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ELEC3105 – ELECTRICAL

ENERGY

Review of AC
Ci
Circuit
i Theory
Th
DR RUKMI DUTTA
Outline
• AC circuit
• AC and DC
• Sinusoidal AC
• Phasor
• Impedance and Admittance
• AC Power
• RMS value
• Power factor and power factor correction
• Three phase AC (lecture 4)
An electric circuit
• It facilitates the transfer of charge q from one point to
another.
• The
Th electric
l t i currentt iis rate t off change
h off charge
h q with
ith
dq
respect to time t – i (t ) 
dt
• Charge
Ch q in
i motion
i iis related l d to energy transfer f and d
voltage
• Voltage is also known as electro-motive force (emf) or potential
difference between two points in a circuit : it is the difference in
energy level
l l off unit
it positive
iti charge
h llocated
t d att eachh off th
the ttwo
points.
i i Circuit
Ci i elements
l :
+ +
•Voltage and current sources
v v •Resistance
•Inductance
- - •Capacitance
Energy supplied to Energy supplied from
AC and DC

• Commonly found 2 types of currents- AC and DC


• Bulk electric energy generated in large power stations
and transmitted to user as AC which is sinusoidal
function of time.
time
• Battery is the most common source of DC .
Sinusoidal AC
• A sine wave is x(t )  X max sin t
x(t) : v(t) or i(t)
Xmax : amplitude or maximum or peak value
T : time period
f : 1/T frequency in Hz
: angular
g frequency
q y in rad/s
/ = 2π/T =2πff

 is called phase angle.


Phasors
• A sinusoidal voltage or current x(t )  X max cos(t   ) can be
expressed simply as X  X max  and commonly called a
phasor
phasor.

• It can also be expressed in terms of RMS value X  X RMS 
Xmax or XRMS

θ
Reference

• If we have two phasors


▫ Relative
l magnitude
d or amplitude
l d
▫ Angle between two phasors
▫ Relative position (i.e. lagging or leading)
Phasor relationships for R,L and C
Impedance and admittance
• Impedance : Ratio of phasor voltage and current
Vmax  v , 1/Z is called admittance
Z  Z ( v  i )
I max i
• Unit is ohms
• analogous to resistance R of DC circuit

• In rectangular form form, Z  j  R jX , where R is
j
Resistance and X is reactance- jX  j L or
L or C
C
• Z is a complex number but not a phasor .

• Z  j  R jX
j  Z where,, Z  R 2
 X 2
and    tan 1 X
R
 ( v  i )

Elements Impedance

R Z=R

L Z=jL=jXL

C Z=1/jC=-jXc
Exercise on Phasors
• Two AC voltages are given asv (t )  12sin(314t  45 ) and v (t )  6sin(314t  15 )
1
o
2
o

find out the phase angle between them –


(a) v1(t) leads v2(t) by 60 0
(b) v1(t) lags
l v2(t) by
b 660 0
(c) v2(t) leads v1(t) by 60 0

• Convert the two AC voltage functions to phasor form,


v1 (t )  12 cos(314t  4000 ) and v2 (t )  18sin(2515t  4.50 )
( )
(a)12   400 0
,18
18  85.5
8 0

(b) 12  4000 ,18  4.50


(c ) 12  4000 ,18
184.5
4 50

• Convert the two p phasors V1  10200 and 12  600 to time domain
voltage equations if the frequency is 400Hz
(a) 10 cos(800 t  20),12 cos(800 t  60)
(b) 10 cos(800 t  20),12 cos(800 t  60)
Example on AC circuit
• Calculate the total impedance of the circuit and
current I.

Z tot  3.8  j 0.6


• Ans:
I  59.8  8.970 A
Power in ac circuit
• Instantaneous power
• Average power
• Maximum power transfer
• Power factor
• Complex power and power triangle
Instantaneous Power
• Instantaneous power supplied or absorbed by a device is
product of instantaneous voltage and current of the
device.
v(t )  Vmax cos(t   v )
i (t )  I max cos(t  i )
• Instantaneous power is p(t )  v(t )i(t )  Vmax I max cos(t   v ) cos( t   i )
1
Applying trigonometric identity cos A cos B 
2
cos( A  B)  cos( A  B)

Vmax I max
p(t )  cos  v  i   cos(2t   v  i ) 
2
• Two
o terms :
• First one is time independent or constant
• Second one is cosine waveform with twice the supply frequency (2)
Average Power
T T
1 1 Vmax I max
• Average power is P
T 0 p(t )dt
d  
T 0 2
cos  v  i   cos(2
(2t   v  i ) dt
d

2
Where T  
V I V I V I
 P  max max cos  v  i   max max cos   max max cos   VRMS I RMS cos 
2 2 2 2

v i

P t
Maximum average power transfer
• Maximum power (transfer) theorem
:maximum external power from a source with a finite
i t
internall resistance
i t can b be obtained
bt i d if the
th resistance
i t
of the load equal to the source internal resistance,Rs  RL
• Condition for maximum power transfer for a resistive
load is dP  0,
0 P  VI cos 
i

dR Rs
RL
v

In a reactive circuit, the maximum power transfer will


happen if the reactive components of source and load are
of equal in magnitude but opposite in phase (conjugate).
Example
• Find the average power absorbed by the impedance

Ans: 24.96 W
Root Mean Square(RMS) value
• RMS value of periodic waveform such as sinusoidal
current or voltage and can be calculated as
T T
1 1 if x(t )  X max sin t ,
Mean   x(t )dt Mean square   x 2 (t )dt
T 0 T 0
T
1 2 X max
T 0
1 2
T
X RMS  x (t ) dt , =
Root Mean Square  
T 0
x (t )dt 2

• Average power absorbed by a resistance due to DC


current and RMS current is same . Hence, we can
say RMS value
l off an AC currentt iis equivalent
i l t tto a DC
current.

Example
• Find out RMS value of i(t )  I M cos((t   )
1 T 2 
I RMS    I M cos (t   )dt 
2

T 0 
Using trigonamitric identity, cos 2 A  1  2 cos 2 A
 1 T  cos 2((t   )  1  
I RMS  I M    dt
d
T 0  2  

IM  1  IM  1 T  IM
T
    cos 2(t   )  1 dt     dt  
2 T 0  2 T 0  2

average of cosine waveform is zero


Power factor
• Average power is P  V I cos  and unit is Watts
RMS RMS

• VRMS I RMS is called apparent power and unit is VA


• The ratio of average power to apparent power is
called p power factor ((PF)) PF  P  cos 
VRMS I RMS

• Power factor angle  is the angle of load impedance.


impedance
• It is also the phase angle between voltage and current
phasor.
h I

V
Effect of power factor by an example
• An industrial load consumes 88 kw at PF of 0.707
0 707 lagging
from 480Vrms line. The transmission line resistance from
the power company to the industry is 0.08
0 08 ohms
ohms. What is
the power supplied by the company a) when load is
88kW and PF is 0 0.707
707 b) when load is same but PF is
changed to 0.90 lagging ??
Irms
P  Vrms I rms cos  0.08Ω

(a)Find Irms (259.3 A) P=88kW


PF=0.707
Vs
pp
Power supplied Ps  I RMS
2
(0.08)  P  93.38kW
(b) Find Irms (203.7 A)
Power supplied Ps  I RMS
2
(0.08)  P  91.32kW

• Low PF , high current in the transmission line and high


loss during transmission.
• Optimal PF is unity.
Complex power
• The complex power is S  V I SI unit VA *
rms rms
*
where I rms is complex conjugate of I rms
if I  I  then I  I   
rms rms i
*
rms rms i

 S  Vrms  v I rms   i  Vrms I rms   v  i 


 Vrms I rms cos( v  i )  Vrms I rms j sin( v  i )
 Vrms I rms cos   jVrms I rms sin 
S  P  jQ
P: average or active or real power , SI unit Watts
Q : reactive power, SI unit VAR (Volt
(Volt-Amp
Amp Reactive)
• Apparent power S  P 2  Q 2  Vrms I rms SI unit VA.
• Power rating of many electrical device expressed in VA , kVA and
MVA.
•Apparent
pp p
power multiplied
p byy cosine and sin of PF angle
g g gives P
and Q respectively.
Power triangle
S  P  jQ Q
S  P 2  Q 2  Vrms I rms , tan  
P

If Q is positive, load Z is inductive and PF is lagging


If Q is negative, load Z is capacitive, and PF is leading
If Q is zero,
ero load Z is resisti
resistivee and PF is unit
unity.

Vrms
I rms  , Z  R  jX
Z
P  I rms
2
Re( Z ), Q  I rms
2
Im( Z )
Power factor correction
• Low PF is undesirable : it uses up p supply
pp y
current without utilizing it and increases
transmission loss unnecessarily.
• Utility authorities can panellize customers
(specially large industries) for low PF.
• Motors are the main loads for industry which
is inductive. Hence, low lagging PF is not
very uncommon.
• Situation can be improved by adding PF
correction
i capacitors
i iin parallel
ll l to lload.
d
Sold  Pold  jQold  Sold old old   v  i
L L

Snew  Pold  jQnew  S new new new   v  i


T T

Scap  S new  Sold  jQc   jCVrms


2
Example on PF correction
The circuit of figure shows an inductive
l d supplied
load li d ffrom a 240V, 50 Hz AC
source. The load resistance and
inductance are 0.314 and 0.002H.
• Find the RMS AC current supplied to
the load
• Find
Fi d the
h real, l reactive,
i apparent and d
complex power supplied to the load
and the input power factor
• A capacitance to be connected in
parallel with the load to raise the
inp t po
input powerer factor 0.866
0 866 lagging
lagging.
Find the total input current and the
parallel capacitor
p p required.
q How will
this affect the load current?
• Repeat (c) if the input power factor is
to be raised to 0.866
0 866 leading
leading.
Solution
X L  2 ffL  2    50  0.002  0.628
RL  0.314
Z L  0.314  j 0.628  0.70263.43

V 0
(a) IL   341.88  63.43 A
ZL

(b) Real Power P  VI L cos   36.701 kW

Reactive Power, Q  VI L sin   73.386 kVAR  lagging 

2 2
Apparent Power, S  VI L  P  Q  82.051 kVA
*
Complex Power = VI L

I L*  341.88  63.43 

 Complex Power =240  314.8863.43  36,703  j73,386

Power factor = cos   cos  63 43   00.447


63.43 447 lagging
Solution condt..
(c) (d)

Input PF = 0.866 lagging Input PF =0.866


0.866 leading
New PF angle 1  cos  0.866   30
1
2  30 leading
Load power remains same after addition of PF
correction C, I S 2 and IL are same as (c).
(c)

VI s1 cos 1  VI L cos   I s1 cos 1  I L cos  I c2  I L sin   I s2 sin 2  392.98  30 A

I L  cos 
I s1   176.47   30 A C
I c2
 5215  F
cos 1 V
 I c1  I L sin   I s1 sin 1  217.56 90 A
V V I c1
I c1    VC  C   2887  F
X c 1 / jC V 2 f
Review points
• AC quantities can be expressed as phasor ( in polar
form by its magnitude and phase angle).
• Two quantities
i i for
f ac power - instantaneous
i andd
average.
• RMS value = peak value/2.
• Higher the power factor (cos of phase angle) is the
better i.e. smaller the phase angle is the better.
• Power
P factor
f t correctionti bby additional
dditi l capacitive
iti
reactive power.
Lecture 4
Dr Rukmi Dutta
Outline of today’s
today s lecture:
• Three phase system
• Star-Delta connection
• Power in three phase system
• Power measurement
Basic laws and theories
• Ohm
Ohm’ss Law V  IR, V  I Z
• Kirchhoff’s current and voltage laws:
▫ Algebraic sum of current entering any node is zero.
zero
▫ Algebraic sum of voltages around any loop is zero.
• Thevenin’s
Th i ’ theorem
th
▫ An entire network of circuit elements, exclusive of the
l d can b
load be replaced
l db by an equivalent
i l t circuit
i it containing
t i i
only a voltage source (Thevenin's voltage source) and
series equivalent impedance (Thevenin
(Thevenin’ss equivalent
impedance).
• Norton
Norton’ss theorem
▫ An entire network of circuit elements, exclusive of the
load can be replaced by an equivalent circuit containing
only a current source and series equivalent impedance.
Balanced three phase circuit
• Three phase circuit:
▫ Contains three voltages that are 1/3 of cycle apart in
time.
ti
• Balanced three phase circuit :
▫ three sinusoidal voltages have same magnitude and
q y
frequency.
▫ Each voltage is 120 degree out of phase with other two.
▫ Load currents also have the similar property.
property v 
V
0 , max 0
a
2
Vmax
vb    1200 ,
2
Vmax
vc  1200
2

va  Vmax sin  t  vb  Vmax sin t  120  vc  Vmax sin t  240o   Vmax sin t  120o 
o

An important property of balanced voltage set is :Va  Vb  Vc  0


Why three phase?
• In single phase, at the zero crossing no
power is available but in three phase
system power is always available
through one of its phases,
phases and is thus
preferred for machines, motors and
appliances that use large amount of
power.
• A three phase system provides
constant torque,
q , whereas singleg phase
p
S
Source: wikipedia
iki di
does not.

With three phase power per kilogram
of metal to generate electrical energy is
higher than single phase. Hence,
optimum
ti use off iiron and
d copper iin
generation and transmission with three
phase voltage
p g and current.
Star (Y) and Delta (∆) connection
• Three phase circuit can be connected in two
configurations-

Y-connection Delta connection

• ‘n’
n point of star connection, where three terminals of the
three coils are connected is called Neutral point. Note :
Delta connection does not have a neutral point.
point
• Phase voltage: voltage from each line a,b,c to neutral ‘n’.
• Line (or line-line)voltage:
line line)voltage: voltage between any two lines
(e.g. a - b , b – c and c-a)
Balanced Y
Y-Y
Y connection
Vca
Vcn
Vbc Van
V bn
Vab

Line currents:
Van V V
Ia  , I b  bn , I c  cn
Line voltages, Za Zb Zc
I a  Ib  Ic  I N  0
Phase voltages,
g , Vab  Van  Vbn
 V p 0o  V p   120o In Y-connection,
V max Line current = phase current
Va  Van  0  V p 0  V p  V p cos(120o )  j sin(120o ) 
2
V 3 3
Vb  Vbn  max
  120  V p   120
   Vp   j   3  V p 30

2 2 2 
V max Line voltage leads phase voltage by 30 deg.
deg
Vc  Vcn  120  V p 120
2 line voltage is 3 times of phase voltage.
Similarly,
Vca  Vcn  Van  3  V p 150  3  V p   210
Vbc  Vbn  Vcn  3  V p   90
Delta connection
Ic
c
Li voltages
Line l are: Ica
Vab  V p 0 

Vca
Vbc  V p   120 
Vbc
Vca  V p   240  V p   120 Ia Iab
Ibc
a
Vab Ib
Line voltage = phase voltage b
For balanced system,
vab  vbc  vca  0 Line currents:
I a  I abb  I ca
I a  I L 
I b  I L   120 I b  I bc  I ab
I c  I L   120 I c  I ca  I bc
Phase currents:
I
I ba  L   30o
3
I Phase current leads line current by
I cb  L   90o 30 deg.
3
Phase current is 1/ 3 times of phase
I
I ac  L   150o current.
3
Star-Delta
Star Delta Transformation
b

Zb

Za a
n
Zc
c

For balance network, Z a  Zb  Z c  Z

1 1
When ∆ is converted to Y, ZY  Z   Z
3 3
When Y is converted to ∆, Z   3ZY  3Z
Power in three phase circuit
Phase voltages and currents of a three phase balanced system:
van (t )  Vmax cos t ia (t )  I max cos t   
vbn (t )  Vmax cos t  120  and ib (t )  I max cos t    120 
vcn (t )  Vmax cos t  240  ic (t )  I max cos t    240 

Instantaneous power of the system:


p (t )  pa (t )  pb (t )  pc (t )
V I
 max max 3cos   cos(2t   )  cos(2t    120)  cos(2t    120) 
2
It can be shown that,
( t   )  cos(2
cos(2 ( t    120))  cos(2
( t    120))  0 P(t)
Three phase
3V I
 p (t )  max max cos   3V p I p cos   P instantaneous power
2
Single
Si l phase
h
For star connected load, Il = Ip and Vl  3V p instantaneous power
Hence, P  3Vl I l cos 
t
load Vl = Vp and I l  3I p
For delta connected load,
Hence, P  3Vl I l cos 
Power relationship
• Whether load is connected in Y or Delta,
Delta Power per
phase are,
Vl I l
Pp  V p I p cos   cos 
3
Vl I l
Q p  V p I p sin   sin 
3

• Total real and reactive power for all three phases,


phases
PT  3V p I p cos   3Vl I l cos 
QT  3V p I p sin   3Vl I l sin 

• Magnitude
g of total complex
p p
power(apparent
( pp p
power))
ST  PT2  QT2  3Vl I l  3V p I p
and
ST  
Example
• A three phase balanced Y-Delta
Y Delta system has a line
voltage 208V rms. The total real power absorbed by
th lload
the d is
i 1.2kW.
kW The
Th PF off th
the lload
d iis 20 d
degree
lagging. Find the magnitude of the line current and
load impedance in delta.
PT  3Vl I l cos 
I l  3.5A rms
Current in each lag
g of delta-connected load is,,
Il
I   2.04A
3
Vl
Z   101.77,   200
I
Z  95.63  j 34.81
Exercise
• A balanced three-phase
three phase source supply three loads as
follows:
Loadd 1 : 24 k
kW, 0.6 lagging
l i PF
Load 2 : 10 kW,, unityy PF
Load 3 : 12 kVA at 0.8 leading PF.
If the line voltage at the load is 240V rms and 50 Hz.
Hz
Find the line current and combined Power factor of the
l d
loads.
Hint: Find S1,, S2,, S3
3 and STotal and its magnitude.
g
STotal
Il   124.13 A rms
3Vl
PFload  cos  STotal   0.869 lagging
Power Measurement
• Three wattmeter method
▫ Simply use three wattmeter to measure power of each
phase
h and
d summation
ti will
ill give
i ththe ttotal
t l power.
• Two wattmeter method:
▫ Measures two line currents , two line voltages and
p
respective p
phase angles
g between the current and
voltage.
Method is valid for both Y and Delta connected load.
Derivation done here is for a Y-connected load.
PT  W1  W2  VRY I R cos(VRY  I R )  VBY I B cos(VBY  I B )
 Vl I l cos(300   )  Vl I l cos(300   )
 Vl I l  cos 30 cos   sin 30sin   cos 30 cos   sin 30sin  
 Vl I l  2 cos 30 cos    3Vl I l cos 
Points to remember:
• A balance three phase voltage source has 3 sinusoidal
voltages of same magnitude and frequency and each
voltage
lt is
i 120 ddeg outt off phase
h with
ith others.
th
• Balance load can be connected either in Y or Delta
configuration.
• In a balance load system neutral current IN is zero.
zero
• Continuous power is available in a three phase
system hence more economical
system, economical.

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