One-Way ANOVA
2 November 2017
@DR Palti Marulitua Sitorus
Business Statistics, A First Course (4e) © 2006 Prentice-Hall, Inc. Chap 10-1
Tujuan Kuliah
Pada Bab ini, Anda akan mempelajari prosedur uji
hipotesis untuk menguji:
▪ Rata2 dari dua populasi bebas
▪ Rata2 dari dua populasi berhubungan
▪ Proporsi dari dua populasi bebas
▪ Varians dari dua populasi bebas
▪ Rata2 lebih dari dua populasi
Business Statistics, A First Course (4e) © 2006 Prentice-Hall, Inc. Chap 10-2
Overview
One-Way Analysis
Two-Sample Tests
of Variance (ANOVA)
Rata2 populasi,
Sampel bebas F-test
Rata2,
Sampel berhubungan
Tukey-Kramer
test
Proporsi Populasi
Varians Populasi
Business Statistics, A First Course (4e) © 2006 Prentice-Hall, Inc. Chap 10-3
Two-Sample Tests
Two-Sample Tests
Rata2
populasi, Rata2, Proporsi Varians
Sampel Sampel Populasi Populasi
berhubungan
bebas
Examples:
Rata2 1 vs. Rata2 Populasi sama Proporsi 1 vs. Varians 1 vs.
bebas 2 sblmnya vs. Proporsi 2 Varians 2
setelah treatment
Business Statistics, A First Course (4e) © 2006 Prentice-Hall, Inc. Chap 10-4
Perbedaan antara Dua Rata2
X1 – X2
σ1 and σ2 tidak diketahui,
tidak diasumsikan sama
Business Statistics, A First Course (4e) © 2006 Prentice-Hall, Inc. Chap 10-5
Sampel Bebas
Business Statistics, A First Course (4e) © 2006 Prentice-Hall, Inc. Chap 10-6
Selisih antara Dua Rata2
Rata2 Populasi,
sampel bebas
*
σ1 and σ2 diketahui Gunakan uji statistik Z
Gunakan Sp untuk memperkirakan
σ1 and σ2 tidak diketahui, σ, gunakan t test statistic and
asumsikan sama
pooled standard deviation
Business Statistics, A First Course (4e) © 2006 Prentice-Hall, Inc. Chap 10-8
σ1 dan σ2 Diketahui
(lanjutan)
Rata2 Populasi,
sampel bebas Uji statistik untuk
μ1 – μ2 adalah:
σ1 and σ2 diketahui * Z
X X μ μ
1 2 1 2
2 2
σ1 and σ2 tidak diketahui, σ σ2
asumsikan sama
1
n1 n2
σ1 and σ2 tidak diketahui,
tidak diasumsikan sama
Business Statistics, A First Course (4e) © 2006 Prentice-Hall, Inc. Chap 10-10
Uji Hipotesis untuk Rata2 Dua
Populasi
Rata2 Dua Populasi, Sampel Bebas
Business Statistics, A First Course (4e) © 2006 Prentice-Hall, Inc. Chap 10-11
Uji Hipotesis untuk μ1 – μ2
Rata2 Dua Populasi, Sampel Bebas
Lower-tail test: Upper-tail test: Two-tail test:
H0: μ1 – μ2 0 H0: μ1 – μ2 ≤ 0 H0: μ1 – μ2 = 0
H1: μ1 – μ2 < 0 H1: μ1 – μ2 > 0 H1: μ1 – μ2 ≠ 0
a a a/2 a/2
Business Statistics, A First Course (4e) © 2006 Prentice-Hall, Inc. Chap 10-12
▪ Alat pendeteksi harga U-Scan di klaim lebih
cepat daripada alat deteksi harga standar.
Business Statistics, A First Course (4e) © 2006 Prentice-Hall, Inc. Chap 10-13
Contoh
Business Statistics, A First Course (4e) © 2006 Prentice-Hall, Inc. Chap 10-14
Interval Kepercayaan,
σ1 dan σ2 diketahui
Rata2 Populasi,
sampel bebas Interval kepercayaan untuk
μ1 – μ2 adalah:
σ1 and σ2 diketahui *
2 2
σ σ2
X1 X2 Z 1
σ1 and σ2 tidak diketahui, n1 n2
asumsikan sama
Business Statistics, A First Course (4e) © 2006 Prentice-Hall, Inc. Chap 10-15
σ1 and σ2 Unknown,
Assumed Equal
Business Statistics, A First Course (4e) © 2006 Prentice-Hall, Inc. Chap 10-16
σ1 and σ2 Unknown,
Assumed Equal
(continued)
Population means,
independent
samples
The pooled variance is
σ1 and σ2 known
n1 1S
2
n2 1S2
2
σ1 and σ2 unknown,
assumed equal
* S 2
p 1
(n1 1) (n2 1)
σ1 and σ2 unknown,
not assumed equal
Business Statistics, A First Course (4e) © 2006 Prentice-Hall, Inc. Chap 10-18
σ1 and σ2 Unknown,
Assumed Equal
(continued)
samples
X X 2 μ1 μ2
t
1
σ1 and σ2 known
1 1
S
2
p
σ1 and σ2 unknown,
assumed equal
* n1 n2
Where t has (n1 + n2 – 2) d.f.,
and
σ1 and σ2 unknown, n1 1S1 n2 1S2
2 2
Business Statistics, A First Course (4e) © 2006 Prentice-Hall, Inc. Chap 10-19
Confidence Interval,
σ1 and σ2 Unknown
Population means,
The confidence interval for
independent
samples μ1 – μ2 is:
σ1 and σ2 known
X X t
1 2 n1 n2 - 2
2
p
1 1
S
n1 n2
σ1 and σ2 unknown,
assumed equal
*
Where
σ1 and σ2 unknown, S 2
n1 1S1 n2 1S2
2 2
(n1 1) (n2 1)
p
not assumed equal
Business Statistics, A First Course (4e) © 2006 Prentice-Hall, Inc. Chap 10-20
Pooled-Variance t Test: Example
You are a financial analyst for a brokerage firm. Is there
a difference in dividend yield between stocks listed on the
NYSE & NASDAQ? You collect the following data:
NYSE NASDAQ
Number 21 25
Sample mean 3.27 2.53
Sample std dev 1.30 1.16
t
X 1
X 2 μ1 μ2
3.27 2.53 0 2.040
1 1 1 1
S
2
1.5021
21 25
p
n1 n2
n
S2 1
1S1
2
n 2 1S 2
2
21 11.302
25 11.162
1.5021
(n1 1) (n2 1) (21- 1) (25 1)
p
Business Statistics, A First Course (4e) © 2006 Prentice-Hall, Inc. Chap 10-22
Solution
Reject H0 Reject H0
H0: μ1 - μ2 = 0 i.e. (μ1 = μ2)
H1: μ1 - μ2 ≠ 0 i.e. (μ1 ≠ μ2)
a = 0.05 .025 .025
df = 21 + 25 - 2 = 44 -2.0154 0 2.0154 t
Critical Values: t = ± 2.0154
2.040
Test Statistic: Decision:
3.27 2.53
t 2.040 Reject H0 at a = 0.05
1 1
1.5021 Conclusion:
21 25 There is evidence of a
difference in means.
Business Statistics, A First Course (4e) © 2006 Prentice-Hall, Inc. Chap 10-23
σ1 and σ2 Unknown,
Not Assumed Equal
Business Statistics, A First Course (4e) © 2006 Prentice-Hall, Inc. Chap 10-24
σ1 and σ2 Unknown,
Not Assumed Equal
(continued)
Population means,
independent Forming the test statistic:
samples
▪ The population variances
are not assumed equal, so
σ1 and σ2 known include the two sample
variances in the computation
σ1 and σ2 unknown, of the t-test statistic
assumed equal
▪ the test statistic is a t value
σ1 and σ2 unknown,
not assumed equal
* (statistical software is generally
used to do the necessary
computations)
Business Statistics, A First Course (4e) © 2006 Prentice-Hall, Inc. Chap 10-25
σ1 and σ2 Unknown,
Not Assumed Equal
(continued)
Population means,
independent The test statistic for
samples
μ1 – μ2 is:
X X μ μ
σ1 and σ2 known
t
1 2 1 2
σ1 and σ2 unknown, 2 2
S S
assumed equal
1 2
n1 n2
σ1 and σ2 unknown,
not assumed equal
*
Business Statistics, A First Course (4e) © 2006 Prentice-Hall, Inc. Chap 10-26
Related Populations
Tests Means of 2 Related Populations
Related ▪ Paired or matched samples
samples ▪ Repeated measures (before/after)
▪ Use difference between paired values:
Di = X1i - X2i
▪ Eliminates Variation Among Subjects
▪ Assumptions:
▪ Both Populations Are Normally Distributed
▪ Or, if not Normal, use large samples
Business Statistics, A First Course (4e) © 2006 Prentice-Hall, Inc. Chap 10-27
Mean Difference, σD Known
The ith paired difference is Di , where
Related Di = X1i - X2i
samples
n
The point estimate for D i
the population mean D i 1
paired difference is D : n
Suppose the population
standard deviation of the
difference scores, σD, is known
n is the number of pairs in the paired sample
Business Statistics, A First Course (4e) © 2006 Prentice-Hall, Inc. Chap 10-28
Mean Difference, σD Known
(continued)
The test statistic for the mean
Paired difference is a Z value:
samples
D μD
Z
σD
n
Where
μD = hypothesized mean difference
σD = population standard dev. of differences
n = the sample size (number of pairs)
Business Statistics, A First Course (4e) © 2006 Prentice-Hall, Inc. Chap 10-29
Confidence Interval, σD Known
Business Statistics, A First Course (4e) © 2006 Prentice-Hall, Inc. Chap 10-30
Mean Difference, σD Unknown
If σD is unknown, we can estimate the
Related unknown population standard deviation
samples with a sample standard deviation:
n
The sample standard
deviation is i
(D D ) 2
SD i1
n 1
Business Statistics, A First Course (4e) © 2006 Prentice-Hall, Inc. Chap 10-31
Mean Difference, σD Unknown
(continued)
(D D)
i
2
where SD i1
n 1
Business Statistics, A First Course (4e) © 2006 Prentice-Hall, Inc. Chap 10-33
Hypothesis Testing for
Mean Difference, σD Unknown
Paired Samples
Lower-tail test: Upper-tail test: Two-tail test:
a a a/2 a/2
M.O. 4 0 - 4
n 1
-21
5.67
Business Statistics, A First Course (4e) © 2006 Prentice-Hall, Inc. Chap 10-35
Paired t Test: Solution
▪ Has the training made a difference in the number of
complaints (at the 0.01 level)?
Reject Reject
H0: μD = 0
H1: μD 0
a/2 a/2
a = .01 D = - 4.2 - 4.604 4.604
- 1.66
Critical Value = ± 4.604
d.f. = n - 1 = 4
Decision: Do not reject H0
(t stat is not in the reject region)
Test Statistic:
Conclusion: There is not a
D μD 4.2 0
t 1.66 significant change in the
SD / n 5.67/ 5 number of complaints.
Business Statistics, A First Course (4e) © 2006 Prentice-Hall, Inc. Chap 10-36
Two Population Proportions
Goal: test a hypothesis or form a
Population confidence interval for the difference
proportions between two population proportions,
π1 – π 2
Assumptions:
n1 π1 5 , n1(1- π1) 5
n2 π2 5 , n2(1- π2) 5
X1 X 2
p
n1 n2
where X1 and X2 are the numbers from
samples 1 and 2 with the characteristic of
interest
Business Statistics, A First Course (4e) © 2006 Prentice-Hall, Inc. Chap 10-38
Two Population Proportions
(continued)
Z
p1 p2 π1 π2
1 1
p (1 p)
n1 n2
X1 X2 X X
where p , p1 1 , p2 2
n1 n2 n1 n2
Business Statistics, A First Course (4e) © 2006 Prentice-Hall, Inc. Chap 10-39
Confidence Interval for
Two Population Proportions
p1(1 p1 ) p 2 (1 p 2 )
p1 p2 Z
n1 n2
Business Statistics, A First Course (4e) © 2006 Prentice-Hall, Inc. Chap 10-40
Hypothesis Tests for
Two Population Proportions
Population proportions
Business Statistics, A First Course (4e) © 2006 Prentice-Hall, Inc. Chap 10-41
Hypothesis Tests for
Two Population Proportions
(continued)
Population proportions
Lower-tail test: Upper-tail test: Two-tail test:
H0: π1 – π2 0 H0: π1 – π2 ≤ 0 H0: π1 – π2 = 0
H1: π1 – π2 < 0 H1: π1 – π2 > 0 H1: π1 – π2 ≠ 0
a a a/2 a/2
Business Statistics, A First Course (4e) © 2006 Prentice-Hall, Inc. Chap 10-42
Example:
Two population Proportions
Is there a significant difference between the
proportion of men and the proportion of
women who will vote Yes on Proposition A?
Business Statistics, A First Course (4e) © 2006 Prentice-Hall, Inc. Chap 10-43
Example:
Two population Proportions
(continued)
Business Statistics, A First Course (4e) © 2006 Prentice-Hall, Inc. Chap 10-44
Example:
Two population Proportions
(continued)
Reject H0 Reject H0
Business Statistics, A First Course (4e) © 2006 Prentice-Hall, Inc. Chap 10-46
Hypothesis Tests for Variances
(continued)
F test statistic * S 2
2
S 22 = Variance of Sample 2
n2 - 1 = denominator degrees of freedom
Business Statistics, A First Course (4e) © 2006 Prentice-Hall, Inc. Chap 10-47
The F Distribution
Business Statistics, A First Course (4e) © 2006 Prentice-Hall, Inc. Chap 10-48
Finding the Rejection Region
H0: σ12 σ22
H0: σ12 = σ22
a H1: σ12 < σ22
H1: σ12 ≠ σ22
a/2
0 F a/2
Reject Do not
H0 FL reject H0
Reject H0 if F < FL 0 F
Reject Do not Reject H0
H0 FL reject H0 FU
H0: σ1 ≤ σ2 2 2
0 F
Reject Do not Reject H0
H0 FL reject H0 FU
To find the critical F values:
1
1. Find FU from the F table 2. Find FL using the formula: FL
FU*
for n1 – 1 numerator and
n2 – 1 denominator Where FU* is from the F table
degrees of freedom with n2 – 1 numerator and n1 – 1
denominator degrees of freedom
(i.e., switch the d.f. from FU)
Business Statistics, A First Course (4e) © 2006 Prentice-Hall, Inc. Chap 10-50
F Test: An Example
Business Statistics, A First Course (4e) © 2006 Prentice-Hall, Inc. Chap 10-51
F Test: Example Solution
▪ Form the hypothesis test:
H0: σ21 – σ22 = 0 (there is no difference between variances)
H1: σ21 – σ22 ≠ 0 (there is a difference between variances)
0 F
Reject H0 Do not Reject H0
reject H0
▪ F = 1.256 is not in the rejection FL=0.43
FU=2.33
region, so we do not reject H0
Business Statistics, A First Course (4e) © 2006 Prentice-Hall, Inc. Chap 10-53
Two-Sample Tests in EXCEL
For independent samples:
▪ Independent sample Z test with variances known:
▪ Tools | data analysis | z-test: two sample for means
▪ Pooled variance t test:
▪ Tools | data analysis | t-test: two sample assuming equal variances
▪ Separate-variance t test:
▪ Tools | data analysis | t-test: two sample assuming unequal variances
For variances:
▪ F test for two variances:
▪ Tools | data analysis | F-test: two sample for variances
Business Statistics, A First Course (4e) © 2006 Prentice-Hall, Inc. Chap 10-54
One-Way Analysis of Variance
F-test Tukey-Kramer
test
Business Statistics, A First Course (4e) © 2006 Prentice-Hall, Inc. Chap 10-55
General ANOVA Setting
▪ Investigator controls one or more independent
variables
▪ Called factors (or treatment variables)
▪ Each factor contains two or more levels (or groups or
categories/classifications)
▪ Observe effects on the dependent variable
▪ Response to levels of independent variable
▪ Experimental design: the plan used to collect
the data
Business Statistics, A First Course (4e) © 2006 Prentice-Hall, Inc. Chap 10-56
One-Way Analysis of Variance
▪ Assumptions
▪ Populations are normally distributed
▪ Populations have equal variances
▪ Samples are randomly and independently drawn
Business Statistics, A First Course (4e) © 2006 Prentice-Hall, Inc. Chap 10-57
Hypotheses of One-Way ANOVA
▪ H0 : μ1 μ2 μ3 μc
▪ All population means are equal
▪ i.e., no treatment effect (no variation in means among
groups)
Business Statistics, A First Course (4e) © 2006 Prentice-Hall, Inc. Chap 10-58
One-Way ANOVA
H0 : μ1 μ2 μ3 μc
H1 : Not all μj are the same
μ1 μ2 μ3
Business Statistics, A First Course (4e) © 2006 Prentice-Hall, Inc. Chap 10-59
One-Way ANOVA
(continued)
H0 : μ1 μ2 μ3 μc
H1 : Not all μj are the same
At least one mean is different:
The Null Hypothesis is NOT true
(Treatment Effect is present)
or
μ1 μ2 μ3 μ1 μ2 μ3
Business Statistics, A First Course (4e) © 2006 Prentice-Hall, Inc. Chap 10-60
Partitioning the Variation
Business Statistics, A First Course (4e) © 2006 Prentice-Hall, Inc. Chap 10-61
Partitioning the Variation
(continued)
Business Statistics, A First Course (4e) © 2006 Prentice-Hall, Inc. Chap 10-62
Partition of Total Variation
Business Statistics, A First Course (4e) © 2006 Prentice-Hall, Inc. Chap 10-63
Total Sum of Squares
SST = SSA + SSW
c nj
SST ( Xij X) 2
Business Statistics, A First Course (4e) © 2006 Prentice-Hall, Inc. Chap 10-65
Among-Group Variation
SST = SSA + SSW
c
SSA n j ( X j X) 2
j1
Where:
SSA = Sum of squares among groups
c = number of groups
nj = sample size from group j
Xj = sample mean from group j
X = grand mean (mean of all data values)
Business Statistics, A First Course (4e) © 2006 Prentice-Hall, Inc. Chap 10-66
Among-Group Variation
(continued)
c
SSA n j ( X j X) 2
j1
SSA
Variation Due to
MSA
Differences Among Groups
c 1
Mean Square Among =
SSA/degrees of freedom
i j
Business Statistics, A First Course (4e) © 2006 Prentice-Hall, Inc. Chap 10-67
Among-Group Variation
(continued)
Response, X
X3
X2 X
X1
j1 i1
Where:
SSW = Sum of squares within groups
c = number of groups
nj = sample size from group j
Xj = sample mean from group j
Xij = ith observation in group j
Business Statistics, A First Course (4e) © 2006 Prentice-Hall, Inc. Chap 10-69
Within-Group Variation
(continued)
c nj
SSW ( Xij X j )2
j1 i1
SSW
Summing the variation
MSW
within each group and then
adding over all groups nc
Mean Square Within =
SSW/degrees of freedom
μj
Business Statistics, A First Course (4e) © 2006 Prentice-Hall, Inc. Chap 10-70
Within-Group Variation
(continued)
Response, X
X3
X2
X1
SSA
MSA
c 1
SSW
MSW
nc
SST
MST
n 1
Business Statistics, A First Course (4e) © 2006 Prentice-Hall, Inc. Chap 10-72
One-Way ANOVA Table
Source of SS df MS F ratio
Variation (Variance)
Among SSA MSA
SSA c-1 MSA = F=
Groups c-1 MSW
Within SSW
SSW n-c MSW =
Groups n-c
SST =
Total n-1
SSA+SSW
c = number of groups
n = sum of the sample sizes from all groups
df = degrees of freedom
Business Statistics, A First Course (4e) © 2006 Prentice-Hall, Inc. Chap 10-73
One-Way ANOVA
F Test Statistic
H0: μ1= μ2 = … = μc
H1: At least two population means are different
Business Statistics, A First Course (4e) © 2006 Prentice-Hall, Inc. Chap 10-74
Interpreting One-Way ANOVA
F Statistic
▪ The F statistic is the ratio of the among
estimate of variance and the within estimate
of variance
▪ The ratio must always be positive
▪ df1 = c -1 will typically be small
▪ df2 = n - c will typically be large
Decision Rule:
▪ Reject H0 if F > FU, a = .05
otherwise do not
reject H0 0 Do not Reject H0
reject H0
FU
Business Statistics, A First Course (4e) © 2006 Prentice-Hall, Inc. Chap 10-75
One-Way ANOVA
F Test Example
Business Statistics, A First Course (4e) © 2006 Prentice-Hall, Inc. Chap 10-76
One-Way ANOVA Example:
Scatter Diagram
Distance
Club 1 Club 2 Club 3 270
254 234 200 260 •
263 218 222 ••
241 235 197
250 X1
240 •
237 227 206 • ••
251 216 204 230
• X
220
••
X2 •
210
x1 249.2 x 2 226.0 x 3 205.8 200
•• X3
•
•
x 227.0 190
1 2 3
Business Statistics, A First Course (4e) © 2006 Prentice-Hall, Inc. Club Chap 10-77
One-Way ANOVA Example
Computations
Club 1 Club 2 Club 3 X1 = 249.2 n1 = 5
254 234 200 X2 = 226.0 n2 = 5
263 218 222
X3 = 205.8 n3 = 5
241 235 197
237 227 206 n = 15
X = 227.0
251 216 204 c=3
SSA = 5 (249.2 – 227)2 + 5 (226 – 227)2 + 5 (205.8 – 227)2 = 4716.4
SSW = (254 – 249.2)2 + (263 – 249.2)2 +…+ (204 – 205.8)2 = 1119.6
Critical Decision:
Value:
Reject H0 at a = 0.05
FU = 3.89
a = .05 Conclusion:
There is evidence that
0 Do not Reject H0 at least one μj differs
reject H0 F = 25.275
FU = 3.89 from the rest
Business Statistics, A First Course (4e) © 2006 Prentice-Hall, Inc. Chap 10-79
One-Way ANOVA
Excel Output
EXCEL: tools | data analysis | ANOVA: single factor
SUMMARY
Groups Count Sum Average Variance
Club 1 5 1246 249.2 108.2
Club 2 5 1130 226 77.5
Club 3 5 1029 205.8 94.2
ANOVA
Source of
SS df MS F P-value F crit
Variation
Between
4716.4 2 2358.2 25.275 4.99E-05 3.89
Groups
Within
1119.6 12 93.3
Groups
Total 5836.0 14
Business Statistics, A First Course (4e) © 2006 Prentice-Hall, Inc. Chap 10-80
The Tukey-Kramer Procedure
μ1= μ2 μ3 x
Business Statistics, A First Course (4e) © 2006 Prentice-Hall, Inc. Chap 10-81
Tukey-Kramer Critical Range
MSW 1 1
Critical Range QU
2 n j n j'
where:
QU = Value from Studentized Range Distribution
with c and n - c degrees of freedom for
the desired level of a (see appendix E.8 table)
MSW = Mean Square Within
nj and nj’ = Sample sizes from groups j and j’
Business Statistics, A First Course (4e) © 2006 Prentice-Hall, Inc. Chap 10-82
The Tukey-Kramer Procedure:
Example
1. Compute absolute mean
Club 1 Club 2 Club 3 differences:
254 234 200
263 218 222 x1 x 2 249.2 226.0 23.2
241 235 197 x1 x 3 249.2 205.8 43.4
237 227 206
251 216 204 x 2 x 3 226.0 205.8 20.2
QU 3.77
Business Statistics, A First Course (4e) © 2006 Prentice-Hall, Inc. Chap 10-83
The Tukey-Kramer Procedure:
Example
(continued)
3. Compute Critical Range:
MSW 1 1 93.3 1 1
Critical Range QU 3.77 16.285
2 n j n j' 2 5 5
4. Compare:
5. All of the absolute mean differences x1 x 2 23.2
are greater than critical range.
Therefore there is a significant x1 x 3 43.4
difference between each pair of
means at 5% level of significance. x 2 x 3 20.2
Thus, with 95% confidence we can conclude
that the mean distance for club 1 is greater
than club 2 and 3, and club 2 is greater than
club 3.
Business Statistics, A First Course (4e) © 2006 Prentice-Hall, Inc. Chap 10-84
Chapter Summary
▪ Compared two independent samples
▪ Performed Z test for the difference in two means
▪ Performed pooled variance t test for the difference in two
means
▪ Performed separate-variance t test for difference in two means
▪ Formed confidence intervals for the difference between two
means
▪ Compared two related samples (paired
samples)
▪ Performed paired sample Z and t tests for the mean difference
▪ Formed confidence intervals for the mean difference
Business Statistics, A First Course (4e) © 2006 Prentice-Hall, Inc. Chap 10-85
Chapter Summary
(continued)
▪ Compared two population proportions
▪ Formed confidence intervals for the difference between two population
proportions
▪ Performed Z-test for two population proportions
Business Statistics, A First Course (4e) © 2006 Prentice-Hall, Inc. Chap 10-86