion (-)

Metal atoms tend to lose electrons
Non-metal atoms tend to gain electrons
Polyatomic ions – joined atoms that have a net positive or net
negative charge
Alkyne is an e- -rich molecule and therefore reacts as a
nucleophile
23 – Del Factor to reduce the number of cells in a fermenter
from 1010 viable organisms to one
ί= moles of particles in solution/moles of solute dissolved

Predicting ionic charges Reduction of carbonyl group – most general method for
Alkali 1+ preparing alcohol

Alkaline 2+ N-terminal amino acid residue is given first in the systematic

nomenclature of peptides
Halogens 1-
Acids + metals = gas
Group 6A 2-
Cisplatin PtCl2(NH3)2 – anti-cancer drug
Organic cpd. Contains Carbon; Inorganic cpd : everything else
Phenol – most acidic among ethanol, methanol and butanol
Otto Hann – father of the atomic age; father of nuclear
chemistry I2, C8H18, and CCl4 are non-polar

Nucleons – mixture of protons and neutrons = mass number

Dianne M. Villanueva 8/31/2019
Allosteric – if an enzyme is inhibited non-competitively by
the product
Acid – product of the hydrolization of an ester
(CH2OH)2 ethylene glycol
Antimony – stibnite, Vannoccio Birguccio
U
Glutathione C10
Alcohol will cause an IR absorption of 3500/cm
LiAlH4 is the most powerful reducing agent that is used in the
reduction of carboxylic acids and esters

Glycine – smallest of all amino acids
Asn – Aspargine
Formic acid – weakest acid in the group (perchloric acid, hcl,
nitric acid)
Arrhenius – proposed theory of electrolytic dissociation
20 α-amino acids make up diff protein in humas
Turnbull’s blue- ferrous ferricyanide
Clostridium botulinum – a potential contaminant – most
resistant to heat sterilization
In Fisher esterification, the common products are the ester
and water
Potassium carbonate - K2CO3 has 2 eq.
Primary standards for NaOH soln: KHP, Benzoic acid, sulfuric
acid
Chromite-FeCr2O4-oxide mineral belonging to the spinel
group
Proust’s Law –different samples of the same compound
always contain its constituent elements in the same
proportion by mass

Eugene Goldstein – discovered e- Democritus “atomos” word

n1 n2 series Tetrahydrocannabinol – chemical responsible for most of

marijuana’s psychological effects
1 2->infinity Lymann
Chiral – molecule that doesn’t contain a plane of symmetry
2 3->infinity Balmer
Amines are organic derivatives of ammonia
3 4->infinity Paschen
Transferase- catalyze transfer of groups
4 2->infinity Brackett
Ligases – catalyze bond formation

Hydrolases – catalyze hydrolysis

1/‫ = ג‬R (1/n12 -1/n22)
Fructose is the sweetest among lactose and glucose.
R const. 16 Quantum – smallest quantity of energy that can be emitted
or absorbed in the form of electromagnetic radiation
Gamma ray – most penetrating ray
Heisenberg principle – it is impossible to know
Friedrich Wohler – Father of Organic Chemistry; urea from simultaneously both the momentum and the position of a
ammonium cyanide particle
Human: Carbon::Universe: Hydrogen Angular momentum number – describes the orientation of
Aceto:vinegar the orbital in space

Lactic: pickles Acetone – has the lowest viscosity at 20C among : blood,
water, mercury
Aspergillus: soy sauce

Strepto: antibiotic
Kazimierz Funk – “vitamin”
Progesterone – most important progestin
Dorothy Hodgkin - Vit. B12 – most chemically complex within
Na2C2O4 – sodium oxalate
Melamine C3H6N6
Vmax Km
Vegetable oils can be converted to fuel by hydrogenation in
C _ the presence of 2 catalyst.
N _
Dianne M. Villanueva 8/31/2019
In the most stable conformation of trans-1,4-
dimethylcyclohexane, equitorial, equitorial are the positions
methyl group occupy.
Unstructured and Distributed – assumption and model in cell
kinetics
Transition state – possesses a definite geometry ; max on the
PE diagram
H2 SO2 CH4 N2 : H2 deviates LEAST from ideal behavior
½ - value of unpaired e- for magnetic spin quantum number
Low pressure and high temperature – ideal gas
Polar: NH3 and H2O
Non-polar: CO2 CH4 Br2
A – arbeit : “work”
Fugacity – escaping tendency of fluids
Allotropes of the same element always have the same
atomic mass.
H-H bond angle = 104.5°
3 or 4 billion years ago, the earth’s atmosphere is believed to
compose of methane, H2O, NH3
Stratosphere – where the highest concentration of OZONE is
observed.
Settling chamber-closed compartments that use
gravitational force to extract dust and mist for large particles
Thermal inversion – a cold layer of air becomes trapped by a
layer of warmer air above due to a lack of wind circulation
Kyoto Protocol – global treaty that aims to regulate emissions
of greenhouse gases
Table salt soln, sugar solution, BaCl, KCl : BaCl will give the
highest boiling at 1 atm
R-12 freons or chlorofluorocarbons
Ozone – for disinfection; very unstable gas;very powerful
oxidant
Abestos – material used to insulate steam pipe that will cause
lung disorder when overexposed
Fluidity – is the reciprocal of viscosity
Phase overlap of s atomic orbitals produces σ molecular
orbital
Mohr and Fajans both used for the det. of aldehydes
2-butyne (ozonolysis)  acetic acid
Dianne M. Villanueva 8/31/2019
Cr (Z=24) and Cu (Z=29) – 2 elements with electron
configurations that are well-known exceptions to the Aufbau
principle
Compared to a soluble but non-dissociating solute, an equal
no. of moles of a soluble salt in soln will always result in a
GREATER OSMOTIC PRESSURE
0.18 mKCl , 0.15m Na3PO4; .12m Ca(NO2)2 0.20m ethylene
glycol : 0.20methylene glycol has the lowest freezing pt.
Beattie Bridgemann – EOS that is applicable over wide
ranges of temp and pressure with excellent accuracy.
Melting of wax: increase in entropy
Freezing : decrease in entropy
KI solution : colorless  YELLOW upon oxidation
The eclipsed and staggered forms of ethane are said to
differ in conformation
Orbital Quantum No. : orientation
X-rays, ultraviolet rays, visible light, infrared radiation:
Ultra violet rays has the most energy per photon
The formal charge on S in SO2 = -1
Zwitterions – two charge ions
O2 has no unpaired e- and therefore is diamagnetic
CH4, SF6, Cl2, SO2 : SO2 is one of the principal gases that is
responsible for acid rain
1/1837 that of the proton is the mass contribution of an e- in
an atom
NiCl – hygroscopic
mRNA – carries genetic information from DNA to the
ribosomes; carries the code that directs the synthesis of
proteins
ampotheric – can act as acid or base
Lecithins – phosphatidyl cholines; synthesized in the liver
Elastin – capable of stretching without tearing in ligaments;
yellow, fluorescent protein
Glycolysis/ Embden Meyerhof Pathway- major pathway for
glucose metabolism
Albinism – due to defective TYROSINASE
A globular domain is an example of tertiary structure.
An oil drop with a polar coat is a metaphor referring to the 3
dimensional structure of globular proteins
Surface side chains is the portion of proteins having the
highest mobility.
Charged amino acids are seldom buried in the interior of a
protein.
Disulfide bonds most often stabilize the native structure of
extracellular proteins.
Buried hydrophobic side chains in a globular protein fit into a
“hole” formed by the sidechains of 5-7 other amino acids.
The fact that the core of most globular proteins is composed
of non-polar residues is because of the hydrophobic effect.
The fact that the core of most globular proteins is tightly
packed is due to Van der Waals force.
Myoglobin was the first protein whose complete tertiary
structure was determined.
Peptide bond in proteins is planar and usually found in trans
conformation.
The peptide bond in proteins is usually trans unless proline is
the next amino acid.
Secondary structure in proteins refers to regular folding of
regions of polypeptide chain.
Heme is the binding pocket of myoglobin and hemoglobin
and is composed of hydrophobic residues.
Peptide bond – is a partial double bond
Myoglobin stores O2 in muscles.
Hemoglobin transports O2 in the blood.
The oxygen in hemoglobin and myglobin is bound to the iron
atom in the heme group.
DNA is a highly charged polyanion.
Nucleoside is a pyrimidine or purine base covalently bonded
to a sugar.
Cytosine – C4 pyrimidine base
Adenine: 6-aminopurine
Guanine: 2-amino-6oxypurine
Cytosine: 2-oxy-4aminopyrimidine
Thymine: 2,4-dioxy-5methylpyrimidine
Uracil: 2,4-dioxypyrimidine
The glycosidic bonds in DNA and RNA connects sugar to the
base
Nucleic acids can be analyzed experimentally by their
absorption of UV light.
Dianne M. Villanueva 8/31/2019
Nucleotide – sugar, base, phosphate
Nucleoside: sugar+base
Van der Waals – the most stabilizing force for nucleic acid
Acetyl-CoA – end product of leucine metabolism
Tryptophan – heaviest of the 20 amino acids
Isoelectric point of an amino acid is pH where the molecule
carries no electric charge.
Zwitterions- molecules that bear charged groups of opposite
polarity
Enantiomers: D-x and L-x
Protein fluorescence arises primarily from Tryptophan
residue
Pyruvate – catabolic breakdown of alanine
Dopamine – a nonprotein amino acid
Aspargine when exposed to ninhydrin produces a brown
color.
Humans are unable to digest cellulose.
Brain cells depend solely on glucose as energy source.
Liver - main site for gluconeogenesis
During vigorous exercise, pyruvate produced by glycolysis is
converted to lactate.
Gluconeogenesis – synthesis of glucose from non-
carbohydrate precursors
Sunlight – the ultimate source of energy that sustains living
systems
Insulin – inhibits gluconeogenesis and stimulates glycolysis
Mucus- prevent self-digestion
DNA can be found in nucleus and mitochondria in a
eukaryotic cell
Plasma membrane is expected in a bacterium
Endoplasmic reticulum is directly connected to the outer
membrane of the nucleus in a eukaryotic cell.
Microtubules, motor proteins, and actin filaments are all
part of the cytoskeleton of eukaryotic cells.
Nuclear envelope – cell organelle w/c is made of a double
phospholipid bilayer that has many large pores in it.
Vesicles – expected to be associated w/motor proteins.
Eukaryotic cells are more efficient than prokaryotic because
their internal compartmentalization allows for specialization
through the subdivision of particular tasks.
Body wall – an organism’s first line of defense
Cell membrane is a highly mobile mixture of phospholipids
and proteins according to the fluid mosaic model
Lysosomes:animals-digestive enzymes::plants and
fungi:vacuole-enzymes and storage
Prokaryotic cells are smaller than most eukaryotic
Lipids, proteins and carbohydrates- found in the plasma
membrane
Tryptophan – both ketogenic and glucogenic
A person with phenylketonuric cannot convert phenylalanine
to tyrosine
Tyrosine, phenylpyruvate, lysine, phenylalamine:
Phenylpyruvate is the most toxic
Triacylglycerols are insoluble in H2O
Animals can’t convert fatty acids into glucose because acetyl
CoA can’t be converted to pyruvate.
In eukaryotes, fatty acid breakdown occurs in mitochondrial
matrix.
Phospholipids contain hydrophilic heads and hydrophobic
tails
There are 5 types of lipoproteins.
Fatty acid synthesis takes place in cytosol.
Cholesterol is the precursor of steroid hormones and vit.A.
Atherosclerosis can cause blood clotting.
Olestra- the lowest energy value lipid for human nutrition
There are 5 classes of steroid hormone.
Synthesis of fatty acid takes place when carbohydrate and
energy are plentiful.
Oxytocin – milk ejection hormone
Stratosphere – where the highest concentration of ozone is
observed
Asbestos – material used to insulate steam pipe that will
cause lung disorder when overexposed
Carbon monoxide – odorless gas that is lethal to human with
exposure as short as a few minutes to concentrations
exceeding 5000 ppm. H reacts with hemoglobin in the blood
rendering the latter of carrying O2 to the body.
Dianne M. Villanueva 8/31/2019
Bacteria: 50-60% protein
Viruses: 50% nucleic acid
Bacteria: unicellular and haploid (one set of genes); multiply
by simple fission
Fungi: multicellular; multiply by apical extension of the hythal
filaments
Yeast: grow by budding from single ovoid cell
Watson and Crick-first presented the structure of DNA
Hydrogen bonds held the 2 strands of DNA.
Transcription: the double-helix unzips into 2 single DNA
strands—RNA is formed
Translation: DNA codes for RNA; RNA codes for synthesis of
proteins as well as the structural and functional molecules of
the cell;
DNA&RNA: nucleotide::protein:amino acids
Translation takes place inside the ribosome.
Codon – nucleotide sequence of RNA
Amino acids line up along the single-stranded RNA
w/corresponding codon triplets and the amino acids bind to
one another to form a protein.
Human insulin – first genetically engineered human
therapeutic to gain US FDA approval
Genetic engineering – enable cell to manufacture PROTEINS
Metabolic engineering – enable cell to manufacture
ENZYMES
Metabolic flux – rate of turnover of molecules through a
metabolic pathway
J.Craig Venter – created the first cell with a SYNTHETIC
genome, thereby creating synthetic life.
Chemical Make-Up of Bacterial Cells
1. Proteins: made up of amino acids joined by peptide linkage
2. Lipids or fats- water insoluble components of the cells that
can be extracted by nonpolar solvents
3. Carbohydrates – polyhydroxy aldehyde or ketone
4. Nucleotides – monomeric unit of nucleic acid
macromolecules
Bacterial Culture System
Lag phase – physiological adjustment
Log/exponential phase – constant rate of growth
Stationary phase – growth ceases completely due to the DNA:stores::RNA:reads and implements
exhaustion of nutrients, accumulation of waste products and
change in pH Messenger RNA (mRNA) formed in NUCLEUS, carries
message from DNA to another part of the cell
Death/Decline phase – irreversible loss of ability to
regenerate or reproduce Ribosomal RNA (rRNA) – found in ribosome, reads the
message of mRNA
Classification of Organism
Transfer RNA (tRNA) – found in cell’s CYTOPLASM and
1. Structure translate the genetic code of the ribosome

Prokaryotes – w/o nuclear envelopes General Classes of Enzymes

Eukaryotes – w/ nuclear envelopes 1. Oxido-Reductases- oxidizes or reduce substrate by

transferring hydrogens or electrons
2. Carbon source
2. Transferases
Autotrophs – uses CO2
3. Hydrolases
Heterotrophs – uses fancier C cpds
4. Lyases- removal of groups from substrate by mechanisms
3. Energy Source other than hydrolysis
Chemotrophs – from breaking down substrate 5. Isomerases
Phototrophs – from light 6. Ligases or Synthetases – by breaking a phosphate
4. Final electron acceptor anhydride bond in ATP

Aerobes – use molecular O2

Anaerobes – don’t need O2; use nitrate, sulfides, and CO2 rx = µCx

Facultative Anaerobes – able w/o2 or 2/o o2 rx – microbial growth rate; µ -specific growth rate

Microaerophiles – only little amt of o2
5. Temperature
Psycrophiles
Mesophiles – 30-40
Thermophiles
Lipids – soluble in nonpolar solvents/aprotic solvents (no H-
bonding)
-energy storage , signal transmission
Open chain / Cyclic --- steroids
Fatty acids – 12-20 C
Lauric – C12 ; Myristic – C14 ; Palmitic – C16 ; Stearic – C18
Waxes – complex mixture of COOH – form of lipids
Phospholipids – 2nd most abundant lipids
Carbohydrates – aldehydes or ketones w/ many –OH grps
-short-term energy storage, precursors for building polymers
Hemicellulose- short,branched polymers of pentoses, hexoses
Nucleic acids
Monod Equation – most common equation for describing the
effect of substrate concentration on the specific growth rate
µ = µmax (Cs/ (Ks+Cs))
rx = µmax (Cs/ (Ks+Cs)) Cx
“Chemostat” – Continuously Stirred Tank Reactor (CSTR) –
most productive fermenter system operated at the cell
concentration at w/c value of (1/rx) is minimum because it
requires the smallest residence time
BR – better if final cell concentration to be reached is
stationary phase
Plug Flow Reactor (PFR) – a tubular reactor
Sterility level = N/No;N- surviving;No –initial
Destruction Ratio = No/N
Rules of Thumb: Clostridium botulinum
Fermentation Industry:10-4-10-7:: Food & Canning: 10-10-10-12
Enzymes:
1. simple proteins
2. conjugate and consist of protein part, or APOENZYME, and
a nonprotein part or COENZYME

Dianne M. Villanueva 8/31/2019

3. HALOENZYME – contains both the protein and nonprotein
parts
Activator – an inorganic component such as metal ion is
required; analogous to coenzyme
Deoxythymidine (dT) Thymine-deoxyribose
Uridine (U) Uracil-ribose
Deoxyuridine (dU) Uracil-deoxyribose

Substrate – substance acted on by an enzyme

Turnover number – catalytic speed ; the no. of molecules an Nucleotide- more complex = phosphate group + nucleoside
enzyme can react AMP – adenosine-5’-monophosphate
Proteases – break down proteins dAMP – deoxy” “ “
Lipases – digest lipids ADP = adenosine-5’-diphosphate
Cellulases – cellulose ATP- “ “-triphosphate
Amylase – amylose ADP and ATP – store and release energy to the cells& tissues
Lactases – lactose Hydrolysis:
Pectinases – Pectin ATP + H2O =ADP +Pi +~35 kJ
Enzyme active site – where catalysis take place

Lock-and-key hypothesis – substrate being locked Polynucleotides

Induced-fit theory RNA : AMP – GMP – CMP – UMP
Strain hypothesis – substrate being forced DNA : dAMP – dGMP – dCMP –dTMP
MIchaelis-Menten Theory – enzyme activity depends on
substrate concentration
Gene – a segment of the DNA chain that controls the
Alcalase – liquid soaps formation of a molecule of RNA
Savinase – Powder detergents

Esperase – industrial laundries Autolysis – dissolution of cells by self-produced lytic enzyme

Autotrophs – uses CO2 as its principal carbon source

Nucleic acids : complex Auxotrophs – nutritional mutant w/c require one or more
2 classes of heterocyclic base: nutrients in addition to those required by its wild type

1. purine C5H4N4 Bacteriacidal – kills bacteria

2. pyrimidine C4H4N2 Bacteriastatic – inhibits the bacterial growth by its presence

w/o causing death
Nucleoside-formed when either purine or pyrimidine base is
linked to a sugar molecule, usually D-ribose or D-2’- Broth – fermentation liquor wherein the fermentation
deoxyribose process is in progress

Adenosine (A) Adenine-ribose Beer--.. just terminated

Deoxyadenosine (dA) Adenine-deoxyribose Enzyme – an organic catalyst produced by the cell

Guanosine (G) Guanine-ribose Constitutive – always present in the cell; substrate

independent
Deoxyguanosine (dG) Guanine-deoxyribose
Induced – present only when needed; substrate dependent
Cytidine (C ) Cytosine-ribose
Extracellular – exoenzyme
Deoxycytidine (dC) Cytosine-deoxyribose
Intracellular – endoenzyme
Thymidine (T) Thymine-ribose
Dianne M. Villanueva 8/31/2019
Facultative – having characteristics that permit alternate Hexose monosaccharides – most important carbohydrate
responses under different conditions
-sources of cellular energy:
Mutation – a chemical change in the genetic code of the cell
Glucose, galactose, fructose C6H12O6
Mycelium – a mass of hyphae of a mold or actinomycetes
colony -same formula; different structure

Obligate – stricted or restricted; obligate aerobe can grow Family of Aldohexose:

only in the presence of oxygen; obligate thermophile can Allose
grow only at elevated temperatures in relation to others
Altrose
Phage – a bacterial virus
Glucose
Photoplast – part of cell – includes cell membrane and
content Mannose

Putrefaction –decomposition of protein under anaerobic Gulose

condition
Idose
Viable – state of the living cell where it is still capable of
division Galactose

SCP – single cell protein – protein obtained for the growth or Talose
culture of unicellular microorganism Disaccharide:
Psychrophile – 10C Lactose – galactose + glucose
Inoculum – serum containing microorganism Sucrose – fructose + glucose
Broth – liquid – cloudy/turbidity Maltose – glucose + glucose (α)
Agar – solid – colony Cellobiose – glucose + glucose (β)
Cell membrane : phospholipids bilayer

Mitochondria Fehling’s test sucrose – nonreducing sugar – negative on

Ribosome – protein synthesis fehling’s test

ER Endoplasmic reticulum Protein – polyamides – structural materials and as enzymes

Rough ER – protein synthesis -peptide bonds; amino grp

Smooth ER – lipid synthesis 20-22 essential. 19 primary

Lysosomes – cellular digestion Proline- secondary

Golgi bodies – transport molecules Glucose (dextrose)

Frucotse (levulose)

Aceto – vinegar Epimers: D-glyceraldehyde and L-glyceraldehyde

Lactic – pickles Aromers: 2 CYCLIC isomers

Aspergillus –soy sauce Acetal – glycoside

Strepto - antibiotic CHO ---Br2 + H2OCOOH

CHO ---H2/PtCH2OH

Carbohydrate – sugar – glycosidic bonds Starch = amylose + amylopectin

Trioses – simplest carbohydrate monosaccharide Glycogen – energy storage carbohydrate of the animals

Dianne M. Villanueva 8/31/2019

Cellulose – most abundant organic substance found in Competitive V = Vmax(S) / S+Km(I + (I)/KI) ; slope increases;
nature y-intercept doesn’t change

Uncompetitve V = Vmax(S) / S(I +(I)/KI) + Km (I+ (I)/K); slope

doesn’t change; y-intercept increases
Amino Acids – Amino grp + carboxyl grp
Noncompetitve V = Vmax (S) / S(I+(I)/KI) + Km(I + (I)/K)
RCH(NH2)COOH
µ = V(L/day)/Vol(L)
Tests for amino acid:
Linear Reg
Xanthroproteic, Biuret, Ninhydrin (purple color)
LWB=x:1/S y:1/V Vm = 1/A Km = B/A
Common between malic acid and citric acid?Hydroxyl grp
EH= x:V y:V/S Km = -B-1
Isoelectric point – pH @ w/c amino acid has 0 net charge
HW= x:S y:S/V Km =-A/B
Basic : Arg-Lys-His
t = V/Vo = Caox / rA
Acidic : Aspartic , Glutamic
rx = (µmax Cs/ Ks+Cs)Cx
Collagen – a fibrous protein; connects tissue in our body;
most abundant protein in the animal kingdom; carboxylic V/Vo = Ks + Cs / µmax Cs since Cx = CAox
acids with long hydrophobic carbon chains
Vo = V µmax Cs / Ks +Cs
Lipids
Linoleic acid is an essential fatty acid
Saturated – high melting point
Ald.and Ket. –reduced by NaBH4 or LiAlH4 to yield 1°,2° alc
Unsaturated – low melting point
Hell-Volhard Zelinskii (HVZ) rxn – α-bromination of RCOOH
Fats and oils – esters of glycerol
Induced fit model – flexible structures..
Triglyceride
Michaelis-Menten – Km is low stable
Soap
Turnover no = no. of substrate molecules
Waxes – esters of long chain carboxylic acid and alcohol
Competitive inhibiton – inhibitor has some degree of
Steroid – cholesterol (parent) ; atherosclerosis (disease) similarity with substrate; inhibitor doesn’t affect the value
of Vmax but affects Km
Vitamin E – antioxidants; tocotrinols
Allosteric enzymes has >1binding site
VIt. K – blood clotting
Immobilization – confinement in a phase over substrate
Vit. C – water soluble
Vapor pressure decreases with an increase in intermolecular
Vit. A – retinol; beta-carotin forces.
Vit. D – calcium absorption; fish oil; regulates calcium and KHP: Potassium hydrogen phthalate:C8H5KO4
phosphorus in the body
Insulin regulates the metabolism of glucose.
Sex hormones – form of steroid
Bacilli – rod-shaped bacteria
Lecithin (phosphatidyl cholines) – glyceryl ethers of fatty
acids, phosphoric acid, and choline Glycolysis ->Krebs cycle ->e- transport ->cellular respiration

Lecithin:choline::cephaline:ethanolamine 36 total ATP molecules are produced by 1 molecule of

glucose completing cellular respiration.
Nucleic acid : nucleotide
Paracetamol – acetyl salicylic acid
-base; sugar; phosphoric acid
In Tollen’s test, aldehydes neither reduced or oxidized.
Michaelis-Menten Theory – Leonor Michaelis & Moud
Leonora Menten Cetane number – n-hexadecane

Lineweaver: V = Vmax (S) / Km + (S) @HB: eqn 7-92 p7-18

Dianne M. Villanueva 8/31/2019
 Strength of Van der Waals force:
Increase in the molecular weight
“ “ “ no. of atoms
“ “ “ no. of e-
Michaelis-Menten – common mathematical equation for
describing the effect of substrate on microbial growth
Cofactor ~ coenzyme
Inhibitor – reduces the rate of enzyme reaction
Uncompetitve inhibition decreases Vmax and decreases Km
st
Kinetics of cell death is 1 order
Louis Pasteur – father of biotechnology
Photoheterotrophs – can utilize glucose as a carbon source
but cannot grow in the dark
mRNa – obtains the code and serves as the template for
peptide formation
isoelctric point – a parameter also tapped for protein
purification technique
“happy” chemical cps: oxytocin, dopamine, serotonin
Binding site: holds the substrate in place
Catalytic site: where reaction occurs
Coenzyme activates the apoenzyme
ATP – universal currency of energy in living system
O2 – final acceptor in the e- transport chain
CO2 – oxidized product in the tricarboxylic cycle
Non-competitive inhibitors-cpds w/c do not bind in the
active site of an enzyme but binds to a non-active site and
reduces the binding affinity of the substrate to the enzyme
Sterilization: 121C, 10-15 mins, 30 psia.
Isotonic solutions – same osmotic pressure
Peptide bond – partial double bond
Liquids and solids exhibit practically no change of solubility
with changes in pressure. Gases as might be expected,
increase in solubility with an increase in pressure.
Arachidonate has 20 C atoms and 4 cis-double bonds
For GASES, solubility decreases as temperature
increases.
Vapor pressure increases with temperature.
Dianne M. Villanueva 8/31/2019
Increased temperature causes an increase in kinetic
energy. The higher kinetic energy causes more motion
in the gas molecules which break intermolecular bonds
and escape from solution.
Urea : CH4N2O
Sodium azide : NaN3
Frasch process is for mining sulfur
Iodine no. – the determination of the amount of unsaturation
contained in fatty acids.
Through molecular vibrations – the greenhouse gases absorb
infrared radiation
14 carat gold = 14/24 gold mass
Annealing – heating a material to redness and then allowing
it to cool slowly
NO2 – oxide of nitrogen that is brown
Aluminum – most abundant metal in the world which makes
8% of the solid portion of earth’s crust
Beer Lambert’s Law : nephelometric method of analysis
Phases – the homogenous physically distinct and
mechanically separable parts of the heterogeneous system in
equilibrium
Phenol formaldehyde employs condensation
polymerization.
Unsaturated oils have lower melting point and higher
reactivity to oxygen.
Electrochemical series : electrode potentials of metals are
arranged in an order
Rancidity of oil can be reduced by hydrogenation.
Hexane – solvent used for extraction of oil
Molasses – starting material for alcohol
Phenol  phenol formaldehyde
DDT – dichloro-diphenyl-trichloroethane
BHC (Benzene hexa-chloride) <--(chlorination of benzene) –
an addition reaction
Equilibrium constant decreases as the temperature
increases for an exothermic reaction.
Molarity will change if the temperature changes.
Presence of a common ion DECREASES solubility.
Kwashiorkor – nutritional imbalance in early childhood, low
protein but has calories (carbs)
The pressure intensity is the same in all direction at a point in
a fluid when there is no motion of one fluid layer relative to
an adjacent layer.

Plasticizers are added to paints to give elasticity and prevent

cracking of the film.

Drying oil : paint manufacture

Thinner – suspend pigments and dissolve film-forming

materials

The purpose of adding Na2CO3 to water of low alkalinity is to

permit the use of alum as a coagulant.

Krypton : meter (definition)

Naturally occurring monosaccharides are almost always “right

handed”.

Glyceraldehydes – simplest example of a chiral

monosaccharide

IA – usually seen with ashes

N2H4 – conjugate base of N2H5

Beta decay : nuclides that have neutron-to-proton ratios that

are too HIGH (compared with stable nuclides)

CH4 H2O NH3 HF : NH3 strongest Bronsted base

NHR HBr CH4 Ar: CH4 will have the greatest rate of effusion
at a given temperature.

Competitive inhibitor : increases Km w/o affecting Vmax

Wood burns explosively in pure O2 but slowly in air.

Temperature affects the rate of reaction.

Dianne M. Villanueva 8/31/2019

1. A solution of toluene in benzene has a molal concentration of 1.5. Find the molarity and the mole fraction of toluene if the volumes
are additive. Density of toluene is 0.867 g/cm3 and density of benzene is 0.876 g/cc

2. What is the volume % concentration of ethanol in a solution that is 24% by mass ethanol (ρ=0.798 g/mL) in an aqueous solution with
density 0.963 g/mL?

3. From the following data, compute the amount of raw materials required to produce 100 tons of caustic soda by caustication process
Limestone CaCO3 96%
Lime conversion efficiency 90%
Soda ash Na2CO3 98%

4. Calculate the theoretical quantities of all raw materials needed to produce 100 MT of soda ash daily by the Solvay process.

5. What volume of oxygen gas collected over water at 20C and 750 mmHg can be obtained by the decomposition of 170 g of
potassium chlorate?

6. What volume of air measured at 25 C and 740 mmHg is required to burn 3L of gasoline? Gasoline is a mixture with average
composition C7H14 (ρ = 0.7 g/mL)

7. In the lime soda process for caustic soda manufacture, lime is made to react with water and then with soda ash. The composition of
raw materials..
Lime: 54% Cao, 1.5% MgO + I
Soda ash: 50% Na2O + I
a. How many metric tons of lime and soda ash will be needed to produce 100 MT of 25% liquid sodium hydroxide?

8. 3000 MT OF A 6-10-16 fertilizer was prepared by mixing ammonium sulfate (95% purity), phosphoric acid (95% purity), muriate of
potash (95% purity) and gypsum (90% purity). Calculate how much of each was used.

9. A 0.5 g sample of limestone with inert materials was treated with HCl and 211 mL of CO2 was liberated. The gas was measured dry
at 25C and 763 mmHg. Calculate the % calcium oxide in the sample.

10. If 10 kg of sodium were made to react with water, calculate the following:
a. weight of water involved in the reaction
b. moles of sodium hydroxide produced
c. standard ft3 of hydrogen liberated during the reaction
d. amount of water to be added to produce 0.1 N solution

Dianne M. Villanueva 8/31/2019

11. If 40 g of phosphoric acid react with 60 g magnesium carbonate, calculate
a. mass of magnesium sulfate produced
b. mass of carbon dioxide produced
c. volume of gas at STP

12. Copper smelter is using copper sulfide concentrate containing 30% copper and 40% sulfur. The plant employs Autokumpu process
with pure oxygen to produce at its rate capacity of 130,000 MT per year of 99.9% copper. The ff. equation may be assumed during
smeltin
CuS + O2 = Cu + SO2
Compute
a. Feed rate per hour of the concentrate for 330 days / year operation
b. Oxygen requirements in tons per hour.

13. Ethyl alcohol and carbon dioxide are obtained from hydrolysis of sucrose. At T=80F and 1 atm, how many kilos of alcohol and liters
of gas can be obtained from a 1 metric ton of sucrose?

14. It is desired to produce phenol by reacting chlorobenzene and sodium hydroxide. 1000 kg of phenol are produced from reacting
1,320 kg of chlorobenzene and 1,200 kg of sodium hydroxide, what is the
a. % excess
b. % yield

15. For a 25 g sucrose dissolved in 1kg of water at 70 C, calculate :

a. Vapor pressure of the solution
b. Boiling point
c. Freezing point
d. Osmotic pressure

16. For a 1% sugar solution with a density of 1.03 g/mL, calculate

a. Vapor pressure of the solution
b. Boiling point
c. Freezing point
d. Osmotic pressure

Dianne M. Villanueva 8/31/2019

17. A solution containing 4.5 g of an unknown compound in 100 g of benzene gave a freezing point at 4.02 C (kf = 5.12, Tf = 5.5C)
Give the molecular weight of the unknown substance.

18. At 60 C, the vapor pressure of ethyl alcohol is 352.7 mmHg and that of methyl alcohol is 625 mmHg. If the two alcohols are mixed
50/50 by weight at that temperature, assuming ideal solution, what will be the composition of the vapor above the solution?

19. By dissolving 22.5 g Na2CO3 10H2O in water and adding water until the total volume is 200 cc, a solution is made having a density
of 1.04 g/mL. Calculate:
a. molarity
b. normality
c. mole fraction of the solute

20. 0.5 g of N with MW of 160 g/mol is dissolved in 10 g of solvent S. The boiling point of the solution is 124.8 C. If the 0.4 g of M is
dissolved in 12 g of the same content S, the boiling point of the solvent is 122C. Calculate the MW of M.

21. A vessel containing 39.5 cm3 of the gas at 25C and 106 kPa was inverted and placed in cold ethanol. As the gas contacted,
ethanol was forced into the vessel to maintain the same pressure of helium. If this required 18.8 cm3 of ethanol, what was the final
temperature of the helium?

22. Helium is collected over water at 25C and 1.00 atm total pressure. What volume of gas must be collected to obtain 0.375 g of
helium? At 25C, vapor pressure of water is 23.8 torr?

23. 10.5 L of nitrogen at 25C and 760 mmHg are bubbled through an aqueous solution of a non-volatile solute, whereby the solution
loses 0.2455 g in weight. If the total pressure of the solution above is 760 mmHg, what is the vapor pressure of the solution and the
mole fraction of solute in solution?

24. A mixture of hydrocarbon vapor contains 80 kg benzene, 80 kg toluene, and 60 kg of xylene. Calculate:
a. Volume in m3 of vapor mixture at 300 F and 444 mmHg
b. Density of mixture in g/mL

25. When evacuated or empty, a gas density bulb weighs 29.3215 g. First, carbon dioxide was used to fill the gas density bulb at 40 C
and 1 atm and weighted 30.0079 g. Then the bulb was evacuated and filled with a mixture of CO and CO2 under the same temperature
and pressure. With this mixture, the bulb weighs 29.9332 g. What was the %CO in the gas mixture?

26. The organic compound showed the ff. analysis using the Victor Meyer apparatus
By weight
Carbon 37.5%
Hydrogen 12.5%
Dianne M. Villanueva 8/31/2019
Oxygen 50%
The organic compound of 0.25 g vaporized displacing 100 mL of air measured over water at 25C and 748 mmHg. What is the MW in
the compound?

27. A 10-L vessel containing 8 g of oxygen is connected by means of a valve to a 5-L vessel containing 7.00 g of nitrogen. When the
valve was opened and the gases are allowed to mix, what will be the total pressure of the gas in the mixture at 25C assuming the
temperature was kept constant?

28.
3HNO3(aq) + Al(s) -> Al3+ + 3NO2 + 3OH-
Al is the reducing agent
If 124.0 g of Li and 98.2 g of N2 are mixed, and 195 g of Li3N are actually obtained from the reaction, what is the percent yield?

29. Molecular formula of cacodyl?

Molar mass = 209.96 g/mol
22.88%C, 5.76% H, 71.36% As

30. The average atomic mass of Ga is 69.72. Naturally occurring Ga is composed of 69Ga, which has an atomic mass of 68.91, and
71Ga which has an atomic mass of 70.93. What percentage of naturally occurring Ga is 71Ga?

31. Beaker A contains 0.1 L of a 0.2 M KOH solution; beaker B contains 0.1 L of 0.20 M HCl solution. The contents of the two beakers
are thoroughly mixed together in a sufficiently large third beaker. Calculate the molarity of the resulting salt solution.

32. How many grams of potassium dichromate are required to prepare 250 mL solution whose concentration is 2.16M?

33. Calcium oxide is used in steel making and pollution control which is prepared by the decomposition of calcium carbonate. Calculate
the yearly release of carbon dioxide in kg to the atmosphere if the annual production of calcium oxide is 1.7x1010 kg.

34. A spherical glass container of unknown volume contains He(g) at 25C and 1.96 atm. When a portion of the He is withdrawn and
adjusted to 1 atm at 25C, it is found to have a volume of 1.75 cm3. The gas remaining in the first container shows a pressure of 1.71
atm. Calculate the volume of the spherical container.

35. How many cycles of Beta oxidation does one mole of palmitic acid must undergo to reduce the chain length to C-4

36. To what volume must 1600 mL of a 0.2050 N solution be diluted in order that the resulting solution will be 0.2 N?

Dianne M. Villanueva 8/31/2019

37. Archaeologists can determine the age of an artifact made of wood or bone by measuring the amount of the radioactive isotope 14C
present in the object. The amount of isotope decreases in a first order process. If 15.5% of the original amount of 14C is present in a
wooden toll at the time of analysis, what is the age of the toll? The half-life of 14C is 5730 years.

38. A sample of polystyrene prepared by heating syrene with tribromobenzoyl peroxide in the absence of air has the formula B3C6H3
(C8H8)n where n varies with preparation. If a certain sample of polystyrene is found to contain 20.01 %Br, what is the value of n?

39. A 7.5 m3 chemostat operating at 75% capacity is producing biomass from a glucose feed at a volumetric flow rate of 46.9 L/min.
The specific growth rate of the organism is

40. Calculate the volume of the nitrogen gas generated during impact at 85C and 812 mmHg from 50 g sample of sodium azide.

41. How many grams of KCl)3 are needed to prepare 1.8L of O2 gas that is collected over H2O and 22 C and 760 torr? VP water
@22C =19.8 torr

42. A sample of pure zinc metal reacts completely with an excess of HCl. The hydrogen gas produced is collected over water at 25C
and 1 atm. If the metal weighs 253.02 mg, how much gas is collected?

43. Ammonia decomposes completely to hydrogen and nitrogen gas. If the total pressure of the reaction vessel at the end of the
reaction is 250 mmHg, what is the partial pressure of the nitrogen gas?

44. A quantity of 280.7 g of hydrate, Na2CO3xH2O was heated in an oven to drive off water. If the steam produced in a 5L vessel at
110C, exerted a pressure of 39.6 atm, what is the formula of the hydrate?

45. A common lab preparation of O2 gas is the thermal decomposition of potassium chlorate over MnO2 catalyst. Assuming complete
decomposition, calculate the number of grams of O2 gas that can be obtained from the 45.7 g of potassium chlorate.

46. How many milliliters of ethane (C2H6) at STP are required to produce 22 g of CO2

47. Calculate the freezing point of 1.5 molal solution of NaCl in water

48. A 0.20 mol aqueous solution freezes at -0.680C. The osmotic pressure at 0C is

49. A solvent-water mixture is to be distilled at 95C. The vapor pressure of the solvent at this temperature is 130 mmHg and that of
water is 640 mmHg. The solvent is immiscible in water and has a molecular weight of 150. The weight of the solvent that will be carried
over in the distillate with 200 kg of water is

Dianne M. Villanueva 8/31/2019

50. The vapor pressure of water at 25C is 23.756 torr. A solution consisting of 18.913 g of a non-volatile substance in 36 grams of H2O
has a vapor pressure of 20.234 torr. What is the molecular weight of the solute?

51. A 240 g sample of pyrolusite was treated with excess potassium iodide. The iodine liberated required 46.24 mL of 0.1105 M
Na2S2O3 solution. Calculat the %MnO2 in the sample

52. A 2 g sample of an unknown metal, M, was completely burned in excess O2 to yield 0.224 mol of the metal oxide, M2O3, what is
the metal?
53. When 4.5 g of Fe2O3 is reduced with excess H2 in a furnace, 2.6 g of metallic iron is recovered. What is the % yield?

𝑐 𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙
𝐸 = ℎ𝑣 = ℎ %𝑦𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑 = 𝑥100
‫ג‬ 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑜
ΔEbind = Δmc2 BPE: 𝛥𝑇𝑏 = 𝑇𝑏, 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑛 − 𝑇𝑏, 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑣𝑒𝑛𝑡 = 𝐾𝑏𝑚
Δm = mass defect = mproducts-mreactants FPD: 𝛥𝑇𝑓 = 𝑇𝑓, 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑣𝑒𝑛𝑡 − 𝑇𝑏, 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑛 = 𝐾𝑓𝑚
𝐴
𝑍𝑋 VPL: 𝛥𝑃 = 𝑃° − 𝑃𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑛 = 𝑋𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒𝑃°
𝑍𝑒𝑓𝑓 = 𝑍 − 𝜎 Raoult’s Law: 𝑃𝐴 = 𝑋𝐴 𝑃𝐴 °
𝜎 = .35 ∗ (𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑚𝑜𝑠𝑡 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑔𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑝 − 1) Osmotic Pressure: ∏ = 𝑀𝑅𝑇
+ 0.85 * e- of the next group + 1 *e- of the last group 𝑖 = 1 (𝑛𝑜𝑛 − 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑙𝑦𝑡𝑒)
𝑖 > 1 (𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑙𝑦𝑡𝑒)
n(1,2,3,4..) 𝑖−1
𝛼= ; 𝑣 = 𝑛𝑜. 𝑜𝑓 𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑛
l(o to (n-1)) 𝑣−1
ml(-l to 0 +l) 𝑃𝐴 = 𝑌𝐴 𝑃𝑇

ms(+1/2,-1/2) 𝑛𝐴 𝑃𝐴
=
𝑛 𝑇 𝑃𝑇
Caustication process:
𝑅𝑇
CaCO3 + H2O  Ca(OH)2 + CO2 𝑃𝑇 = 𝑛 𝑇
𝑉
Ca(OH)2 + Na2CO3  2NaOH + CaCO3 Boyle: 𝑃𝛼 𝑉
1

Solvay process:
Charles: 𝑉 𝛼 𝑇
2NaCl + CaCO3  Na2CO3 + CaCl2
Amonton: 𝑃 𝛼 𝑇
Nair = mol O2 / 0.21
Avogadro: 𝑉 𝛼 𝑛
3𝑛 + 1
𝐶𝑛 𝐻2𝑛+2 + 𝑂2 −→ 𝑛𝐶𝑂2 + (𝑛 + 1)𝐻2 𝑂 𝑎𝑛2
2 (𝑃 + ) (𝑉 − 𝑛𝑏) = 𝑛𝑅𝑇
Lime soda process for caustic soda manufacture: 𝑣2

CaO + H2O  Ca(OH)2 Na2CO3  Na2O + CO2 𝑀1 𝑉1 = 𝑀2 𝑉2

Ca(OH)2 + Na2CO3  2NaOH + CaCO3 𝐾𝑝 = 𝐾𝑐 (𝑅𝑇) 𝛥𝑛𝑔

PV = nRT 𝐶𝐴𝑜
𝐶𝐴𝑜 − 𝐶𝐴 = 𝑘𝑡; 𝑡1 =
2 2𝑘
Dianne M. Villanueva 8/31/2019
 𝑟 = µ𝐶𝑥
𝑙𝑛2 𝐶𝑠
𝑙𝑛𝐶𝐴𝑜 − 𝑙𝑛𝐶𝐴 = 𝑘𝑡; 𝑡1 µ = µ max
2 𝑘 𝐾𝑠 + 𝐶𝑠
1 1 1 𝐶𝑠
− = 𝑘𝑡; 𝑡1 𝑟 = µ max 𝐶𝑥
𝐶𝐴 𝐶𝐴𝑜 2 𝑘𝐶𝐴𝑜 𝐾𝑠 + 𝐶𝑠
1 1 1 𝑉 𝐶𝐴𝑜 𝑥
= 𝑅∞ 𝑡= =
2− 2 𝑉𝑜 𝑟𝐴
‫ג‬ 𝑛1 𝑛2
𝑉 𝐾𝑠 + 𝐶𝑠
1Lymann2Balmer3Paschen4Brackett =
𝑉𝑜 µ max 𝐶𝑠

𝐿
𝑉( )
𝑑𝑎𝑦
µ=
𝑉𝑜𝑙(𝐿)

Dianne M. Villanueva 8/31/2019