Ion – atom carries electrical charge Cation(+) give up electrons, alkali metals, reactivity down Anion(-) gain electrons,

halogens most
reactive – reactivity up Electron dot diagram - symbol of element replace nucleus and inner shell electrons 2 atoms collide-if valence
electrons make a new arrangement that has less energy than previous bond formed Ionic bond-attraction between oppositely charged ions
Ionic compounds- cations and anions, most have bonds between metal cations+non metal ions, high melting points–large amount of energy
needed to break attraction, when liquid+molen conduct electricity (melting+dissolving lets ions move freely->can carry electric charge)
Covalent bond –atoms share electrons Molecule–neutral particle that composed of atoms joined by covalent bonds Molecular compounds –
Composed of molecules, bonds strong, attraction weak, low melting point, electricity->no ions Diatomic molecule –contains 2 atoms (ex. F2)
Electrolyte-substance that dissolves in water to produce solution that conducts electricity->Ionic substances mostly electrolytes molecular
substances mostly non-electrolytes Binary compound-compounds that contain two different elements
Simple anions are named according to the element that forms the anion with the ending changed to ‘ide’ Cross over method Ca2+ O2- = Ca2O2
Transition element –element with more than one valence. 2 ways to name transition elements: Classical – u\ latin names for metals that form
more than 1 ion (lead - plumbum), drop “um” ending+adding the suffix “ic” to higher charge “ous” for
amonium ion NH4(+) lower charge.
hydroxide ion OH(-) Stock system – Use English name of element, write cation in parentheses as Roman numeral after the
carbonate CO3(2-) name of metal.
nitrate NO3(-) Polyatomic ions –2 or more different non-metal atoms joined by covalent bonds (charged ion) ex. OH-
sulfate SO4(2-) (one covalent bond in water molecule broken) Only one common polyatomic cation (NH4+) but many
hydrogen carbonate HCO3(-) polyatomic anions
hydrogen sulfate HSO4(-) Names of polyatomic ions (except hydroxide) end in “ate” not “ide” Otherwise, same naming procedure
phosphate PO4(3-) Binary molecular compounds – covalent bonds between two atoms of two different non-metals
1. Name of binary molecular compound ends in ide 2. name and formula usually begin with element more
to the left of the periodic table 3. Use a prefix to specify the number of atoms of each element present (mono –only used for second element-,
di, tri, tetra, penta, hexa)
Laviosier’s law of conservation of mass - chemical reaction: total mass of reactants=total mass of product
All chemical reactions involve the release or absorption of energy
Exothermic-energy releasing reactions(explosion, rusting iron)Need nonstop input of energy
Endothermic – energy absorbing reactions (ex. cooking food electrolysis –separating a compound into component elements) Require some
form of energy to start the reaction, generates heat energy by itself, without further energy needed
Law of conservation of energy – energy can be converted from one form to another, but the total quantity of energy is constant.
Energy is always required to break chemical bonds Energy is always released when new bonds form
Synthesis reaction – when 2+ more reactants combine to produce a new product X+Y –> XY
Decomposition reaction – when a compound breaks down into 2+ more simpler compounds or elements XY –> X+Y
Single displacement– when one element takes the place of another A+BX –> AX+B or AX+Y–>AY+X
Activity series of metals – metals written in order of chemical reactivity (potassium, aluminum, nickel, mercury)
Double displacement–cations of 2 different compounds exchange places, forming two new compounds WX+YZ–>WZ+YX
Neutralization –double displacement, acid + base- H2O + salt
Acids react with carbonates to produce carbon dioxide: ex: Na2CO3+2HCl → 2NaCl+ H2CO3(aq), then, H2CO3(aq) → H2O+ CO2
Organic chemistry – the study of carbon containing compounds and their properties
Hydrocarbon –organic compound that contains only carbon+hydrogen atoms. (ex. crude oil and natural gas)
Complete combustion – When hydrocarbons are burned in a plentiful supply of oxygen (CO2, water vapour)
Incomplete combustion – When hydrocarbons are burned in a poor supply of oxygen (CO2, water, carbon, + carbon monoxide)
CO bond with haemoglobin (haemoglobin not able to carry oxygen to lungs)
Acid (red)–a substance that produces hydrogen ions in solution, H+(aq) sour Litmus –compound extracted from lichens (fungi kingdom)
Base (blue) – a substance that produces hydroxide ions in solution, OH-(aq) bitter Indicator – chemical that change colour as concentration of
H+ or OH- changes. Oxide – a compound that consists of an element and oxygen only - Oxides of many elements react with water to form acid
or base- able to compare chemical properties of different kinds of elements by testing their oxides
Neutral water: H2O(l) H++ OH- because a tiny # of H2O molecules ionise. must contain equal numbers of the ions (since one is a cation and
the other an anion)  shows that the reaction is reversible Products can also combine to form reactants.
pH scale (power of hydrogen ion)– a measure of the acidity of a solution. (acids on left, bases on right, 0-14, 7 = neutral)Soren Sorenson
suggested it Acid rain 3-5, below ph5 life in ponds die. pH meter- measures electrical property of solution + uses to determine pH
Universal indicator paper – (pH paper) turns diff colours depending on the pH of the solution
Concentration of an acid –amount of pure acid dissolved/L of H2O. Not all of the acid will ionize.
Percent ionization - # of molecules that will ionize/every 200 molecules dissolved. Strong –completely in water (100% ionization) ex. Sulfiric
acid H2SO4. Weak –only partly ionize in water ex. Acetic
Sulfiric acid (strong) H2SO4 Sodium hydroxide (s) NaOH acid (in vinegar) CH3COOH (only 1 in 200)
Hydrochloric acid (s) HCl(aq) Potassium hydroxide(s) KOH Swimming pool: Chlorine hypochlorous acid HOCl(aq) –
Nitric acid (s) HNO3 Calcium hydroxide (s) CA(OH)2 most effective, can enter the cells of micro organisms and
Carbonic acid (w) H2CO3 Magnesium hydroxide(s) Mg(OH)2 kills them Cl2(g)+H2O=HOCl(aq)+ H+ (aq)+ Cl-(aq)
Ammonia(w) NH3 Sodium hypochlorite – safer to handle than chlorine, reacts
with water to produce hypochlorous acid, but =weak acid,
ionizes to form hypochlorite ions OCL- prevents it from
entering cells because of charge, not as good. NaOCl(aq) + H2O(l) -> HOCl(aq)+Na++ OH-(aq) Ideal range of HOCl+OCl- = 7.2 to 7.8
If too acidic add sodium carbonate Na2CO3 Na2Co3(s) + 2H+(aq) -> 2Na+(aq) +H2(l) +CO2(g)
If too basic add hydrochloric acid to remove excess hydroxide ions. HCl(aq) + OH-(aq) -> H2 (l) + Cl-(aq)
Uncontaminated rainwater = pH of 5.5 LESS=ACID RAIN
Rainwater with a pH of less than 5.5 = Acid Rain (more acidic that expected naturally)
Rate of reaction: Concentration (more concentration, higher rate) Surface area (larger surface area, expose to oxygen)Temp (higher temp)
Catalysts –speed up the rate of a reaction without being used up. Enzymes – specialized proteins speed up reactions in living cells RNA
polymerase II, Platinum commonly found in converters, car catalysts convert CO to CO2
Hydrochloric acid – Stomach acid Carbonic acid found in soft drinks
Sharing of electrons in water molecules unequal. More likely to be found at the oxygen end (=slightly negative, H=slightly +).
Polar molecule dissolve other substances with polar molecules and ionic substances (such as salts) Not non-polar molecules (ex: oil and
grease)
Soap: ionic head (COO-) and a non-polar tail, formed by reacting a fat with strong base (fat and ashes) +hard water (Ca, Mg) =scum
Detergents: ionic head (SO-Na+) doesn’t combine with magnesium and calcium, therefore no scum
Sulfuric Acid H2SO4(L) widely used industrial chemical, corrosive, produced by ‘contact process’ (burned in presence of oxygen, catalyst
used to change sulphur into sulphur trioxide, then reacts with water to produce the acid, exothermic)
S+O2->SO2 2SO2+O2->2SO3 SO3+H2O->H2SO4
Nitric Acid Corrosive, reactive, made commercially with Ostwald process (reacting ammonia with air in presence of catalyst, platinum, to
produce NO2, reacted with water to produce acid) used to produce ammonium nitrate NH4NO3 , in explosives, fertilizers
Nitroglycerina=highly unstable explosive compound – nitric acid+glycerol, ,
Normal rain is slightly acidic CO2+H2O->H2CO3 (carbon dioxide reacts with water vapour)
Sulfurous acid: SO2+H2O->H2SO Sulfuric acid: SO3+H2O->H2SO4 Nitrous+Nitric acid: 2NO2+H2O->HNO2+HNO3
Acid rain, many aquatic animals die, marble+ limestone (calcium carbonate CaCO3) easily decomposed by Sulfiric acid, levels of acid
pollutants highest east Manitoba – North Ontario(igneous) more susceptible, acid rain dissolves mercury, copper, aluminum, harm organisms
To treat, maybe neutralize by adding limestone determine how much by volume of water, chemical composition+reactivity of its rocks and soil
and turnover time. Doesn’t restore natural chemical plants, may kill plants, better to control emissions
Scrubbers – put on smokestacks of many industrial plants, remove most sulphur dioxide by reacting with calcium oxide or lime
S+O2->SO2 SO2+CaCO->CaCO (slag)
OR Remove sulphur from fuel and react with oxygen to produce sulphur dioxide 2H2S(g) +3O2(g)->2H2O(l)+2SO2(g)
Reacted with more hydrogen sulphide with catalyst to produce water and elemental sulphur SO2+2H2S(g)->2H2O (g)+3S(s)
Ecosystem – All the organisms in an area that interact with each other and with their environment of energy and matter Sun=energy=fuel, not
recycled; must have continuous input of Sun energy to maintain ecosystem. Energy used for Growth, Reproduction, Cellular respiration, Waste
matter and death. 10 % transferred to next trophic level(5-20) Trophic Levels – producer, primary, secondary tertiary Producers: green
plants, convert radiant energy → chemical energy,(photosynthesis), stored as chemical energy in carbohydrate (sugar) molecules
Scavengers – consumers which feed on bodies of larger dead animals. Decomposers – things such as bacteria and fungi which consume any
remaining dead plants and animal matter. break down the cells and extract the last remaining energy.
Detrivores – organisms that consume dead material and animal wastes ex. scavengers, decomposers. Feed at every trophic level, make up their
own important food chains (outnumber food chains based on living plants + animals)
Pyramid of numbers (pine bark beetle smaller than tree, more can feed) Pyramid of biomass (More zooplankton than algae – it
reproduces+grows faster than pl) Biomass –how much of organism in ecosystem. Combines the number with the size of an organism. (dry
weight of organism) Pyramid of energy flow – always up-right
Carrying capacity (largest pop can support) 1:Materials+energy, 2:Food Chain, 3:Competion (intra specific – same species, inter specific) 4:
Density (density dependant – diseases+stress, independent –fire)
Productivity – the average amounts of new plant biomass produced each year per unit area
Monoculture – Goal of agriculture – to produce short simple food chains DDT– 1950s-1960s insecticide control pop. insects, 10yrs later dead
animals, birds of pray=thin eggshells Biological magnification (Bioaccumulation) –substances collect in the bodies of organisms in higher
concentration towards top of a food chain
Nutrients –chemical elements used by organisms to build+operate bodies Nutrient cycles–movements of nutrients through enviro Closed
system – (Earth) little/ no input of new materials from outside the system Biotic=nutrients=living Abiotic
Photosynthesis conversion of energy from the sun to chemical energy (produce carbohydrates – simple sugars) by green plants
6CO2 +6H2O + energy ->C6H12O6 +6O2 Cellular respiration –conversion of carbohydrates by organisms to energy (opposite of
photosynthesis)Only producers carry out photosynthesis, but all organisms (including producers) carry out cellular respiration
Carbon cycle –flow of carbon through ecosystem In aquatic, much of the CO2 is a solution in the water.
Carboniferous period–300million BCE, plant material->swamps->coal
Oceans+lake dissolves carbon at surface to form carbonic acid -> plants use as carbon source.
Nitrogen –most common element found in living things.80% of Earth’s atmosphere=nitrogen gas, plants use it +P+K for growth
Animals only obtain by eating other animals or plants Nitrogen fixation – Nitrogen must be pulled from the air and bonded with other
elements to make new compounds ex. NH4(+) ammonium and NO3(-) nitrate Nitrogen fixing bacteria – in roots of legumes
Rhizobia (bacteria) After fixation, enters soil+water, taken from roots. Decomposers break down waste producing ammonia. Nitrification –
nitrigying bacteria converts ammonia to nitrates Denitrification – denitrifying bacteria convert nitrates to nitrogen gas
Eutrophication – the buildup of nutrients in an aquatic system Algal bloom – a population rise of algae, dies, broken down, decomposers use
oxygen, not enough O left
Soil – the layer of material that covers the land and supports the growth of plants Grassland soil - lower rainfall, topsoil deep Forest soil more
rain, more nutrients in subsoil Deserts low precipitation, thin or no topsiol
Soil Type, climate, vegetation = the three most important factors that determine where populations of ppl can live
Succession – the process in which one ecosystem is gradually replaced by another over time.
Primary succession – bare landscape->climax community (community with maximum level of productivity) Secondary succession –restores
disturbed climax community
bogs – waterlogged ground covered with a thick spongy layer of sphagnum moss and others. Peat.-slowly decomposing vegetation (helps soil
retain water and nutrients)Wetlands – mixtures of land water and plants, Bogs act like sponges, holding water, release after time, helps prevent
flooding+erosion, improve water quality
Commons –resource shared by group of ppl Tragedy of commons –destruction of shared resource by individual greed,Britain 1700
Ecological footprint – a measure of an individual’s or a population’s impact on the environment = land/water occupied by the population +
Land/water used to produce resources for the population + Land/water used to dispose of wastes for the population
Paradigm – way of looking at the world that is shared by most ppl in a community Economics –study of how wealth is created+distributed