2
Examination of the Visible Mucous Membrane
Meticulous examination of visible mucous membrane may provide useful clinical
information about the sate of health of animal. Inspection should be made in day light. Artificial
light may stand in the way of getting actual coloration in very many cases. A faint yellow
discoloration may mislead the clinician when the mucous membrane is viewed through any oil
lamp. Mucous membrane may be viewed in the following parts.
• Conjunctival mucous membrane in all species of animals.
• Buccal mucous membrane in all species of animals.
• Vulvar mucous membrane in all female species of animals.
• Anal mucous membrane in all species of animals.
• Prepusal mucous membrane in all species of animals.
• Mucous membrane of third eyelid (membrane nictitan) of horse and dog.
• Ventral surface of tongue of cattle, buffalo, horse, sheep, goat, pig, dog and cat.
• Hard palate in cattle and buffalo
• Nasal mucous membrane in horse
Examination of conjunctival mucous membrane
The conjunctiva can be divided into two parts viz. bulbar conjunctiva and palpebral
conjunctiva. The bulbar conjunctiva denotes the part that covers the anterior aspect of the eye
globe extending upon corneal limbus. The Palperal conjunctiva denotes the part which lines the
inner surface of eyelids and both surfaces of the third eyelids.
Palpebral conjunctiva can be inspected by the following sequences:
i. Close the upper eyelid with the mid digital pressure of left thumb initially.
ii. Then push back the eyeball into the orbit with the same left thumb.
iii. Finally, Evert the lower eyelid by pulling it down the pressure of the right thumb and
index finger.
The third eyelid of the horse can be seen by tapping under the jaw with the help if the fingers
or else it can be inspected by laying the forefinger and thumb along the upper eyelid and then
driving them wide apart to expose the membrane nictitians. Conjunctival mucous membrane of
both the eyes should be examined to delineate the eye problem as a local or general one.
Animals Normal colour of conjunctival mucous
membrane
Horse Pale roseate
Cattle, Buffalo, Sheep and Pale Pink
goat
Pig Reddish tinged
Dog Roseate
Cat Pale
It is advisable to note the changes of the mucous membrane rather than the changes in the
skin. The common changes can be described as their appearance as:
Pale or Anemic or Paleness or Palidity or pallor
The conjunctiva appears lighter in colour. These changes indicate that there is acute or
chronic blood loss. Extreme paleness of mucous membrane may look like white blotting paper or
a piece of white porcelain. A pale blenched mucous membrane may ensue due to hemorrhagic
shock.
Congested or Injected
Conclusion: Thus we were acquainted with the knowledge about the method of examination of
visible mucous membrane in animals and the colour of mucous membrane in different pathologic
condition.
If cooperative owner, the true history is deposited to the doctor which will help in disease
diagnosis.
Clinician should make notes on the paper to review the entire episode which you consider
abnormal.
In majority of cases, the history procures is accurate to a great extent. But still history may
be colored by the personal conception of a client. It is logical to verify validity of history
and to evaluate or supplement it through detailed clinical examination of the patient.
Incorrect history is not s\consistent with clinical observation.
The history enumerates not only the key of accurate diagnosis but also foretell about the
probabilities of a disease.
History provides background information on the nature of disease and the nature of the
environment.
To obtain detail, one may ask questions to the owner, attendant, milker or allow that
person to relate his own account depending on circumstances and the value of information
provided.
Very valuable information may be obtained from hospital record of a patient who is under
treatment in the same hospital. Such records unfold much information which is likely to be
useful adjunct for diagnosis.
Conclusion: Thus we were able to know about the method of history taking and its types.
Conclusion: Thus we were able to know the temperature taking methods and the normal
temperature of common farm animals.
Suraj subedi
Normal pulse rate in animals
Animal Pulse rate / minute
Horse, donkey, asses 33 – 41
Cattle, buffalo 42 – 60
Goat, sheep 60 – 70
Dog (large) 70 – 90
Dog (small) 90 – 120
Pig (adult) 60 – 90
Rhythm
It denotes regularity of successive pulse waves within a defined time period. In some occasion
interval between pulses may vary.
a. Irregular Pulse: Interval between pulses varies. Also called arrhythmia. It may develop
under conditions: Sinus arrhythmia, Atrial Fibrillation, Toxemia, Myocarditis, Febrile
diseases
b. Intermittent pulse: Pulse beat is absent as a regular sequence or at irregular intervals
known as regularly intermittent of irregularly intermittent pulse respectively.
It can be observed under following conditions like etopic beat, partial heart block, sino
atrial block, sinus arrest, focal myocarditis, atrial flutter etc.
Volume
It is the amplitude or degree of expansion of atrial wall that occurs during the transmission of
pulse wave.
a. High volume Pulse: Observed in hyperkinetic circulating disease following specific
diseases like aortic incompetence, fever, severe anaemia, liver cirrhosis etc.
b. Low volume pulse: Observed in loss of body fluid, loss of plasma, loss of blood, aortic
stenosis, mitral stenosis, Peripheral circulatory failure etc.
Character or Quality of Pulse
1. Frequent pulse: No. of beats per minute exceeds the normal range.
2. Infrequent Pulse: No. of beats below the normal range. Generally seen in disease of CNS.
3. Slow Pulse (Sluggish Pulse): Each beat takes more time than the normal. Pulse duration is
more.
4. Quick Pulse (Skipping Pulse): Each beat occupies less time than the normal. E.g.
Inflammatory disease of CNS
5. Large Pulse (Full Pulse): In each pulse, there is extensive distension of the arterial wall.
e.g. Pulmonary congestion
6. Small Pulse (Empty Pulse): Artery poorly distended and remains empty. E.g. Myocardial
asthenia
7. Hard Pulse: Wall of artery very rigid and pulse cannot be obliterated with digital pressure.
e.g. impairment of vascular tone
8. Soft Pulse: Pulse is poorly developed. Pulse wave can be compressed fairly easily. E.g.
Toxemia, Septicaemia, thinning of pulse etc.
Suraj subedi
9. Strong bonding Pulse: Artery much distended. Amplitude of Pulse wave is very high and
the pulse wave cannot be resisted with digital pressure. e.g. Hypertension, increased stroke
volume of the heart, hypertrophy of the myocardium, laminitis is horse and chronic
interstitial nephritis.
10. Soft Small Pulse: Pulse weak and infrequent. Pulse cannot be obliterate very easily. E.g.
myocardial asthenia
11. Wiry Pulse: Pulse brief, small and hard in nature. E.g. Cerebral hemorrhage, endocarditis,
pleurisy, acute peritonitis. Outcome of this is very bad indicates approaching death.
12. Thready Pulse: Pulse weak, small and prolonged. Wave can be prevented by digital
pressure. This may lead to stage where the pulse is considered as running down pulse.
This is a very grave condition leading to fatality. Temperature may drop down to a
critically low level along with this pulse.
13. Water hammer or Corrigan’s or collapsing pulse: Rapid rise of pulse wave with high
volume until artery is over filled up, followed by an equally sudden sharp collapse of the
arterial wall. e.g. Aortic incompetence, complete heart block, aortic valve defect, severe
annemiaetc.
14. Alternate pulse: High and low volume pulse follows each other equidistantly and
alternately. e.g. Acute left ventricular failure
15. Pulsus myurus: Group of continuous weak waves of pulse. E.g. Cardiac damage
16. Dicrotic-pulse: Immediately after the main pulse wave a second wave follows. E.g. Acute
Fever
17. Pulsus paradoxus: Volume of pulse decreases during deep inspiration and increases during
deep expiration e.g. Pericardial effusion, traumatic pericarditis, obstruction
18. Pulsus bisferiens: A single pulse beat is split into 2 waves, e.g. Combine aortic stenosis,
aortic incompetence
19. Pulsus bigeminus: Two pulse beat followed by a gap e.g. Ectopic beat of ventricle, A-V
block
Jugular Pulse: Pulsation of the jugular vein is known as jugular pulse.
a. Positive jugular pulse: It indicates a true pulse wave running from the angle of mandible to
the shoulder region. This results due to traumatic pericarditis, incompetence of tricuspid
vulve. There is regurgitation of blood in the jugular vein. This positive pulse is often
accompanied by brisket edema. N
b. Negative jugular pulse: It is seen in lean cattle when the blood is unable to enter the right
atrium and there is eventual backflow in the jugular vein. This may be observed in
tricuspid valve stenosis.
In some lean animals, pulse wave of underlying carotid artery may produce
movement in the jugular vein resembling positive jugular pulse and is known as false
jugular pulse. A true jugular pulse can be obliterated by pressure while a false jugular
pulse cannot be obliterated.
Conclusion: Thus we were able to know the pulse taking method, site of pulse in different
animals along with the different types of pulse seen in various abnormal condition.
Suraj subedi