ALTERNATIVE FUELS

FOR
I. C. ENGINES

-PREPARED BY:

JETHWA NITUL (01ME17)

MAHERA CHIRAG (01ME23)
PATEL BHAVESH (01ME39)

OCTOBER 2004

Department of Mechanical Engineering

Nirma Institute Of Technology
Ahmedabad

1
 SEMINAR ON

ALTERNATIVE FUELS FOR I.C. ENGINES

SUBMITTED BY:

JETHWA NITUL (01ME17)

MAHERA CHIRAG (01ME23)
PATEL BHAVESH (01ME39)

GUIDED BY:
S.V. JAIN

SIGNATURE OF SIGNATURE OF
GUIDE HEAD OF DEPARTMENT

MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

DATE: 16-10-2004

Department of Mechanical Engineering

Nirma Institute Of Technology
Ahmedabad

2
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
We are thankful to Prof. A. B. Patel for giving us opportunity for delivering a
seminar of our choice.

We are very thankful to Mr. S. V. Jain as our guide. Our seminar would not
have been completed without him. He was always there to solve our difficulties at
anytime and of any type. He would spare his valuable time for our difficulties. Due to
his tremendous source of inspiration & enthusiasm we have been attached to him
emotionally during this entire seminar.

JETHWA NITUL (01ME17)

MAHERA CHIRAG (01ME23)
PATEL BHAVESH (01ME39)

3
 INDEX
ITEM PAGE NO.

 Abstract 05

 Introduction 06

 Biodiesel 06

 Ethanol 12

 Methanol 15

 Hydrogen 17

 Natural gas 19

 Comparison chart 22

 References 24

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Abstract
The rapid depletion of petroleum fuels and their ever-increasing costs have led to an
intensive search for alternatives fuels. The most promising substitutes for
petroleum fuels are the alcohols, biodiesel, hydrogen and natural gas.

It has been known since the invention of the internal combustion engine that alcohol
could be used as a motor fuel. Racing cars have always preferred and continue
to prefer methanol as a fuel because of the increased power obtainable from the
same engine to gasoline.

How the fuels are being made, its advantages over the conventional fuels and the
properties of the all fuels can be studied from the chart given in the report.

5
Introduction

Alternative fuels, as defined by the Energy Policy Act of 1992 (EPAct), include
ethanol, natural gas, propane, hydrogen, biodiesel, electricity, methanol, and p-
series fuels. These fuels are being used worldwide in a variety of vehicle applications.

Using these alternative fuels in vehicles can generally reduce harmful pollutants and
exhaust emissions. In addition, most of these fuels can be domestically produced and
derived from renewable sources.

Biodiesel

Biodiesel is a domestically produced, renewable fuel that can be manufactured from

vegetable oils, animal fats, or recycled restaurant greases. Biodiesel is safe,
biodegradable, and reduces serious air pollutants such as particulates, carbon
monoxide, hydrocarbons, and air toxics. Blends of 20% biodiesel with 80%
petroleum diesel (B20) can generally be used in unmodified diesel engines; however,
users should consult their OEM and engine warranty statement. Biodiesel can also be
used in its pure form (B100), but it too may require certain engine modifications to
avoid maintenance and performance problems.

• What Is Biodiesel?
• How Is Biodiesel Made?
• Biodiesel Market
• Biodiesel Benefits

What is Biodiesel?

Biodiesel (fatty acid alkyl esters) is a cleaner burning diesel replacement fuel made
from natural, renewable sources such as new and used vegetable oils and animal
fats. Just like petroleum diesel, biodiesel operates in compression-ignition engines.
Blends of up to 20% biodiesel (mixed with petroleum diesel fuels) can be used in
nearly all diesel equipment and are compatible with most storage and distribution
equipment. These low-level blends (20% and less) generally do not require any
engine modifications, however, users should consult their OEM and engine warranty
statement. Biodiesel can provide the same payload capacity and as diesel.

Higher blends, even pure biodiesel (100% biodiesel, or B100), can be used in many
engines built since 1994 with little or no modification. Transportation and storage,
however, require special management.

Using biodiesel in a conventional diesel engine substantially reduces emissions of

unburned hydrocarbons, carbon monoxide, sulfates, polycyclic aromatic
hydrocarbons, nitrated polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, and particulate matter.

6
These reductions increase as the amount of biodiesel blended into diesel fuel
increases. The best emission reductions are seen with B100.

The use of biodiesel decreases the solid carbon fraction of particulate matter (since
the oxygen in biodiesel enables more complete combustion to CO2) and reduces the
sulfate fraction (biodiesel contains less than 24 ppm sulfur), while the soluble, or
hydrocarbon, fraction stays the same or increases. Therefore, biodiesel works well
with new technologies such as diesel oxidation catalysts (which reduce the soluble
fraction of diesel particulate but not the solid carbon fraction).

Emissions of nitrogen oxides increase with the concentration of biodiesel in the fuel.
Some biodiesel produces more nitrogen oxides than others, and some additives have
shown promise in modifying the increases. More R&D is needed to resolve this issue.

Biodiesel has physical properties very similar to conventional diesel.

Biodiesel’s Physical Properties

Biodiesel's Physical Characteristics:

Specific gravity 0.87 to 0.89
Kinematic viscosity @ 40°C 3.7 to 5.8
Cetane number 46 to 70
Higher heating value (btu/lb) 16,928 to 17,996
Sulfur, wt% 0.0 to 0.0024
Cloud point °C -11 to 16
Pour point °C -15 to 13
Iodine number 60 to 135
Lower heating value (btu/lb) 15,700 to 16,735

7
Requirements For B100

Detailed Requirements for Biodiesel (B100)A

Test
Property Limits Units
MethodB
Flash Point (closed cup) D 93 130.0 min °C
%
Water and sediment D 2709 0.050 max
Volume
Kinematic viscosity, 40°C D 445 1.9-6.0C mm2/s
Sulfated ash D 874 0.020 max % mass
SulfurD D 5453 0.05 max % mass
Copper strip corrosion D 130 No.3 max
Cetane number D 613 47 min
Cloud point D 2500 ReportE °C
Carbon residueF D 4530 0.050 max % mass
mg
Acid number D 664 0.80 max
KOH/g
Free glycerin D 6584 0.020 % mass
Total glycerin D 6584 0.240 % mass
Phosphorus content D 4951 0.001 max % mass
Distillation temperature,
Atmospheric equivalent D 1160 360 max °C
temperature, 90 % recovered
A
To meet special operating conditions, modifications of individual
limiting requirements may be agreed upon between purchaser, seller,
and manufacturer.
B
The test methods indicated are the approved referee methods.
C
The 6.0 mm2/s upper viscosity limit is higher than petrodiesel and
should be taken into consideration when blending.
D
Other sulfur limits can apply in selected areas in the United States
and in other countries.
E
The cloud point of biodiesel is generally higher than petrodiesel and
should be taken into consideration when blending.
F
Carbon residue shall be run on the 100 % sample.

8
How is Biodiesel Made?

Biodiesel fuel can be made from new or used vegetable oils and animal fats, which
are nontoxic, biodegradable, renewable resources. Fats and oils are chemically
reacted with an alcohol (methanol is the usual choice) to produce chemical
compounds known as fatty acid methyl esters. Biodiesel is the name given to these
esters when they're intended for use as fuel. Glycerol (used in pharmaceuticals and
cosmetics, among other markets) is produced as a co product.

Biodiesel can be produced by a variety of esterification technologies. The oils and

fats are filtered and preprocessed to remove water and contaminants. If free fatty
acids are present, they can be removed or transformed into biodiesel using special
pretreatment technologies. The pretreated oils and fats are then mixed with an
alcohol (usually methanol) and a catalyst (usually sodium or potassium hydroxide).
The oil molecules (triglycerides) are broken apart and reformed into esters and
glycerol, which are then separated from each other and purified.

Approximately 55% of the biodiesel industry can use any fat or oil feedstock,
including recycled cooking grease. The other half of the industry is limited to
vegetable oils, the least expensive of which is soy oil. The soy industry has been the
driving force behind biodiesel commercialization because of excess production
capacity, product surpluses, and declining prices. Similar issues apply to the recycled
grease and animal fats industry, even though these feedstocks are less expensive
than soy oils.

Based on the combined resources of both industries, there is enough feedstock to

supply 1.9 billion gallons of biodiesel (under policies designed to encourage biodiesel
use).

Biodiesel Blends
When biodiesel is blended with petroleum diesel, it produces a fuel that is compatible
with diesel engines, displaces imported petroleum, and reduces harmful emissions.
Blends like B2 (2% biodiesel and 98% diesel) and B5 (5% biodiesel and 95% diesel)
are becoming increasingly common as drivers become more aware of the many
benefits. Biodiesel blends of 20% biodiesel or more are also widely available and
may qualify for credits under the Energy Policy Act of 1992.

Biodiesel is manufactured by chemically reacting vegetable oils, recycled cooking

grease, or animal fats with alcohol. Today's biodiesel is primarily made from
domestically produced soybean oil, which has extremely low sulfur content. Cooking
oil and animal fat biodiesel is also produced with very low sulfur so today's biodiesel
already meets EPA 2006 regulations for ultra-low sulfur diesel fuel.

9
What types of vehicles run on biodiesel blends?
As long as the biodiesel used for blending meets ASTM D6751 standards, low-level
biodiesel blends such as B2 and B5 can be used safely in any compression-ignition
engine that is designed to be operated on diesel fuel. This may include diesel-
powered cars, trucks, tractors, boats, and electrical generators.

Fuel Costs
Biodiesel costs about 1.5 times more than diesel fuel, so you can expect biodiesel
blends to cost slightly more than standard diesel. This elevated cost may be offset by
the superior lubricity of biodiesel, which reduces wear and tear on the engines.

Benefits
In addition to displacing imported petroleum, biodiesel blends reduce air pollution
and greenhouse gases. Using biodiesel also supports U.S. farmers by providing a
market for excess soybean oil.

Performance
Biodiesel has an energy content that is about 10% less than diesel No. 2 and about
the same as diesel No. 1. In theory, adding biodiesel to diesel No. 2 should slightly
reduce fuel economy, power, and torque. In reality, low-level blends are practically
indistinguishable from conventional diesel.

Biodiesel also has superior lubricity, which reduces wear and tear on the engine and
can increase the life of engine components. In addition, it is a mild solvent that will
help clean your fuel system.

Biodiesel Fuel Market

The use of biodiesel has grown dramatically during the last few years. The Energy
Policy Act was amended by the Energy Conservation Reauthorization Act of 1998 to
include biodiesel fuel use as a way for federal, state, and public utility fleets to meet
requirements for using alternative fuels.

That amendment started the sharp increase in the number of biodiesel users, which
now include the U.S. Postal Service and the U.S. Departments of Defense, Energy,
and Agriculture. Countless school districts, transit authorities, national parks, public
utility companies, and garbage and recycling companies also use the fuel.

According to the American Biofuels Association, with government incentives

comparable to those that have been provided for ethanol, biodiesel sales could reach
about 2 billion gallons per year, or replace about 8% of conventional highway diesel
fuel consumption. At this level of market penetration, biodiesel would probably be

10
used in bus fleets and heavy-duty trucks (primarily in blends with fossil diesel up to
the 20% level), marine vessels such as ferries, construction and agricultural vehicles,
home heating oil systems, and electric generation facilities.

Feedstock costs account for a large percentage of the direct biodiesel production
costs, including capital cost and return. It takes about 7.3 pounds of soybean oil,
which costs about 20 cents per pound, to produce a gallon of biodiesel. Feedstock
costs alone, therefore, are at least $1.50 per gallon of soy biodiesel. Fats and
greases cost less and produce less expensive biodiesel, sometimes as low as $1.00
per gallon. The quality of the fuel is similar to soy biodiesel fuel.

Biodiesel Benefits
Biodiesel is a substitute or extender for traditional petroleum diesel, and special
pumps or high pressure equipment for fueling are not needed. In addition, it can be
used in conventional diesel engines, so special vehicles or engines to run biodiesel do
not need to be purchased. However, users should always consult with the OEM and
engine warranty statement before using biodiesel.

Scientists believe carbon dioxide is one of the main greenhouse gases contributing to
global warming. Neat biodiesel (100% biodiesel) reduces carbon dioxide emissions
by more than 75% over petroleum diesel. Using a blend of 20% biodiesel reduces
carbon dioxide emissions by 15%.

Biodiesel also produces fewer particulate matter, carbon monoxide, and sulfur
dioxide emissions (all air pollutants under the Clean Air Act).

Since biodiesel can be used in conventional diesel engines, the renewable fuel can
directly replace petroleum products; reducing the country's dependence on imported
oil.

Biodiesel offers safety benefits over petroleum diesel because it is much less
combustible, with a flash point greater than 150°C, compared to 77°C for petroleum
diesel. It is safe to handle, store, and transport.

Safety
The flash point of a fuel is defined as the temperature to which the fuel must be
heated to produce a mixture that will ignite when exposed to a spark or flame. If the
flash point of a fuel is too low, it cannot be considered a diesel fuel and must be
handled with care, similar to gasoline. The flash point of biodiesel has been tested
and reported by various sources. Specific testing at Southwest Research Institute
concluded that the flash point of biodiesel blends increases as the percentage of
biodiesel increases. Therefore, pure biodiesel or blends of biodiesel with petroleum
diesel are safer to store, handle, and use than conventional diesel fuel. In addition,
pure biodiesel is essentially sulfur free and results in a total reduction of SO 2
emissions as well as sulfate aerosols in particulate matter. These reductions should
help increase both vehicle and catalyst life over time.

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Ethanol

Ethanol is an alcohol-based alternative fuel produced by fermenting and distilling

starch crops that have been converted into simple sugars. Feedstocks for this fuel
include corn, barley, and wheat. Ethanol can also be produced from "cellulosic
biomass" such as trees and grasses and is called bioethanol. Ethanol is most
commonly used to increase octane and improve the emissions quality of gasoline.

Ethanol can be blended with gasoline to create E85, a blend of 85% ethanol and
15% gasoline. E85 and blends with even higher concentrations of ethanol, E95, for
example, qualify as alternative fuels under the Energy Policy Act of 1992 (EPAct).
Vehicles that run on E85 are called flexible fuel vehicles (FFVs) and are offered by
several vehicle manufacturers.

In some areas of the United States, lower concentrations of ethanol are blended with
gasoline. The most common low concentration blend is E10 (10% ethanol and 90%
gasoline). While it reduces emissions, E10 is not considered an alternative fuel under
EPAct regulations.

• What Is Ethanol?
• How Is Ethanol Made?
• Ethanol Market
• Ethanol Benefits

What is Ethanol?

Ethanol (ethyl alcohol, grain alcohol, EtOH) is a clear, colorless liquid. In dilute
aqueous solution, it has a somewhat sweet flavor, but in more concentrated
solutions it has a burning taste. Ethanol (CH3CH2OH) is made up of a group of
chemical compounds whose molecules contain a hydroxyl group, -OH, bonded to a
carbon atom. Ethanol made from cellulosic biomass materials instead of traditional
feedstocks (starch crops) is called bioethanol.

The Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990 mandated the sale of oxygenated fuels in
areas with unhealthy levels of carbon monoxide. Since that time, there has been
strong demand for ethanol as an oxygenate blended with gasoline. In the United
States each year, approximately 2 billion gallons are added to gasoline to increase
octane and improve the emissions quality of gasoline.

Blends of at least 85% ethanol are considered alternative fuels under the Energy
Policy Act of 1992 (EPAct). E85, a blend of 85% ethanol and 15% gasoline, is used in
flexible fuel vehicles (FFVs) that are currently offered by most major auto

12
manufacturers. FFVs can run on gasoline, E85, or any combination of the two and
qualify as alternative fuel vehicles under EPAct regulations.

In some areas, ethanol is blended with gasoline to form an E10 blend (10% ethanol
and 90% gasoline).

Chemical properties: Ethanol is ethane with a hydrogen molecule replaced by a

hydroxyl radical.

How is Ethanol Made?

Ethanol can be produced from any biological feedstocks that contain appreciable
amounts of sugar or materials that can be converted into sugar such as starch or
cellulose. Sugar beets and sugar cane are examples of feedstocks that contain sugar.
Corn contains starch that can relatively easily be converted into sugar. A significant
percentage of trees and grasses are made up of cellulose, which can also be
converted to sugar, although with more difficulty than required to convert starch.

The ethanol production process starts by grinding up the feedstock so it is more

easily and quickly processed in the following steps. Once ground up, the sugar is
either dissolved out of the material or the starch or cellulose is converted into sugar.
The sugar is then fed to microbes that use it for food, producing ethanol and carbon
dioxide in the process. A final step purifies the ethanol to the desired concentration.

Ethanol is also made from a wet-milling process. Many larger ethanol producers use
this process, which also yields products such as high-fructose corn sweetener.

Ethanol Market

Many vehicles on the road today can run on blends of ethanol and gasoline—most on
lower-level blends such as E10 (10% ethanol and 90% gasoline), and many on
higher level blends such as E85 (85% ethanol and 15% gasoline). Because of the
abundance of ethanol-compatible vehicles, the future is bright for ethanol as a fuel.

Most of today's commercially available vehicles can run on blends of E10, which is
mandated in some areas of the country to act as a fuel oxygenate to improve air
quality.

In addition, many newer vehicles can use E85, which qualifies as an alternative fuel
under the Energy Policy Act of 1992. Vehicles that can run on E85, gasoline, or any
mixture of the two are called flexible fuel vehicles (FFVs). FFVs are widely available
and include sedans, minivans, sport utility vehicles, and pickup trucks. More than 3
million FFVs have already been sold in the United States, although many of the
buyers remain unaware that they have the option to fuel with E85.

13
Because of limited crude oil supplies and refining capacity, and rising concern over
environmental degradation, there is a good market outlook for ethanol. Ethanol can
be produced not only from corn, barley, and wheat, but also from cellulose
feedstocks such as corn stalks, rice straw, sugar cane bagasse, pulpwood,
switchgrass, and municipal solid waste. Because of the variety of feedstocks that can
be used, ethanol offers tremendous opportunities for new jobs and economic growth
outside the traditional "grain belt."

Currently, most E85 fueling stations are located in the Midwest, but there are
approximately 200 E85 fueling stations across the country. FFVs can fuel at these
stations today.

Looking into the future, the ethanol industry envisions a time when ethanol may be
used as a fuel to produce hydrogen for fuel cell vehicle applications.

Ethanol Benefits

Ethanol reduces our dependence on foreign oil because it can be produced

domestically. Today, ethanol reduces the demand for gasoline and methyl tertiary-
butyl ether (MTBE) imports by 98,000 barrels per day. A 98,000 barrel/day
replacement of imported MTBE would represent a $1.1 billion reduction to our annual
trade deficit. In addition, because the petroleum refining industry is running near
capacity, the ethanol industry helps extend our petroleum supply, thereby helping
moderate fuel costs to consumers.

Ethanol is a renewable fuel that is responsible for more than 40,000 jobs, creating
more than $1.3 billion in increased household income annually. And the ethanol
industry directly and indirectly adds more that $6 billion to the American economy
each year. Ethanol production is extremely energy efficient, with a positive energy
balance of 125%, compared to 85% for gasoline.

Air pollution can also be reduced by using ethanol. Ethanol is low in reactivity and
high in oxygen content, making it an effective tool in reducing ozone pollution. It is
also a safe replacement for toxic octane enhancers in gasoline such as benzene,
toluene, and xylene.

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Methanol

Methanol, also known as wood alcohol, can be used as an alternative fuel in flexible
fuel vehicles that run on M85 (a blend of 85% methanol and 15% gasoline).
However, it is not commonly used because automakers are no longer supplying
methanol-powered vehicles.

Methanol can be used to make methyl tertiary-butyl ether (MTBE), an oxygenate

which is blended with gasoline to enhance octane and create cleaner burning fuel.
MTBE production and use has declined because it has been found to contaminate
ground water. In the future, methanol could possibly be the fuel of choice for
providing the hydrogen necessary to power fuel cell vehicles.

• What Is Methanol?
• How Is Methanol Made?
• Methanol Benefits

What is Methanol?

Methanol (CH3OH) is an alcohol fuel. Today most of the world's methanol is produced
by a process using natural gas as a feedstock. However, the ability to produce
methanol from non-petroleum feedstocks such as coal or biomass is of interest for
reducing petroleum imports.

Chemical Properties: As engine fuels, ethanol and methanol have similar chemical
and physical characteristics. Methanol is methane with one hydrogen molecule
replaced by a hydroxyl radical (OH).

How is Methanol Made?

Methanol is predominantly produced by steam reforming of natural gas to create a

synthesis gas, which is then fed into a reactor vessel in the presence of a catalyst to
produce methanol and water vapor. Although a variety of feedstocks other than
natural gas can and have been used, today's economics favor natural gas.

15
Synthesis gas refers to combinations of carbon monoxide (CO) and hydrogen. While
a large amount of synthesis gas is used to make methanol, most synthesis gas is
used to make ammonia. As a result, most methanol plants are adjacent to or are
part of ammonia plants. The synthesis gas is fed into another reactor vessel under
high temperatures and pressures, and CO and hydrogen are combined in the
presence of a catalyst to produce methanol. Finally, the reactor product is distilled to
purify and separate the methanol from the reactor effluent.

Methanol Benefits

Methanol's physical and chemical characteristics result in several inherent

advantages as an automotive fuel. Some methanol benefits include lower emissions,
higher performance, and lower risk of flammability than gasoline. In addition,
methanol can be manufactured from a variety of carbon-based feedstocks such as
natural gas, coal, and biomass (e.g., wood) and the use of methanol would help
reduce U.S. dependence on imported petroleum. On the down side, methanol
produces a high amount of formaldehyde in emissions.

In addition, methanol can easily be made into hydrogen. Some researchers are
currently working to overcome the barriers to using methanol as a hydrogen fuel
source. So methanol may potentially be used to create hydrogen for hydrogen fuel
cell vehicles in the future.

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Hydrogen

Hydrogen (H2) will play an important role in developing sustainable transportation in

the United States, because in the future it may be produced in virtually unlimited
quantities using renewable resources. Hydrogen has been used effectively in a
number of internal combustion engine vehicles as pure hydrogen mixed with natural
gas.

In addition, hydrogen is used in a growing number of demonstration fuel cell

vehicles. Hydrogen and oxygen from air fed into a proton exchange membrane (PEM)
fuel cell "stack" produce enough electricity to power an electric automobile, without
producing harmful emissions.

• What Is Hydrogen?
• How Is Hydrogen Made?
• Hydrogen Market
• Hydrogen Benefits

What is Hydrogen?

The simplest and lightest fuel is hydrogen gas (H 2). Hydrogen is in a gaseous state at
atmospheric pressure and ambient temperatures. Hydrogen may contain low levels
of carbon monoxide and carbon dioxide, depending on the source.

Hydrogen is being explored for use in combustion engines and fuel cell electric
vehicles. On a volumetric basis, the energy density of hydrogen is very low under
ambient conditions. This presents greater transportation and storage hurdles than for
liquid fuels. Storage systems being developed include compressed hydrogen, liquid
hydrogen, and physical or chemical bonding between hydrogen and a storage
material (for example, metal hydrides).

The ability to create hydrogen from a variety of resources and its clean-burning
properties make it a desirable alternative fuel. Although there is no significant
transportation distribution system currently for hydrogen transportation use, we can
transport and deliver hydrogen for early market penetration using the established
hydrogen infrastructure; for significant market penetration, the infrastructure will
need further development.

17
How is Hydrogen Made?

Today the two most common methods used to produce hydrogen are:

• steam reforming of natural gas

• electrolysis of water.

The predominant method for producing synthesis gas is steam reforming of natural
gas, although other hydrocarbons can be used as feedstocks. For example, biomass
and coal can be gasified and used in a steam reforming process to create hydrogen.

Electrolysis uses electrical energy to split water molecules into hydrogen and oxygen.
The electrical energy can come from any electricity production source including
renewable fuels.

Hydrogen Market

The hydrogen market has great potential for transportation applications. However,
currently there are no original equipment manufacturer vehicles available for sale to
the general public. Experts estimate that in approximately 10-20 years hydrogen
vehicles, and the infrastructure to support them, will start to make an impact. At this
time, the government and industry are working to overcome technical and cost
barriers.

There are several hydrogen fueling stations being built; however, most are private
stations being used for demonstration projects. The demonstration projects are being
designed to evaluate hydrogen technologies and pave the road to a hydrogen vehicle
future. Some of these hydrogen stations are available for public use as well.

Hydrogen Benefits

Widespread use of hydrogen as an energy source in this country could help address
concerns about energy security, global climate change, and air quality. Fuel cells are
an important enabling technology for the hydrogen future and have the potential to
revolutionize the way we power our nation, offering cleaner, more efficient
alternatives to the combustion of gasoline and other fossil fuels. Hydrogen's main
benefits are:

• Stronger national energy security

• Reduced greenhouse gas emissions
• Improved air quality
• Increased energy efficiency.

18
Hydrogen Infrastructure Development Resources

Currently, there are only a few hydrogen fueling stations across the country that
have been developed mainly for demonstration purposes. Demonstration projects are
being conducted to show the viability of using hydrogen-powered vehicles in fleet
applications. Since there are only a few hydrogen demonstration vehicles, most
fleets are not yet ready to install hydrogen infrastructure.

Natural Gas

Natural gas is domestically produced and readily available to end-users through the
utility infrastructure. It is also clean burning and produces significantly fewer harmful
emissions than reformulated gasoline or diesel when used in natural gas vehicles. In
addition, commercially available medium- and heavy-duty natural gas engines have
demonstrated over 90% reductions of carbon monoxide (CO) and particulate matter
and more than 50% reduction in nitrogen oxides (NO x) relative to commercial diesel
engines. Natural gas can either be stored onboard a vehicle as compressed natural
gas (CNG) at 3,000 or 3,600 psi or as liquefied natural gas (LNG) at typically 20-150
psi. Natural gas can also be blended with hydrogen.

• What Is Natural Gas?

• How Is Natural Gas Made?
• Natural Gas Market
• Natural Gas Benefits
• Natural Gas Infrastructure Resources

Chemical Properties: The main constituent of natural gas is methane, which is a

What is Natural Gas?

Natural gas is a mixture of hydrocarbons—mainly methane (CH4)—and is produced

either from gas wells or in conjunction with crude oil production. Natural gas is
consumed in the residential, commercial, industrial, and utility markets.

The interest in natural gas as an alternative fuel stems mainly from its clean burning
qualities, its domestic resource base, and its commercial availability to end users.
Because of the gaseous nature of this fuel, it must be stored onboard a vehicle in
either a compressed gaseous state (CNG) or in a liquefied state (LNG).

19
How is Natural Gas Made?

Most natural gas consumed in the United States is domestically produced. Gas
streams produced from reservoirs contain natural gas, liquids, and other materials.
Processing is required to separate the gas from petroleum liquids and to remove
contaminants. In addition, natural gas (methane) can also come from landfill gas and
water/sewage treatment.

First, the gas is separated from free liquids such as crude oil, hydrocarbon
condensate, water, and entrained solids. The separated gas is further processed to
meet specified requirements. For example, natural gas for transmission companies
must generally meet certain pipeline quality specifications with respect to water
content, hydrocarbon dewpoint, heating value, and hydrogen-sulfide content.

A dehydration plant controls water content; a gas processing plant removes certain
hydrocarbon components to hydrocarbon dewpoint specifications; and a gas
sweetening plant removes hydrogen sulfide and other sulfur compounds (when
present).

Natural Gas Fuel Market

Natural gas is distributed throughout the United States in extensive pipeline systems
that extend from the wellhead to the end user. Every continental state has access to
natural gas through pipelines. The pipeline system consists of long-distance
transmission systems, followed by local distribution systems.

Natural gas vehicles can easily be fueled at public stations or on-site refueling can be
built. Individual home compressors use a slow-fill system for overnight refueling. A
small compressor would usually be located in a home's garage area and would be
connected directly to the natural gas supply in the house. In heavy-duty applications,
the cost of a high capacity fast-fill private or public station could be anywhere from
$200K to as much as $3 million.

The future holds great potential for natural gas because it can potentially be used in
fuel cell vehicles to make hydrogen. Researchers found that fuel cell vehicles using
hydrogen produced from natural gas could present an attractive solution for cutting
greenhouse gas emissions.

Natural Gas Benefits

20
Natural gas is one of the cleanest burning alternative fuels available and offers a
number of advantages over gasoline. In light-duty applications, air exhaust
emissions from natural gas vehicles are much lower than those from gasoline-
powered vehicles. In addition, smog-producing gases, such as carbon monoxide and
nitrogen oxides, are reduced by more than 90% and 60%, respectively and carbon
dioxide, a greenhouse gas, is reduced by 30%-40%.

For heavy-duty and medium-duty applications, natural gas engines have demonstrated
more than 90% reduction of CO and particulate matter and more than 50% reduction of
NOx relative to commercial diesel engines.

Fuel Comparison Chart

Gasoline No. 2 Diesel Biodiesel Compressed Ethanol (E85) Hydrogen Methanol

(B20) Natural Gas (M85)

21
 (CNG)
Methyl esters
Chemical
C4 to C 12 C10 to C 20 of C16 to C 18 CH4 CH3CH2OH H2 CH3OH
Structure
fatty acids
Cetane Number 5 to 20 40 to 55 46 to 60 N/A N/A N/A N/A
Octane Number86 to 94 8 to 15 ~25 120+ 100 130+ 100
Soy bean oil,
Natural Gas,
waste cooking Corn, Grains, Natural gas,
Main Fuel Underground Methanol, and
Crude Oil Crude Oil oil, animal or agricultural coal, or, woody
Source reserves other energy
fats, and waste biomass
sources.
rapeseed oil
Gas: ~6,500
33,000 -
Btu@3,000
117,000 - 38,000 Btu @
psi; ~16,000
Energy Content 109,000 - 128,000 - 120,000 Btu 3000 psi; 56,000 - 66,000
~ 80,000 Btu Btu@10,000
per Gallon 125,000 Btu 130,000 Btu (compared to 38,000 - Btu
psi
diesel #2) 44,000 @ 3600
Liquid:
psi
~30,500 Btu
3.94 to 1 or
Energy Ratio 1.1 to 1 or
25% at 3000 1.42 to 1 or 1.75 to 1 or
Compared to 90% (relative
psi; 3.0 to 1 @ 70% 57%
Gasoline to diesel)
3600 psi

Compressed Compressed
Physical State Liquid Liquid Liquid Liquid Liquid
Gas Gas or Liquid

CNG vehicles
Produces Zero regulated
Reduces can
Produces harmful E-85 vehicles emissions for M-85 vehicles
particulate demonstrate a
harmful emissions; can fuel cell- can
matter and reduction in
emissions; however, demonstrate a powered demonstrate a
global ozone-forming
however, diesel and 25% reduction vehicles, and 40% reduction
warming gas emissions (CO
Environmental gasoline and diesel vehicles in ozone- only NOx in ozone-
emissions and NOx)
Impacts gasoline are rapidly forming emissions forming
compared to compared to
of Burning Fuel vehicles are improving and emissions (CO possible for emissions (CO
conventional some
rapidly emissions are and NOx) internal and NOx)
diesel; conventional
improving and being reduced compared to combustion compared to
however, NOx fuels; however,
emissions are especially with reformulated engines reformulated
emissions may HC emissions
being reduced. after-treatment gasoline. operating on gasoline.
be increased. may be
devices. hydrogen.
increased.
Biodiesel is
domestically Hydrogen can
produced and help reduce
CNG is
Manufactured Manufactured has a fossil Ethanol is U.S. Methanol can
domestically
Energy using imported using imported energy ratio of produced dependence be domestically
produced. The
Security oil, which is oil, which is 3.3 to 1, which domestically on foreign oil produced from
United States
Impacts not an energy not an energy means that its and it is by being renewable
has vast natural
secure option. secure option. fossil energy renewable. produced by resources.
gas reserves.
inputs are renewable
similar to those resources.
of petroleum.
Fuel Available at all Available at Available in More than Most of the E- There are only Methanol
Availability fueling select fueling bulk from an 1,100 CNG 85 fueling a small remains a
stations. stations. increasing stations can be stations are number of qualified
number of found across located in the hydrogen alternative fuel
suppliers. the country. Midwest, but in stations across as defined by
There are 22 California has all, the country. EPAct, but it is

22
 the highest
states that have concentration
approximately Most are
some biodiesel of CNG
150 stations are available for not commonly
stations stations. Home
available in 23 private use used.
available to the fueling will be
states. only.
public. available in
2003.
Hoses and Special Special
seals may be lubricants may When lubricants must
affected with be required. hydrogen is be used as
High-pressure
higher-percent Practices are used in fuel directed by the
tanks require
Maintenance blends, very similar, if cell supplier and
periodic
Issues lubricity is not identical, to applications, M-85-
inspection and
improved over those for maintenance compatible
certification.
that of conventionally should be very replacement
conventional fueled minimal. parts must be
diesel fuel. operations. used.
Ethanol can Methanol can
form an form an
explosive vapor explosive vapor
Gasoline is a Diesel is a Less toxic and
in fuel tanks. In in fuel tanks. In
relatively safe relatively safe more Pressurized Hydrogen has
accidents; accidents;
Safety Issues fuel since fuel since biodegradable tanks have an excellent
however, however,
(Without people have people have than been designed industrial
ethanol is less methanol is
exception, all learned to use learned to use conventional to withstand safety record;
dangerous than less dangerous
alternative fuel it safely. it safely. fuel, can be severe impact, codes and
gasoline than gasoline
vehicles must Gasoline is not Diesel is not transported, high external standards for
because its low because its low
meet today's biodegradable biodegradable delivered, and temperatures, consumer
evaporation evaporation
OEM Safety though, so a though, so a stored using and automotive vehicle use
speed keeps speed keeps
Standards) spill could spill could the same environmental are under
alcohol alcohol
pollute soil andpollute soil andequipment as exposure. development.
concentration concentration
water. water. for diesel fuel.
in the air low in the air low
and non and non
explosive. explosive.

23
References:

 www.alternetefuelsdatacenter.com

 I C Engines by Domkundvar and Domkundvar

 I C Engines by Mathur and Sharma

24