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014102-2 Vandenberghe, Childress, and Zhang Phys. Fluids 18, 014102 共2006兲
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014102-3 On unidirectional flight of a free flapping wing Phys. Fluids 18, 014102 共2006兲
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014102-4 Vandenberghe, Childress, and Zhang Phys. Fluids 18, 014102 共2006兲
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014102-5 On unidirectional flight of a free flapping wing Phys. Fluids 18, 014102 共2006兲
FIG. 7. The effect of wing flexibility 共crosses and triangles兲. A plastic wing
FIG. 6. Effect of the thickness of the wing. As the thickness is doubled, the
of the same size as the one shown in Fig. 1, rotates faster than the rigid wing
rotational speed decreases. The inverse slope 共the Strouhal number兲 of the
共circles, data from Fig. 2兲. The flapping amplitude used to calculate Re f is
fitted straight lines is about 0.26 for a wing with thickness of 1.6 mm and
the amplitude at the shaft 共crosses, a = 1.57 cm兲 or the measured amplitude
0.43 for thickness of 3.2 mm.
at the wing tips 共triangles兲. Due to the flexibility of the plastic wing, the
actual flapping amplitude is greater than the intended one near the wing tips,
yielding faster angular speeds.
stronger. The thickness ratio ␦ / c modifies the geometry at
the edge of the wing and thus modifies vortex generation.
For example, it has been observed that the lift of a 2D flap-
ping elliptic airfoil decreases as the thickness ratio increases
共i.e., when the wing becomes thicker兲.25 Thus, in our experi- sure that acts on the flapping wing is on the order of
ment, we expect to see reduced horizontal speed as the thick- p = CD共af兲2 / 2 at large Reynolds numbers, where af is
ness increases because of both of these effects. the maximal speed of the wing in the vertical direction. The
From Fig. 6, we see that if the thickness is doubled, from drag coefficient CD is here taken to be 1. At f = 6 Hz,
1.6 to 3.2 mm 共8.4% to 16.8% of the chord兲, the ratio be- a = 1.57 cm, the fluid pressure p is on the order of 44 Pa.
tween the flapping Reynolds number and the resulting rota- Now, the fluid force would give rise to 12pd4 / 8E␦3
tional Reynolds number—the Strouhal number—increases = 2.3 mm of deformation. Note that dynamical effects are not
from 0.26 to 0.43, showing that forward-flight speed de- included in this simple computation. In particular, the esti-
ceases as the wing thickness is increased. mate of the force does not take into account the unsteady
As we increase the wing thickness even further, the two nature of the flow. The drag coefficient adopted here is a
effects mentioned above become more pronounced. For a conservative estimate: for oscillating wing, CD could typi-
thickness of ␦ = 4.8 mm, we do not observe forward flight. In cally be of the order of 4 or 5 共Ref. 26兲.
this case, the thick wing only performs the prescribed verti- During forward flight, the fluid forces acting on the flex-
cal flapping motion but with very small horizontal excur- ible wing are much harder to estimate. We find that the total
sions, much less than the chord length. The resistance of the vertical displacement of the wing tips increased progres-
thick wing prevents the transition to forward flight. sively with increased flapping frequency. For instance, at
f = 6.0 Hz, the wing tip amplitude is about 34% higher than
C. The effects of flexibility the intended flapping amplitude. Figure 7 shows the response
In the biological world, bird wings and fish fins are built of the plastic wing to the flapping motion. There are two sets
from supporting bones and soft tissues. They are actively of data presented there. The crosses show the relation be-
driven by groups of muscles in order to achieve a prescribed tween flapping frequency and rotational speed, while the
motion. Due to their flexibility, however, fluid forces and the flapping amplitude is taken to be 1.57 cm, or 0.83 times the
inertia of the wing may either reduce or exaggerate the in- chord length, which is the intended flapping amplitude. This
tended flapping motion and thereby affect performance in set of data shows that the flexible wing rotates more quickly
forward flight. than the rigid one. The triangles in the same figure are drawn
So far, we have explored the effects of parameters such from the same measurement, but the amplitude used to com-
as wing thickness, flapping frequency, and amplitude. In pute the flapping Reynolds number Re f is the actual ampli-
these experiments, the wing remains rigid. The fluid forces tude measured near the wing tips at each frequency. For this
are not strong enough to produce significant deformation to flapping amplitude, the wing rotation is reduced. We believe
the wing. To study the dynamics of a flexible wing within that the discrepancy between the flexible and the solid wing
our current setup, we use a flexible, plastic 共acrylonitrile would become smaller if the flapping amplitude were mea-
butadiene styrene兲 wing to replace the original rigid one sured between the shaft and the wing tip.
共stainless steel兲. It has the same thickness 共␦ = 0.16 cm兲, Under the same driving, we observe that the rotational
chord 共c = 1.9 cm兲, and length 共2d = 25.7 cm兲, but the speed for a flexible wing increases relative to a rigid wing.
Young’s modulus E is much lower than that of stainless The tip of the wing moves further due to its flexibility and
steels, around 1.9 GPa. The fluid force due to flapping is now the imposed fluid forces. The increased flapping amplitude
strong enough to bend the wing. We estimate that the pres- yields higher speed.
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014102-6 Vandenberghe, Childress, and Zhang Phys. Fluids 18, 014102 共2006兲
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014102-7 On unidirectional flight of a free flapping wing Phys. Fluids 18, 014102 共2006兲
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014102-8 Vandenberghe, Childress, and Zhang Phys. Fluids 18, 014102 共2006兲
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