7 TEACHING PHYSICAL EDUCATION

Bab 14 Gaya Discovery divergen --- H

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Production is not requested, the learners will produce a

response that is exactly, or closely aligned with, memory. If
learners are not engaged in divergent solutions, the pause
point is not reached, and learners do not have an opppotunity
to cross the discovery threshold. Although a few children in
each class may produce unique responses, the majority of
learners will play it safe, they will conserve their cognitive
energies and rely on what they can quickly recall. Notice that
although divergent responses will come from the class as a
group, each learner is not engaged in producing divergent
designs within the task parameter.
Design a sequence including….
Create a twist-shaped balance movement.
Design your own game. (This implies one game.)
Explore this concept…. (The learners could stop after one
“exploration.”)
The non-examples in both sets above represent the
Practice style---they trigger divergent memory to seek a
response. The intent of the Divergent Discovery style is to
engage the learner in divergent discovery (eliciting more than
one response) within a specific cognitive operation.

When identifying tasks in Divergent Discovery :

1. Indicate the cognitive operation---avoid ambiguous words
that permit learners to choose the cognitive focus (either
reproduction or produc-tion).
2. Indicate the subject matter parameters so the
developmental focus and intent are clear---avoid large
question/situation (design a game; take time now to explore
the concept, try some movements).
3. Indicate a specific quantity that seeks divergent
responses ---- avoid using a in the initial question/situation.

Each learner experiences the following in Divergent

Discovery episodes. He/she :
1. Cognitively produces responses beyond the known
2. Experiences divergent production within the same
question/situation
3. Assesses his/her responses according to the task
parameters
4. When appropriate, examines the responses using the P-F-
D process
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The P-F-D Process

The Treatment of Solutions
The essence of this teaching-learning behavior is to experience
the discov-ery of multiple solutions; however, at times there is
a need to reduce by
selecting certain responses and discarding others to reach a
specific meaning or closure in the subject matter.
In physical education, the treatment of discovered
responses or solutions is guided by subject matter objectives.
Are the discovered responses leading to a performance or a
routine? Are the multiple responses to be cat egorized or
clustered according to variables or principles in movement? Are
the responses to be examined such that the learners can
discover which responses support a specific relationship or
connection? Do all or some of the discovered responses
illustrate or conform to specifi standards of an activity or
competitive event?
There can be several stages (levels) of the reducation
process. The initial question/solution seeks responses that are
free of restrictions (other than the parameters of the task).
These responses represent the possible level (aprocudere
known as brainstorming). Learners cognitively expore the
subject matter asking what designs are possible in this task?
Their role in this style is to go beyond the known, beyond
designs they have seen, and discover new boundaries (Figure
14.5).

Figure 14.5. P (possible solutions)

Theoretically all the possible responses could be applicable;

however, for many tasks, the subject matter calls for a
reducation process. Once the possible ideas have been
produced, the process of reducing or filtering can begin. In this
next stage (Feasible level) the possible ideas are examined
using a specific criterion (in the initial experiences of this
behavior, the teacher selescts this criterion). The criterion
serves as the standard by which the responses are
measured−accepted or rejected; included or discarded. This
reducation process by criteria is a critical learning experience
9 TEACHING PHYSICAL EDUCATION

in that it teaches learners the importance of establishing

criteria when selecting or rejecting ideas. Students learn that
the criterion determines the selection process. When the
possible responses are evaluated according to different criteria,
students can see differences in the final results. This
convergent process is not “pick the one you like” or” now, do
whatever you want.”7
The process of selecting is the result of an examination
process−a reduction process by criterion. This second level
reduces the possible responses to a feasible level (Figure 14.6).
Figure 14.6. F (feasible solutions)

This step of going from the possible to the feasible is called

the “reduction” or filtering. It can be represented schematically
as follows:
The process of reduction according to a criterion leads to a
rational

Possible criterion P
Feasiblility criterion F

Selection of feasible designs from the possible ones presentes.

The next step involves further selection−a reducation from
the feasible to the desirable level by applying another criterion.
Each of the feasible designs are examined against specific
criteria to determine which one or ones are desirable (Figure
14.7).

Figure 14.7. D (desirable solutions)

7
The term “convergent” in this case refers to cognitive process of convergence, which is
differenft from the cognitive expectations/process in the Convergent style.
10 TEACHING PHYSICAL EDUCATION

Schematically, the reduction process now looks like this :

P
Feasiblility criterion F
Desirablitiy criterion D
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This process ensured two factors: a variety of designs were

presented and examined and the designs finally selected for
use were the best in terms of the two indicated criteria.
Solutions to other issues (economic, social, physical, or
moral) can be treated in the same manner. Possible solutions
are offered first. The a reasibility criterion for reduction is
established. Each idea is examined against this criterion and
the non-feasible solutions are eliminated. The P-F-D process
leads to a rational selection of “best” solutions and-because
agreed-on criteria are used-reduces the potential for emotional
or competitive reactions when selecting ideas.

Using the P-F-D in the Classroom

When using the reduction process, it is important to maintain
the theoretical intent of this behavior-divergent discovery. The
criteria must not be provided until after the learners have
produced their answers will be reduced, they will resist
divergent thinking. Engagement in the question from the
desirable level bypasses the divergent path, and moves the
learners to think in a convergent path, thus aborting the
intended objective of this behavior. Therefore, to develop the
discovery divergent process, it is imperative to initially confort
questions without conditional factors. Only after learners have
produced a set of possible ideas should the teacher provide the
criteria for selecting the feasible ideas. The verbal behavior
could be: “Using the criterion of X, which of these possible
solutions are feasible?” Ascertain that the criterion applies-that
it will, indeed, reduce the possible to the feasible. Then
establish the desirable criterion and ascertain that it applies. In
some content, personal opinion can serve as the criterion for
this last reducation process. When this occurs, divergence will
occur as each student selects his/her desirable solution. This
process reinforces the value that even though some issues
have desirable solutions, it is important to examine all
possibilities. By scrutinizing all suggested possibilities withim
the content against criteria, learners develop patience and
tolerance in dealing with other people’s ideas.8

Divergent Discovery and the

Reproduction Styles-Episodic Teaching
The Divergent Discovery style embodies moments of
inspiration, creation, production; it does not represent the
practice time needed to refine, apply, or perfect the

8
Refer to Chapter 18 for additional information on designing subject matter.
12 TEACHING PHYSICAL EDUCATION

performance of the discovered ideas. Applying or replicating

the

discovered ideas shifts the focus of the teaching-learning

episode to the reproduction side of the Spectrum. Dancers,
gymnasts, ice skaters, etc., who design novel routines spend
countless hours in the reproduction Styles (B, E, D, and A)
refining the movements for precision performances of the
unique routine that was designes in Divergent Discovery.
There is a complimentary relationship, not an adversial one,
between the discovery styles and the reproduction styles. Both
are necessary in the educational process.

Verbal Behavior
Feedback in this style requires appropriate verbal behavior that
encourages and supports the divergent discovery process.
Analysis of verbal behavior used in the classroom shows that
the following phrases frequently precede many problem
designs in physical education:
• Can you ….?
• How many ways can you ….?
• Produce all the different ways ….
• Okay, but what else …
• You can do better than that.
• I like that one, that’s a terrific design ….
• Hold it everyone! Let’s all look at Jane’s solution.

These phrases deliver implications that hinder the

divergent discovery process. The first three comments affect
the number of responses.
• “Can you…? Givers learners permission to say, “No, I
cannot!” It permits learners to stop without getting
cognitively engaged.
• “How many ways can you ….?” Can also limit production
and give permission to stop after producing only a single
response. One may be all the learner believes he/she can
produce, and the teacher’s verbal behavior has
legitimized this feeling. The issue of magnitude of
responses also applies to this and the next phrase.
• “Produce all the different ways …” suggests that learners
are to produce all conceivable ways. For many learners,
regardless of age, the implications of this phrase are
cognitively inhibiting; learners are so overwhelmed
thinking how many is all? that they freeze and can’t
produce ideas… Affective discomfort results in cognitive
inhibition. This inappropriate verbal behavior by the
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teacher creates an affective discomfort that leads to

cognitive inhibition which, in turn, leads to the learner’s
stating “I can’t!” or to the termination of responses.
14 TEACHING PHYSICAL EDUCATION

Alternative Verbal Behavior “Design three possible

ways to …” First, this verbal behavior eliminates the potential
hazard of the word can. Second, it eliminates the pronoun you.
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The burden is off the individual. The focus is on the divergent
cognitive production−the possible designs. Third, the
introduction of a limited number of solutions creates a
manageable condition for the learner. Seeking three or four
initial solutions feels manageable. When the solutions are
produced. The teacher must display an attitude of neutral
acceptance. This will indicate to learners that all their
responses were correct. This initial sense of acceptance creates
a reality of inclusion of one’s cognitive production. When the
learner is asked to produce three more solutions, there will be
less hesitation; the learner will be motivated to continue and to
produce even more.
The next three verbal comments judge the responses.
• “Okay, but what else ….” And “You can do better than
that” are phrases that reject responses. These phrases
tell learners that their solutions are not really valued by
the teacher. It may also indicate to the learner that the
teacher has particular solutions in mind and therefore
does not accept the learner’s solutions. This kind of
climate is not only contrary to the process and spirit of
Devergent Discovery, it will abort the entire process.
Learners will stop their involvement in divergent
production.
• “I like that one, that’s a terrific design….” since it is
difficult to top a terrific response, this feedback stops
production. It also dismisses previous responses,
establishes the teacher as the source of feedback,
suggests that there is a correct response, implies
completion of the task, and it invalidates the objectives
of this behavior.

Alternative Verbal Behavior Verbal behavior that

encourages the pro-cess of divergence and multiple solutions:
“Yes, now produce another pos-ible response. You are doing
great at producing divergent responses.”
• “Hold it everyone! Let’s all look at Connie’s solution.
“When the demonstration is over, one often hears,
“Excellent, Connie!” This seemingly positive comment
erroneously establishes a standard for the class to aspire
to. Many teachers believe this behavior illustrates a good
solution and motivates the class, but it usually has the
opposite effect. This singling out of a solution tells the
learners what the teacher prefers. In this style, the
teacher’s preferences should not be aborted. Usually,
9
Refer to Chapter 5 for a review of cognition.
15 TEACHING PHYSICAL EDUCATION

after such a phrase, the learners will narrow their

responses to conform to the demonstrated and rewarded
solutions; eventually they will abandon divergent
production.