CHAPTER-1

KARNATAKA POWER TRANSMISSION CORPORATION

LIMITED
1.1. About the Organisation

Karnataka Power Transmission Corporation Limited is a registered company under the companies act,
1956 was incorporated on 28-07-1999 and is a company wholly owned by the government of
Karnataka. KPTCL was formed on by Carving out the transmission and distribution functions of the
erstwhile Karnataka electricity board. KPTCL is headed by a Chairman and Managing Director at the
Corporate Office assisted by 4 functional directors. The board of KPTCL consists of a maximum of
12 directors.

Karnataka Power Transmission Corporation Limited is mainly vested with the

functions of transmission and distribution of power in the entire State of Karnataka. It
operates under a license issued by Karnataka Electricity Regulatory Commission. KPTCL
purchases power from Karnataka Power Corporation Limited, which generates and operates
major power generating projects in the state consisting of Hydel, Thermal and other source.
KPTCL purchases power from KPC at the rate fixed by state Government from time to time.
KPTCL also purchases power from IPP like Udupi Power Corporation limited and other

N.C.E Sources. KPTCL has 50% share of total power generated at NPCIL, Kaiga.

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1.2 KPTCL OrganisationChart

1.3 Statistics of KPTCL

Installed Capacity
KPC Hydro and Thermal 8842.00 MW

CGS(Karnataka Share) 3693.00 MW

NCE,IPPs and Others 12119.44 MW

Total Installed Capacity 24654.4 MW
No. of Consumers 2.318 Crs.

Length of Tr.Lines 45056.185 CKms

No. of Stations 1513

No. of DTCs 7,65,815

HT Lines (Length in CKMs) 327869.69

LT Lines (Length in CKMs) 541859.86

As on 31.03.2018
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1.4 Objectives of the organisation
1.Acquire, Establish, Construct and Operate Extra High Voltage, High Voltage, Line
and Associate SubStations:

To carry on the business of transmission, sale and supply electrical energy for which
purpose to acquire, establish, construct, take over erect, lay operate, run, manage, modernize
electrical transmission lines and / or network through extra high voltage, high voltage,
medium voltage and low voltage line and associate sub stations including distribution
centered, cables, wire accumulators plants, motor, meters apparatus computers and material
connected with Transmission, distribution, ancillary services, supply of electrical energy,
Telecommunicating and Tele meteringequipments.

To undertake, for and behalf of others the erection, operation maintenance

management of extra high voltage, high voltage, medium voltage, and low voltage lines and
associated sub stations, equipments, apparatus, cables andwires.

2.Purchase and Sale Of Electrical Energy and Co- Ordinate withCompanies

To carry on the business of importing, exporting wheeling system operation, trading

of power, including finalization of tariff, billing and collection thereof. To execute power
purchase agreements with generating companies, central and state generating stations,
regional electricity board, other states utilizes, companies and persons.

To execute agreements for sale of power to distribution companies and other persons
and to co-ordinate, aid and advise on the activities, of other companies and concern including
subsidiaries associate and affiliates engaged in generation, transmission, distribution, supply
and wheeling of electrical energy.

To schedule and dispatch generation of all units connected to the state power system
including the centrally owner generating stations, in respect of the share assigned to the state
and electricity purchased from the other states undertakings.

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 3.Plan, Investigate and Prepare Project Reports and Load Forecast And Finalistation
of Contact For Purchase of Power From New GeneratingPlants:

To Study, investigate collect information and data, review question, plan, research
design and prepare project reports, diagnose operational difficulties and modernize existing
EHV, HV, MV, LV line and substations.

To forecast load and plan generation in consultation with distribution companies if

any, and central generating stations to tender and finalize contracts for purchase of power
from new generation plants, including IPPs.

1.5 Mission of the organisation

The mission of Karnataka power Transmission Corporation limited (KPTCL) to
ensure reliable quality power to the customers at the competitive prices.

1. Encouraging best practices in transmission anddistribution.

2. Ensuring high ordering maintenance of its technicalfacilities.

3. Emphasizing the best standards in customersservice.

To be the best electricity utility in the country, the KPTCL pledges to optimize in
human and technical resources for the benefits of all customers.

1.6 Vision of the organisation

The vision of Karnataka power Transmission Corporation Limited (KPTCL) is to

ensure reliable quality power to the customers at the competitive prices.

The KPTCL is committed to achieve this vision through

1.To improve viability and customer standards in the past sector throughreforms
package.

2.To usher great transparency and accountability in the working of powerutilities.

3.Changing environment as part of globalmovement.

4.To gear itself to be market driven and customerfriendly.

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1.7 Functions of the organisation
Karnataka Power transmission Corporation Limited is mainly vested with the
functions of transmission of power in the entire at competitive rate by adopting best
technical, high order maintenance and best customer service to its customers. KPTCL
purchases power from Karnataka Power Corporation Limited (KPTCL) which generated and
operates major power generating projects of the state consisting of Hydel and Thermal an
other sources. KPTCL purchases power from Karnataka Power Corporation Limited
(KPTCL) at the rate fixed by the Government from time to time. The two power houses one
on the left bank of Tungabhadra board, which is represented by the state governments of
Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka and Government of India and 20% of the energy generated by
the above generating stations is the share by the above stations is the share of Karnataka
Power Transmission Corporation Limited. Of central allocation of power out of NTPC, NILL
and MAPP generating stations at Ramagundam, Neyveli, and Chennai respectively, the share
of KPTCL is 16%. Only one Rural Electric Co-operative Society viz., the Hukkeri Electric
Co- operative Society Limited, at Hukkeri is functioning in Karnataka (Hukkeri Taluk
Belgaum District) which purchases bulk power from KPTCL / VVNL and redistributes it to
the consumer within the Taluk.

1.8 Major achievements of KPTCL

 Dedication of improved power distribution network inBijapur.

 Inaugurations of multi circuit transmission lines from Khemar to Guruvaynakere

substation in Belthangdi taluk Dakshina Kannada district.

 Launching of E-tendering inKPTCL

 Inauguration of substation at Kanpoor and transmission from RTPS (Raichur power

station) toGulbarga.

 Highest ever-thermal generation of 10,292 milliunits.

 Highest wind generation 11.16-milliunit.

 Highest plant load factor of 90.39% (eligible for gold medal) at RTPS.

 Silver medal from central electricity authority for RTPS plant performance, reduction
in auxiliary and fuelconsumption.
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 CHAPTER-2

TRANSMISSION LINE

2.1 Introduction
Electrical power is the basic need for the economic development of any country. The
energy consumption is the main index for the overall development and growth of a country.
The process of modernization, increase in productivity in industry and agriculture and the
improvement in the standard of living of the people basically depend on the adequate
supply of electricalenergy.

The electrical energy is generated by hydroelectric power plants, thermal power plants and
nuclear power plants. The electrical power is transmitted from these power plants to the
consumer’s premises by using transmission and distribution systems. The power from the
generating station is transmitted at high voltage (such as 132, 220, 440 kV) over long
distances to the major load centres. The line should have sufficient current carrying
capacity so as to transmit the required power over a given distance without excessive
voltage drop and overheating. The line losses should be small and insulation length should
be adequate to cope with the system voltage.

The transmission system of an area is known as ‘GRID’. The different grids are
interconnected through the ‘TIE’ lines to form a ‘regional grid’ and the different regional
grids are further interconnected to form a ‘national grid’. Each grid operates independently.
Power can be transmitted from one grid to another, over the tie lines under the condition of
sudden loss of generation or increase in load.

A single phase AC circuit requires 2 conductors. A 2-phase AC circuit using same size
conductor as a 1-phase circuit can carry 3 times the power which can be carried by a single
phase circuit and uses 3 conductors of 3-phase and 1-conductor of neutral. Thus a 3-phase
circuit is more economical then a 1-phase circuit in terms of initial cost as well as the
losses. All transmission and distribution systems are, therefore, 3-phase systems. In fact, a
balanced 3-phase circuit does not require the neutral conductor as the instantaneous sum of
the 3 line currents is zero.

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Therefore, the transmission lines and feeders are 3-phase, 3-wire circuit. The distributors
are 3-phase, 4-wire circuit because a neutral wire is necessary to supply the 1-phase load
for domestic and commercial consumers. The standard frequency in India and many other
countries is 50Hz.

The overhead line conductors are bare and not covered with any insulating covering
coating. The line conductors are, therefore, secured to the supportive structures by means of
insulatingfixtures,calledtheinsulators,inorderthatthereisnocurrentleakagetotheearth through
the supports. The material most commonly used for overhead line is ‘Porcelain’. But
toughened glass, steatite and special composition materials are used to limited extent.
Insulators are required to withstand both electrical and mechanicalstresses.

In the present work, we have designed a 3-phase transmission system to transmit a given
power through a given distance. Subjected to the constraints such as efficiency and
regulation for a given power factor of the load. We have also attempted mechanical design
of a transmission line. The mechanical design comprises of selection and number of
insulators, proper sag and minimum distance of the line from the ground and based on this,
we have selected a suitable tower.

2.2 History of transmission line

Before we dig deep into the principles of Transmission Line Losses, let us first review a
brief history of the power transmission line particularly with Overhead Transmission Line.

Viewoftransmissionline

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The first transmission of electrical impulses over an extended distance was demonstrated on

July 14,1729 by the physicist Stephen Gray,in order to shoe that one can transfer electricity
by that method.

However the first practical use of overhead lines was in the context of telegraphy. By 1837
experimental commercial telegraph systems ran as far as 13 miles (20 km). Electric power
transmission was accomplished in 1882 with the first high voltage transmission between
MunichandMiesbach.1891sawtheconstructionofthefirstthree-phasealternatingcurrent
overhead line on the occasion of the International Electricity Exhibition in Frankfurt, between
Lauffen andFrankfurt.

In 1912 the first 110 kV-overhead power line entered service followed by the first 220 kV-
overhead power line in 1923. In the 1920s RWE AG built the first overhead line for this
voltage and in 1926 built a Rhine crossing with the pylons of Voerde, two masts 138meters
high.

In Germany in 1957 the first 380 kV overhead power line was commissioned (between the
transformer station and Rommerskirchen). In the same year the overhead line traversing of
the Strait of Messina went into service in Italy, whose pylons served the Elbe crossing 1.
This was used as the model for the building of the Elbe crossing 2 in the second half ofthe
1970s which saw the construction of the highest overhead line pylons of the world. Starting
from 1967 in Russia, and also in the USA and Canada, overhead lines for voltage of 765
kV were built. In 1982 overhead power lines were built in Russia between Elektrostal and
the power station at Ekibastusz, this was a three-phase alternating current line at 1150 kV
(Power line Ekibastuz-Kokshetau). In 1999, in Japan the first powerline designed for 1000
kV with 2 circuits were built, the Kita-Iwaki Powerline. In 2003 the building of the highest
overhead line commenced in China, the Yangtze RiverCrossing.

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 CHAPTER-3

COMPONENTS OF A TRANSMISSION LINE

3.1 Introduction

The transmission lines are like the arteries of the power system. Transmission
lines act as medium for carrying bulk energy from one substation to other.
The electric energy transmission is carried out at High and Extra High
Voltages (EHV). Voltage above 220 kV is usually referred as Extra High
Voltage. The transmission lines can be constructed over head or underground.
The overhead lines are bare conductors with proper clearances from earthed
structures and between the phase conductors.

3.2 Transmission system requirements

Listed below are the typical points to be considered before starting or even
operating an Electrical Power System. These factors can be best categorized
into three main points; Electrical Design, Mechanical Design & Structural
Design.

Electrical Design of AC system involves:

 power flowrequirements

 system stability and dynamicperformance

 selection of voltagelevel

 voltage and reactive power flow control

 conductorselection

 losses

 corona-related performance(radio, audible, and televisionnoise)

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  electromagnetic field effects

 insulation and over voltagedesign

 switchingarrangements

 circuit-breakerduties

 protectiverelaying.
Mechanical Design includes

 Sag and tensioncalculations

 conductorcomposition

 conductor spacing (minimum spacing to be determined under

electricaldesign)

 types ofinsulators

StructuralDesign

 selection of the type of structures to beused

 mechanical loadingcalculations

 foundations

 guys andanchors.

Miscellaneous features

 linelocation

 acquisition ofright-of-way

 profiling

 locatingstructures

 inductive coordination (considers line location and electricalcalculations)

 means of communication

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 3.3 Hardware components of transmission line

Fig no. 3.1 : Picture showing most common components of a transmissionline

 Structures for Support (Poles &Towers)

 Wires and Cables (phase conductors &OHGW)

 Insulators (ceramics &polymer)

 Connectors

 Guying forsupport

 LineArresters

 Others (vibration damper, corona ring, spacers,etc.

3.4 Conductors in transmission line

In the past, electric power was transmitted through the use mostly of copper
conductors. Copper is rank among the most ideal metals for transmitting
electricity due to its low resistivity also, of which it is second to silver.
However, in the modern days, aluminum replaced copper as a main material
for transmitting electricity simply because of the much lower cost and lighter
weight of an aluminum conductor in contrast to a copper conductor with the
same resistance. Another advantage of an aluminum is when compared to a

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copper with the same resistance, aluminum tends to have a larger diameter. It
is an advantage because with a conductor with a relatively larger diameter the
lines of electric flux originating on the conductor will be farther apart at the
conductor surface for the same voltage.

Electrical conductor

Fig no. 3.2 View of overhead conductors carry electric power

In physicsand electrical engineering, a conductor is a material which contains

movable electric charges. In metallic conductors such as copperor aluminum,
the movable charged particles are electrons. Positive charges may also be
mobile in the form of atomsbound ina crystal lattice which are missing
electrons (known as holes), or in the form of mobile ions, such as in the
electrolyteof a battery, or as mobile protons in proton conductorsemployed in
fuel cells. In general use, the term "conductor"is interchangeable with"wire."

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 Physics

All conductors contain electric charges, which will move when an electric
potential
difference(measuredinvolts)isappliedacrossseparatepointsonthematerial.
Thisflowof charge (measured in amperes) is what is meant by electric current.
In most materials, the direct currentis proportional to the voltage (as
determined by Ohm's law), provided the temperature remains constant and the
material remains in the same shape andstate.

3.4.1 Conductor Materials

Copperhas a high conductivity. Silveris more conductive, but due to cost it is

not practical in most cases. Because of its ease of connection by solderingor
clamping, copper is still the most common choice for most light-gauge wires.
Aluminumhas been used as a conductor in housing applications for cost
reasons. It is actually more conductive than copper when compared by unit
weight, but it has technical problems that have led to problems when used for
household and similar wiring, sometimes having led to structuralfires:

A tendency to form an electrically resistive surface oxide within

connections, leading to heat cycling of the connection (unless protected by a
well-maintained protectivepaste)

A tendency to "creep"during thermal cycling, causing connections to

become loose due to a low mechanicalyield pointof the aluminum;and

Acoefficient of thermal expansionsufficiently different from the materials

used for connections, accelerating the creep problem and addressed by using
only plugs, switches, and splices rated specifically foraluminum.

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These problems do not affect other uses, and aluminum is commonly used for
the low voltage "drop"between a power pole and the household meter. It is also
the most common metal used in high-voltage transmission lines, in combination
with steel as structural reinforcement.

Listed below are some of the known types of aluminium conductors that are
used by many transmission and distribution utility worldwide;

AAC All-AluminiumConductors

AAAC All-Aluminium-AlloyConductors

ACSR Aluminium Conductor, SteelReinforced

ACAR Aluminium Conductor, AlloyReinforced

Due to the low tensile strength of aluminium, experts created a way to fill this
void. They were able to create a higher tensile strength conductor by
incorporating aluminium with other types of metal. ACSR which consists of a
central core of steel strands surrounded by layers of aluminium strands is now
the type of configuration that are popularly used as conductors for
transmission lines.

Fig. no. 3.3 Aluminium with Steel

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 Fig. no. 3.4 Different kind of ACSR cables according to composition

3.4.2 Types of conductor

1. Stranded Hard Drawn Copper. Hard drawn copper has the

advantages of very high conductivity (i.e., very low resistivity), good
tensile strength and weather resisting properties. Many years back it
was widely used for construction of overhead lines. Due to non-
availability and high cost involvement, it is generally not use in India.
In other countries, too, it is very rarelyused.

2. Aluminium. Aluminium has the advantages of much lower cost and

lesser weight as compared to copper. The fact that an aluminium
conductor has a larger diameter
thanacopperconductorofthesameresistanceisalsoanextraadvantage.Alar
ge diameter. For the same voltage, leads to a lower voltage gradient at the
conductor surface with a tendency of reduced ionisation level of air and
corona

3. Aluminium Conductor Steel Reinforced (ACSR). ACSR

(Aluminium Conductor Steel Reinforced) conductor comprises hard
drawn aluminium wires stranded around a core of single or multiple
strand galvanised steel wire. Fig. 2.1(b) shows an ACSR conductor
having 7 strands of steel and 30 strands of aluminium. Aluminium
provides the necessary conductivity while steel provides the necessary

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 mechanical strength. During manufacture, a layer of grease is put
between aluminium and steel to reduce electrolytic action (corrosion)
between zinc and aluminium (The steel strands are galvanised with
zinc). All transmission lines and most of the distribution lines use
ACSR conductor. These conductors are manufactured in a wide
variety of sizes from 5 mm to over 40 mm overalldiameter.

Aluminum conductor steel reinforced (or ACSR) cable is a specific

type of high- capacity, high-strength stranded cable typically used in
overhead power lines. The outer strands are aluminum, chosen for its
excellent conductivity, low weight and low cost. The center strand is
of steel for the strength required to support the weight without
stretching the aluminum due to its ductility. This gives the cable an
overall high tensile strength.

4. Galvanised Steel. Galvanised steel conductors have been used to

advantage for extremely long spans, or for short line selections
exposed to normally high stresses due to climatic conditions. These
conductors are found most suitable for lines supplying rural areas and
operating at voltages of about 11 kV, where cheapness is the main
consideration. Iron or steel wire use is most advantageous for
transmission of small power over a short distance, where the size of
copper conductor desirable from economical consideration comes out
to be smaller than SWG, which cannot be used because of poor
mechanical strength. This conductor is not suitable for EHT lines for
the purpose of transmitting large amounts of power over a long
distance due to its followingproperties:

(i) Poor conductivity, 13% that ofcopper

(ii) High internalreactance.

(iii) It is subjected to eddy current andhysteresis.

(iv)

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5. Cadmium Copper. The conductor being used in certain cases is
copper alloyed with cadmium. Addition of 1 or 2 % of cadmium in
copper increase the tensile strength by about 40% and reduces the
conductivity only by 17% below that of pure copper.However,
cadmiumcopperiscostlierthanthepurecopper.Useofcadmium copper
will be economical for a line with long spans and small cross-section
i.e. where the cost of conductor material is comparatively small in
comparison to that of supports etc. Cadmium-copper conductors are
also employed for telephone and telegraph lines where currents
involved are quite small. However, owing to scarcity of copper,
cadmium-copper conductors on communication lines are being
replaced by ACSRconductors.

6. Copper-clad Steel. A composite wire, known as copper-clad or

copper-weld steel wire, is obtained by welding a copper coating on a
steel wire core. Line conductors made of copper-clad steel are
preferable stranded, and have a considerably large tensile strength than
the equivalent all-copper conductors. The proportion of copper and
steel is so chosen that the conductivity of composite wire is 30% to
40% of that of copper conductor of equal diameter. Such material
appears to be very suitable for river-crossings or other places where an
extremely long span isinvolved.

7. Phosphor Bronze. When harmful gases such as ammonia are present

inatmosphere and the spans are extremely long, phosphor bronze is
most suitable material for an overhead line conductor. In this
conductor some strands of phosphor bronze are added to the
cadmiumcopper.

Fig no. 3.5 Stranded Conductors.

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3.5 Insulators
The overhead line conductors are bare and not covered with any insulating
covering/coating. The line conductors are, therefore, secured to the supporting
structures by means of insulating fixtures, called the insulators, in order that
there is no current leakage to the earth through the supports. Insulators are
mounted on the cross-arms and the line conductors are attached to the
insulators so as to provide the conductors proper insulation and also provide
necessary clearances between conductors and metal work. The important
properties that an overhead line insulator must possessare:

1. High mechanical strength so as to bear the load due to the weight of

line conductors, wind force and ice loading ifany.

2. High relative permittivity so as to provide high dielectricstrength.

3. High insulation resistance in order to prevent leakage of currents toearth.

4. High ratio of rupture strength to flash overvoltage.

5. Ability to withstand large temperature variations i.e., it should not

crack when subjected to high temperatures during summer and low
temperature during winter. The dielectric strength should remain
unaffected under different conditions of temperature andpressure.

3.5.1 Insulator materials

A true insulator is a material that does not respond to an electric field and
completely resists the flow of electric charge. In practice, however, perfect
insulators do not exist. Therefore, dielectricmaterials with high dielectric
constants are considered insulators.Ininsulating materials valence
electronsare tightly bonded to their atoms. These materials are used in
electrical equipment as insulators or insulation. Their function is to support or
separate electrical conductorswithout allowing current through themselves.
The term also refers to insulating supports that attach electric power
transmissionwires to utility polesor pylons.

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The material most commonly used for overhead line insulators is porcelain
but toughened glass, steatite and special composition materials are also used
to a limited extent.

1. Porcelain. Porcelain is produced by firing at a controlled temperature

a mixture of kaolin, feldspar and quartz. It is mechanically stronger
than glass. It gives less trouble from leakage, and is less susceptible to
temperature variations and its surface is not affected by dirtdeposits.

On the other hand, it is not so homogeneous as glass, owing to the

fact that each component shell of a porcelain insulator is glazed during
manufacturing process and its satisfactory performance in service
depends to a considerable extent on the preservation of this glaze
which is only of the order of 25 microns in thickness. Also fault
cannot detect easily as it is not transparent. In tension his material is
usually weak and does not withstand tensile stresses .
The dielectric strength and compressive strength of a mechanically
soundporcelain

insulator are about 6.5 kV/mm of its thickness and respectively.

2. Glass. Glass is cheaper than porcelain in the simpler shape and if

properly toughened and annealed gives high resistivity and dielectric
strength (14 kV per mm of thickness of the material). Owing to high
dielectric strength, the glass insulators have simpler design and even
one piece design can be used. Glass is quite homogeneous material
and can withstand higher compressive stresses as compared to
porcelain. It has also a lower coefficient of thermal expansion which
minimises the strain due to temperature changes and owing to its
transparent nature flaws in the material can be readily detected by
visual examination. The main disadvantage of the glass is that
moisture more readily condenses on its surface and facilitates the
accumulation of dirt deposits, thus giving a high surface leakage. Also
in large sizes
thegreatmassofmaterialcombinedwiththeirregularshape,mayresultinint
ernal

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 3. Steatite. Steatite is a naturally occurring magnesium silicate, usually
found combined with oxides in varying proportions. It has a much
higher tensile and bending stress than porcelain and can
advantageously be used at tension towers or when a transmission line
takes a sharpturn

3.5.2 Types of insulators

Various types of insulators used for overhead transmission and distribution lines
are:

1 Pin Type Insulator. A pin insulator is small, simple in construction

and cheap. It is used on lines upto and including 33 kV lines. The
conductor is bound into a groove on the top of the insulator which is
cemented on to a galvanised steel pin attachedto the cross arm on the
pole or tower. To avoid a direct contact between the porcelain and the
metal pin, a soft metal (generally lead) thimble is used. An adequate
length of leakage path is obtained by providing the insulator with two
or three petticoats or rainsheds.Thesearesodesignedthateven
whentheouter surfaceoftheseinsulator is wet due to rain, sufficient
leakage resistance is still given by the inner dry surface. In its
electrical behaviour, a pin type insulator may be compared to a
complicated series of conductors with resistances in series and shunt.
The petticoats with the inverting air spaces from the condenser system
and the leakage paths over the surface and through the body of the
material are represented by theresistances.

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 Fig. no. 3.6 Pin Insulators (a) 11 kV (b) 33 kV

Pin type insulators are used only up to about 33 kV because for higher
voltages they tend to be very heavy and more costly than suspension
type insulators.

2. Suspension Type Insulators. The cost of a pin insulators increases

very rapidly with increase in line voltages. Therefore, suspension
insulators are used for line above 33 kV. They are also known as disc
insulators or stringinsulators.

Fig. no. 3.7 Picture of a Suspension Insulator

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A suspension insulator consists of porcelain disc units mounted above the other.
Each disc consists of a single shed of porcelain grooved on the under surface to
increase the creep age distance. The upper surface of each disc is inclined at a
suitable angle to the horizontal in order to ensure free drainage of water. Each
disc is provided with a metal cap at the top and a metal pin underneath. The cap
is recessed so as to take the pin of another unit and thus a string of any required
number of units can be built up. The most commonly used disc is the cemented
cap type.

3. Post Insulators. These are used for supporting the bus bars, and
disconnecting switches in sub-stations. A post insulators is similar to a pin type
insulator but hasa metal base and frequently a metal cap so that more than one
unit can be mountedin series. In extra high voltage sub-stations (400 kV and
above) polycon post insulators are used. In this insulator the porcelain elements
are in the form of cones smugly fitting one inside the other and bounded by
special cement. The puncture path is through many layers of porcelain cones
and the voltage required to puncture this path is many times the external flash
over voltages so that insulator is almost punctureproof.

Fig. no. 3.8 Picture of a Post Insulator

4. Strain Insulators. These are special mechanically strong suspension

insulators and are used to take the tension of the conductors at the
line terminations and at positions where there is a change in the
direction of line. The discs of a strain insulator are in a vertical plane
as compared to the discs of suspension insulator which are in a

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 horizontal plane. On extra long spans, viz, at river crossings, two or
three strings of strain insulators, arranged in parallel, are oftenused.

Fig. no. 3.9 Picture of a Strain Insulator

The electrical breakdownof an insulator due to excessive voltage can occur in

one of two ways:

 Puncture voltage is the voltage across the insulator (when installed in

its normal manner) which causes a breakdown and conduction through
the interior of the insulator. The heat resulting from the puncture arc
usually damages the insulator irreparably.

 Flashover voltage is the voltage which causes the air around or along
the surface of the insulator to break down and conduct, causing a
'flashover' arc along the outside of the insulator. They are usually
designed to withstand this withoutdamage.

Most high voltage insulators are designed with a lower flashover voltage
than puncture voltage, so they will flash over before they puncture, to
avoid damage. Dirt, pollution, salt, and particularly water on the surface
of a high voltage insulator can create a conductive path across it, causing
leakage currents and flashovers. The flashover voltage can be more than
50% lower when the insulator is wet. High voltage insulators for outdoor
use are shaped to maximize the length of the leakage path along the
surface from one end to the other, called the creepage length, to minimize
these leakage currents. To accomplish this surface is molded into a series
of corrugations or concentric disk shapes. These usually include one or
more sheds; downward facing cup-shaped surfaces that act as umbrellas

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 to ensure that the part of the surface leakage path under the 'cup' stays
dry in wet weather. Minimum creep age distances are 20–25 mm/kV, but
must be increased in high pollution or airborne sea-saltareas.

3.6 Line supports

The function of line support is obviously to support the conductors. Line
support must be capable of carrying the load due to insulator and conductors
including the ice and wind loads on the conductor along with the wind load
on the support itself.

The main requirements of the line supports are:

1. High mechanical strength to withstand the weight of conductors

and wind loads etc.
2. Light in weight without the loss of mechanicalstrength.
3.Cheaper incost.
4. Low maintenancecost.
5.Longerlife
The choice of line supports for a particular situation depends upon the line
span, cross- sectional area, line voltage, cost and local conditions

Fig. no. 3.10 Picture showing different parameters of a transmission line.

Page 24
3.6.1 Types of line supports
The line supports are of various types including wood, steel and reinforced
concrete poles and steel towers either of the rigid or flexible type.

1. Wooden Poles. These supports are cheapest, easily available, provide

insulating properties and therefore, are extensively used for the
distribution purposes specially in rural electrification keeping the cost
low. Their use is usually limited to low pressures (upto 22kV) and for
short spans (upto 60 meters). The wooden poles well impregnated
with creosite oil or any preservative have life from 25 to 30 years.
Wooden poles are very elastic and lines employing wooden supports
are often designed throughout for the transverse load. Longitudinal
strength at terminals and for anchor support is provided by means of
guys. Double pole structures of A or H types are often employed for
obtaining a higher transverse strength than that could be economically
provided by means of singlepoles.

Fig. no. 3.11 Picture of a Wooden Pole.

Page 25
2. RCC Poles. Poles made of reinforced cement concrete (RCC), usually
called the concrete poles, are extensively used for low voltage
distribution lines upto 33 kV.
TheirconstructionshouldconformtothestandardspecificationforRCCwo
rk,butin low case the dimension shall be less 25cm x 25cm the bottom and
13cm x13cm at the top. These poles are of two types in shape. One type is
square cross- section from bottom to top. The other type has rectangular
bottom and square top with rectangular holes in it to facilitate the climbing
of poles and reduce the weight of poles. These give good appearance, require
no maintenance, have got insulating properties and resistance against
chemical action, very strong, have longer life and can be used for longer
spans (80-200 m). Such poles are most suitable for water logged situations
where other types will not be at all suitable, as due to standing water wooden
poles will decay very rapidly, and steel construction will be having deposit
of rust. Since these poles are very bulky and heavy, therefore, transportation
cost is heavy and need care in handling anderection.

Fig. no. 3.12 Picture of a RCC Pole.

Page 26
3. Steel Poles. The steel poles are of three types (i) tubular poles (ii) rail
poles and (iii) rolled steel joists. The tubular poles are of round cross-
sections, the rail poles are of the shape of track used for railways and
rolled steel joists are of I cross-sections. Such poles possess greater
mechanical strength and permit use of longer spans (50- 80 m) but
cost is higher. Their life is longer than that of wooden poles and life is
increased by regular painting. These poles are set in concrete muffs at
the foundation in order to protect them from chemical action. The
average life of steel poles is more than 40years.

Fig. no. 3.13 Picture of a Steel Pole

4. Lattice Steel Towers: The steel tubular poles and concrete poles are
usually used for distribution in urban area to give good appearance and
steel rails or narrow-base, lattice-steel towers are used for transmission
at 11 kV and 33 kV and broad-base lattice-steel towers are used for
transmission purposes at 66 kV and above. The broad-base, lattice-
steel towers are mechanically stronger and have got longer life. Due to
their robust construction long spans (300 m or above) can be used and
are much useful for crossing fields, valleys, railways lines, riveretc.

Page 27
Fig. no. 3.14 Picture of a Lattice Steel Tower

Page 28
 CHAPTER -4
TOWERS
4.1IntroductionThe main supporting unit of overhead transmission line is
transmission tower. Transmission towers have to carry the heavy transmission
conductor at a sufficient safe height from ground. In addition to that all towers have to
sustain all kinds of natural calamities. So transmission tower designing is an
important engineering job where all three basic engineering concepts, civil,
mechanical and electrical engineering concepts are equally applicable.A power
transmission tower consists of the following parts,

1. Peak of transmission tower

2. Cross arm of transmission tower

3. Boom of transmission tower

4. Cage of transmission tower

5. Transmission Tower Body

6. Leg of transmission tower

7. Stub/Anchor Bolt and Base plate assembly of transmission tower.

The main parts among these are shown in the pictures.

Peak of Transmission Tower

The portion above the top cross arm is called peak of transmission tower. Generally
earth shield wire connected to the tip of this peak.

Cross Arm of Transmission Tower

Cross arms of transmission tower hold the transmission conductor. The dimension of
cross arm depends on the level of transmission voltage, configuration and minimum
forming angle for stress distribution.

Page 29
Cage of Transmission Tower
The portion between tower body and peak is known as cage of transmission tower.
This portion of the tower holds the cross arms.

Transmission Tower Body

The portion from bottom cross arms up to the ground level is called transmission
tower body. This portion of the tower plays a vital role for maintaining required
ground clearance of the bottom conductor of the transmission line.

Page 30
4.2 Design of Transmission Tower

RTSOFT
Page 31
 ERDuring design of transmission tower the following points to be considered in
mind,

 The minimum ground clearance of the lowest conductor point above the ground
level.

 The length of the insulator string.

 The minimum clearance to be maintained between conductors and between

conductor and tower.

 The location of ground wire with respect to outer most conductors.

 The mid span clearance required from considerations of the dynamic behavior of
conductor and lightening protection of the line.

To determine the actual transmission tower height by considering the above points,
we have divided the total height of tower in four parts,

1. Minimum permissible ground clearance (H1)

2. Maximum sag of the conductor (H2)
3. Vertical spacing between top and bottom conductors (H3)
4. Vertical clearance between ground wire and top conductor (H4).

4.3 Types of Transmission Tower

According to different considerations, there are different types of transmission towers.
The transmission line goes as per available corridors. Due to unavailability of shortest
distance straight corridor transmission line has to deviate from its straight way when
obstruction comes. In total length of a long transmission line there may be several
deviation points. According to the angle of deviation there are four types of
transmission tower-

1.A – type tower – angle of deviation 0o to 2o.

2.B – type tower – angle of deviation 2o to 15o.
3.C – type tower – angle of deviation 15o to 30o.
4.D – type tower – angle of deviation 30o to 60o.

Page 32
 As per the force applied by the conductor on the cross arms, the transmission towers
can be categorized in another way-

1.Tangent suspension tower and it is generally A - type tower.

2.Angle tower or tension tower or sometime it is called section tower. All B, C and D
types of transmission towers come under this category.

Apart from the above customized type of tower, the tower is designed to meet special
usages listed below, These are called special type tower

1. River crossing tower

2. Railway/ Highway crossing tower

3. Transposition tower

Based on numbers of circuits carried by a transmission tower, it can be classisfied as-

1. Single circuit tower

2. Double circuit tower

3. Multi circuit tower.

Page 33
 In generating station electrical power is generated at medium voltage level that ranges
from 11 kV to 25 kV. This generated power is sent to the generating step up
transformer to make the voltage level higher. From this point to the user end voltage
level varies in different levels. We can realize this voltage level variation step by step.

 At 11 kV or more than that up to 25 kV voltage level is maintained at alternator

stator terminals to generate electrical power in the generating station.

 This generated power is fed to the generating step up transformer to make this
medium voltage level to higher level, i.e. up to 33 kV.

 Power at 33 kV is sent to the generating substation. There the transformer increases

the voltage level to 66 kV or 132 kV.

 From this generating substation power is sent to the nearer substation to increase
the voltage level higher than previous. This level of voltage is increased at different
suitable levels, it may be at 400 kV or 765 kV or 1000 kV. This high voltage or
extra high voltage level is maintained to transmit the power to a long distant
substation. It is called primary transmission of power.

 At the end point of primary transmission of power, in the substation, the step down
transformers are used to step down the voltage level to 132 kV. Secondary
transmission of power starts from this substation.

 Power transformer at the end of the secondary transmission, just makes 132 kV
voltage level steps down to 33 kv or 11 kV as per requirement. From this point,
primary distribution of power starts to distribute power to different distribution
stations.

 At the end of primary distribution, the distribution stations receive this power and
step down this voltage level of 11 kV or 33 kV to 415 V (Line Voltage). From these
distribution stations to consumer ends, 415 V is kept to sustain for utilization
purpose

Page 34
 CHAPTER-5

DESIGN OF TRANSMISSION LINE

5.1 Introduction

The design of a transmission line involves a number of technical and economical aspects.
The power capacity and distance of transmission are specified. The voltage regulation and
efficiency are also specified. The design details include line voltage, size of phase
conductors, span, spacing and configuration of conductors, number and size of earth wires,
number of insulators, clearances, sag under operating and erection conditions, etc. Once
these design features are available, the voltage regulation and efficiency can be calculated.

5.2 Choice of voltage

The cost and performance of the line depend, to a great extent, on the line voltage. An
empirical formula for optimum voltage is

V (3.1)

Where V = line voltage in kV

L = distance in km

P = power in kW

A standard voltage nearest to this value should be adopted.

The above formula gives only a preliminary estimate. The choice of the most economical
voltage requires a detailed study of many technical and economical aspects.

Onepreliminary estimate is available a detailed analysis is necessary. This becomes all the
more necessary when the final choice is likely to fall in EHV/UHV range.

Page 35
System Voltages in Transmission Lines

Table shown is the standard system voltages from ANSI standards C84 and C92.2

According to ANSI standards C84 and C92.2, system voltages are recommend to be within
the table shown below. 345kV, 500kV and 765kV are considered to be in the Extra High
Voltage (EHV) level. The choice of system voltage is in the decision of the utility.
However, some points needs to be considered in choosing such, like voltage economics,
conductors, distances, equipments,etc.

Table no. 5.1 Standard voltages listed in ANSI standards C84 and C92.2

5.3Selection of conductor size

The cost of conductor size is about 30 to 45 percent of the total cost of the line. Moreover
the cost of towers, foundation and line losses also depend on the conductor size. A proper
selection of the size of phase conductors is, therefore, very important.
Page 36
Overhead transmission lines invariably use ACSR conductors. These conductors are
manufactured in a variety of sizes (Appendix A).

The size of the conductors should be such that it can carry the rated current continuously
without excessive rise in temperature. The temperature affects the sag and the loss of
thetensile strength (due to annealing) of the conductor. For copper and aluminium,
annealing startsatabout 100 C and the operating temperature should be well below this
value. The standard practice is to design the line for a conductor temperature of 75 C.

The temperature rise of the conductor depends on the conductor heating due to loss and
heat dissipation. In overhead lines heat is dissipated by convection and radiation. A steady
temperature will be reachedwhen

(3.2)

Where = rms value of conductor current, amperes.

= ac resistance of conductors, ohms/meter length.

= heat loss due to convection,wattsper surfacearea.

= heat loss due toradiation, wattsper surfacearea.

= conductor surface area per meterlength.

The heat loss due to convection is given by the equation.

(3.3)

Where p = pressure in atmosphere, Ta is the temperature of air in , v is the velocity of air

in m/sec, d is the diameter of the conductor in m and is the difference between the

temperaturesofconductorandair.Theaboveformulaisvalidisv0.15m/secandd

m.

Page 37
The heat loss due to radiation is proportional to the difference of the fourth power of the
temperature of the conductor and the surroundings. This loss can be found from the
equation

(3.4)

The T1 is the conductor temperature in , T2 is the temperature of surroundings and eis

the relative emissivity of the surface (e = 1.0 for black body and about 0.5 for oxidised
copper

5.4 Choice of span

A longer span means a smaller number of towers but the towers are taller and more costly.
The higher the operating voltages, the greater should be the span to reduce the high cost of
insulators. Moreover the insulators constitute the weakest part of a transmission line and a
reduction in the number of towers per km (by using longer span) increases the reliability of
the line. For every proposed line there is a definite length of span which will give the
minimum cost of the line. From mechanical consideration there is a maximum value of
span for each conductor size. Many a time it happens that the conductor size, as determined
from electrical calculations is very small and it is possible to reduce the cost of line by
using thicker and stronger conductor so that a longer span may be employed. Sometimes it
is not feasible to determine the tower height and span length on the basis of the line cost
alone because lighting hazards increase greatly as the height of conductors above ground is
increased. Modern high voltage lines have spans between 200 to 400 m. For river and
ravine crossings exceptionally long spans up to 800 m or so have been satisfactory
employed.

Page 38
Specifications
Long span overhead transmission line

 Minimumwear 

 Anti-loose

 Well corrosionresistance

 Easyinstallation

Characteristics

1. For a single wire material, whether it is damaged or continue, preformed line splicing
section 100% recoverable mechanical strength, and the length of the connecting wire inside
can greatly improveconductivity.

2. For ACSR for repair were not damaged, steel core, wire aluminium wire connecting
section can be restored to 100% strength and 10% of the steel core strength, and the
installation of wires within the article follow, lead performance greatly improved.

3. If the steel core damage, please select the article follow the wholetension.

Table 5.2: The usual spans

Withwoodenpoles 40-50m

With steeltubularpoles 50-80m

WithRCCpoles 80-200m

Withsteeltowers 200-400 m andabove

Page 39
 5.5 Choice of conductors

Many conductor configurations are used in practice. There is no special advantage in using
symmetrical configuration and in most cases flat horizontal or vertical configuration are
used from mechanical consideration. A flat horizontal configuration means a lesser tower
height but a wider right of way. A vertical configuration means a taller tower and increased
lighting hazards. In spite of these facts, flat horizontal and vertical configuration is used in
many cases. For single circuit lines an L type configuration is quitepopular.

A transmission line may be a single circuit line or double circuit line. A double circuit line
has a higher power transfer capability and greater reliability than a single circuit line. Each
circuit of a double circuit line is usually designed for 75% of the line capacity. In India,
both single circuit and double circuit lines exist in the EHV and high voltage class (66 kV,
132 kV, 220 kV and 400 kV). In foreign countries also both single and double circuit line
exist. The number of circuits for a proposed line can be determined from the surge
impedance loading (SIL).

5.6 Spacings and clearances

There must be adequate spacing between conductors so that they do not come within
sparking distance of each other even while swinging due to wind. An empirical formula
commonly used for determining the spacing of aluminium conductor lines is

Spacing= meters (3.5)

Where S = Sag in meters

V = Line voltage in kV

Page 40
 Table 5.3: Some typical values of spacing

Line voltage(kV) 0.4 11 33 66 132 220 400

Spacing (m) 0.2 1.2 2.0 2.5 3.5 6.0 11.5

The Indian Electricity Rules specify the minimum clearance between the ground and the
conductor. These values are:

Table 5.4: Minimum clearance between the ground and the conductor

kV 0.4 11 33 66 132 220

Clearance to ground
(a) Across Street (m) 5.8 5.8 6.1 6.1 6.1 7.0
(b) Along Street (m) 5.5 5.5 5.8 6.1 6.1 7.0
(c) Other Areas (m) 4.6 4.6 5.2 5.5 6.1 7.0

These rules also specify the minimum clearance for power lines from buildings, railway
tracks and telecommunication lines, etc.

5.7 Insulation design

The insulation design affects the performance of the line to a great extent. Line insulation
should be sufficient to take care of switching over voltages, temporary over voltages and
atmospheric over voltages.

The insulation level of the transmission lines is based on the switching surge expectancy on
the system. The maximum switching surge over voltage to the ground is taken as 2.5 p.u
and the insulation is designed for this voltage. In addition adequate protection against
atmospheric over voltages (direct lighting strokes) is provided. In EHV and UHV lines over
voltages due to switching surge assume a greater importance than atmospheric over
voltages.

Page 41
Determination of line insulation:
The insulation of line has to be based upon the consideration or lightning and switching
surges and power frequency over voltages.

With the present day knowledge of lightning behaviour it is possible to build lines to a
certain predetermined level of performance. In case of high voltage lines of 132 kV and
above, these can be made particularly lightning proof by (i) efficient sliding, (ii) low tower
footing impedances. Good shielding is obtained when the shielding angel is about 300 and
similarly optimum conditions are generally obtained when the tower-footing impedance is
reduced to about 10 ohms.

The line insulation must be sufficient to prevent a flashover from the power frequency
over-voltage and the switching surges, taking into account all the local unfavourable
circumstances which decrease the flash-over voltage (rain, dust, insulator pollution, etc.). it
is usual to adopt the following over-voltage factors:

Table no. 5.5: Over voltage factors

Switching surge flash-over Power frequency flash-

voltage over (wet)

For220kV 6.5Vpn 0.3Vpn

For400kV 5.0Vpn 3.3Vpn

Where Vpn is the phase to neutral voltage (rms.)

Itisagoodpracticetomakean allowance foroneor moreinsulatordiscstotakecare of the

possibility of an insulator unit in the string becoming defective, and also for hot line
maintenance, over and above those required to withstand the above flash-overvalues.
Accordingly, for lines upto 220kV, one extra disc, and 400 kV lines two extra discs may be
used.

Page 42
 Table no. 5.6 F.O.V. of standard Discs (254×146 mm)
Impulse
No. Of Discs Dry FOV kV rms. Wet FOV kV rms.
FOV(standard full
waves) kV crest

1 80 50 150

2 155 90 255

3 215 130 53

4 270 170 440

5 325 215 525

6 380 255 610

7 435 295 695

8 485 335 780

9 540 375 860

10 590 415 945

11 640 455 1025

12 690 490 1105

13 735 525 1185

14 785 565 1265

15 830 600 1345

16 875 630 1425

17 920 660 1505

18 965 690 1585

19 1010 720 1665

20 1055 750 1745

25 1280 900 2145

30 1505 1050 2550

Page 43
 In the light of the above discussion, the number of isolator discs of 254×146 mm size
required to withstand switching surge and the power-frequency over- voltage for 132 kV,
220kV, and 400 kV lines is given below:

Table no. 5.7 Recommended Insulation Level for Lines

Normal Vpn Switching No. Power freq. No. No. Of Discs

system kV over-voltage Of Over- Of
Recommende Employe
voltage(kV kV crest Disc voltage Disc
d d at
s (wet) kV s
)
present
reqd. reqd.
132 76 76×6.5=495 5 76×3=228 6 7 9/10

220 12 127×6.5=82 9 127×3=381 10 11 15/16

400 7 5 13 231×3.3=76 20 22 24

23 231×5=1155 2

It can be worked out to see that lines working at voltages 132 kV and above are immune to
lightning provided, of course, if proper shielding and low tower footing resistance are
provided. For example, assuming a value of 50 kA (rms.) for the severest lightning
discharge and a tower footing resistance of about 10 ohm, the required impulse strength of
the insulation should be √2×50×103×10 i.e. 700 kV for a line to be immune from lightning
affects. 7discs as recommended in table above for a 132 kV line, would provide impulse
strength of almost (695 kV) the same value (700 kV), still better results in this case can be
obtained by reducing the tower footing resistance. For 132 kV lines the maximum tower
footing resistance kept is 7 ohms.

Page 44
5.8 Selection of ground wire
The primary function of ground wires is to shield the phase conductors from the lightning
strokes. They are placed above the phase conductors and are grounded at every/alternate
towers. Thus they help in dissipating the lightning currents to the ground.

The selection of the number and configuration of the ground wires is of great importance in
the protection of transmission line against direct strokes. The number of ground wires may
be one or two. A shielding angle of about 30 is considered to be adequate for high voltage
lines. However, for high voltages lines in areas with low lightning hazards, shielding angle

up to have been used. EHV lines are usually provided with two groundwires and the

shielding angle for such lines is kept at about 20 . To prevent back flashover from the
earthed metal to the phase conductors, the tower footing resistance should not exceed 10
ohms. The vertical separation between the ground wires and phase conductors should be
greater at mid span than at the supports, i.e., the ground wire should have lesser sage as
compared to the phase conductors. The material most commonly used for ground wires is
galvanised steel.

A ground wire should be able to carry the maximum expected lightning current, without
undue heating. It should also have sufficient mechanical strength. Experience has shown
that if a ground wire is mechanically strong, it can carry the maximum, it can carry the
maximum lightning current without excessive heating. Therefore, the size of ground wire is
generally decided on the basis of mechanical strength.

5.9 Evaluation of line performance

The line parameters are used to evaluate the efficiency and regulation. It is sufficiently
accurate to represent the line by a nominal circuit for the efficiency and regulation
calculations. However, if the line is very long, the calculations should be based on
ABCDconstants. If the efficiency and regulations are not within the prescribed values, it
may be necessary to revise the design by selecting a thick conductor cross-section and
changingthe conductor configuration. In some cases it may be necessary to use a higher
transmission voltage in the revised design.

45
5.10 Height of tower
Number of insulation strings = x

Height of one string = h1

Total height of insulation strings = x × h 1

Minimum clearance between the ground and the conductor = h2

Height of tower above insulation strings up to ground wire = h3

Total tower height = (x×h1) + h2+h3 (3.6)

5.11 Losses in transmission line

Total transmission line losses can be broken down into three relevant parts namely;
conductor losses, dielectric heating & radiation losses, and coupling & corona losses.

Conductor Losses:
Conductor losses is also popularly known as line heating losses since electriccurrentthat
passes through a conductor releases heat. It is known that any metallic materials possess
inherent resistive nature that is why it is inevitable that during electrical flow through these
materials unavoidable power loss occurs. Typical transmission line conductors consist of
resistance that is uniformly distributed throughout the system; as a result it is safe to say
that the total power loss in the line is directly proportional to the square of the current that
passes and the total resistance of the wire. In addition to that, resistance of the wire is
inversely proportional to the diameter of the conductor thus, the bigger the wire diameter,
the lower resistance it cangive.

The discussion of transmission lines so far has not directly addressed LINE LOSSES;
actually some line losses occur in all lines. Line losses may be any of three types -
COPPER, DIELECTRIC, and RADIATION or INDUCTION LOSSES.

NOTE: Transmission lines are sometimes referred to as rf lines. In this text the terms are
used interchangeably.

46
 Copper Losses
One type of copper loss is I2R LOSS. In rf lines the resistance of the conductors is never
equal to zero. Whenever current flows through one of these conductors, some energy is

dissipated in the form of heat. This heat loss is a POWER LOSS. With copper braid, which
has a resistance higher than solid tubing, this power loss is higher.

Another type of copper loss is due to SKIN EFFECT. When dc flows through a conductor,
the movement of electrons through the conductor's cross section is uniform. The situation is
somewhat different when ac is applied. The expanding and collapsing fields about each
electron encircle other electrons. This phenomenon, called SELF INDUCTION, retards the
movement of the encircled electrons. The flux density at the center is so great that electron
movement at this point is reduced. As frequency is increased, the opposition to the flow of
current in the center of the wire increases. Current in the center of the wire becomes smaller
and most of the electron flow is on the wire surface. When the frequency applied is 100
megahertz or higher, the electron movement in the center is so small that the center of the
wire could be removed without any noticeable effect on current. You should be able to see
that the effective cross-sectional area decreases as the frequency increases. Since resistance
is inversely proportional to the cross-sectional area, the resistance will increase as the
frequency is increased. Also, since power loss increases as resistance increases, power
losses increase with an increase in frequency because of skineffect.

Dielectric Losses
DIELECTRIC LOSSES result from the heating effect on the dielectric material between the
conductors. Power from the source is used in heating the dielectric. The heat produced is
dissipated into the surrounding medium. When there is no potential difference between two
conductors, the atoms in the dielectric material between them are normal and the orbits of
the electrons are circular. When there is a potential difference between two conductors, the
orbits of the electrons change. The excessive negative charge on one conductor repels
electrons on the dielectric toward the positive conductor and thus distorts the orbits of the
electrons. A change in the path of electrons requires more energy, introducing a power loss.

The atomic structure of rubber is more difficult to distort than the structure of some other
dielectric materials. The atoms of materials, such as polyethylene, distort easily. Therefore,

47
polyethylene is often used as a dielectric because less power is consumed when its electron
orbits are distorted.

Radiation and Induction Losses

RADIATION and INDUCTION LOSSES are similar in that both are caused by the fields
surrounding the conductors. Induction losses occur when the electromagnetic field about a
conductor cuts through any nearby metallic object and a current is induced in that object.
As a result, power is dissipated in the object and islost.

Radiation losses occur because some magnetic lines of force about a conductor do not
return to the conductor when the cycle alternates. These lines of force are projected into
space as radiation and this results in power losses. That is, power is supplied by the source,
but is not available to theload.

Corona loss
Corona as defined by IEEE standard 539-1990

Power lost due to corona process. On overhead power lines, this loss is expressed in watts
per meter (W/m) or kilowatts per kilometre (kW/km). A luminous discharge due to
ionization of the air surrounding an electrode caused by a voltage gradient exceeding a
certain critical value is called corona.

What is Corona Effect?

One of the phenomena associated with all energized electrical devices, including high-
voltage transmission lines, is corona. The localized electric field near a conductor can be
sufficiently concentrated to ionize air close to the conductors. This can result in a partial
discharge of electrical energy called a corona discharge, or corona.

What is Corona?
Electric transmission lines can generate a small amount of sound energy as a result
ofcorona.

Corona is a phenomenon associated with all transmission lines. Under certain conditions,
the localized electric field near energized components and conductors can produce a tiny
electric discharge or corona that causes the surrounding air molecules to ionize, or

48
undergo a slight localized change of electriccharge.

Utility companies try to reduce the amount of corona because in addition to the low
levels of noise that result, corona is a power loss, and in extreme cases, it can damage
system components over time. 

Corona occurs on all types of transmission lines, but it becomes more noticeable at
higher voltages (345 kV and higher). Under fair weather conditions, the audible noise
from corona is minor and rarelynoticed.

During wet and humid conditions, water drops collect on the conductors and increase
corona activity. Under these conditions, a crackling or humming sound may be heard in
the immediate vicinity of theline.

Corona results in a power loss. Power losses like corona result in operating inefficiencies
and increase the cost of service for all ratepayers; a major concern in transmission line
design is the reduction oflosses.

Source of Corona:
The amount of corona produced by a transmission line is a function of the voltage of the
line, the diameter of the conductors, the locations of the conductors in relation to each
other, the elevation of the line above sea level, the condition of the conductors and
hardware, and the local weatherconditions

The electric field gradient is greatest at the surface of the conductor. Large-diameter
conductors have lower electric field gradients at the conductor surface and, hence, lower
corona than smaller conductors, everything else beingequal.

Irregularities (such as nicks and scrapes on the conductor surface or sharp edges on
suspension hardware) concentrate the electric field at these locations and thus
increasetheelectric fieldgradientandtheresultingcoronaatthesespots. 

Corona also increases at higher elevations where the density of the atmosphere is less
than at sea level. Audible noise will vary withelevation.

Raindrops, snow, fog, hoarfrost, and condensation accumulated on the conductor surface
are also sources of surface irregularities that can increasecorona.

However, during wet weather, the number of these sources increases (for instance due to
rain drops standing on the conductor) and corona effects are therefore greater.

49
 Corona produced on a transmission line can be reduced by the design of the transmission
line and the selection of hardware and conductors used for the construction of theline.

 Physical Parameters of Corona:

Corona is caused by the ionization of the media (air) surrounding the electrode
(conductor)

Corona onset is a function ofvoltage

Corona onset is a function of relative airdensity

Corona onset is a function of relativehumidity

Methods to reduce Corona Discharge Effect:

1. By minimizing the voltage stress and electric field gradient.: This is
accomplished by using utilizing good high voltage design practices, i.e.,
maximizing the distance between conductors that have large voltage differentials,
using conductors with large radii, and avoiding parts that have sharp points orsharp
edges.

2. Surface Treatments: Corona inception voltage can sometimes be increased by

using a surface treatment, such as a semiconductor layer, high voltage putty or
coronadope.

3. Homogenous Insulators: Use a good, homogeneous insulator. Void free solids,

such as properly prepared silicone and epoxy potting materials workwell.

4. If you are limited to using air as your insulator, then you are left with geometry
as the critical parameter. Finally, ensure that steps are taken to reduce or eliminate
unwanted voltage transients, which can cause corona tostart.

5. Using Bundled Conductors: on our 345 kV lines, we have installed multiple

conductors per phase. This is a common way of increasing the effective diameter of
the conductor, which in turn results in less resistance, which in turn reduceslosses.

6. Elimination of sharp points: electric charges tend to form on sharp points;

therefore when practicable we strive to eliminate sharp points on transmission line
components.

7. Using Corona rings: On certain new 345 kV structures, we are now installing

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 corona rings. These rings have smooth round surfaces which are designed to
distribute charge across a wider area, thereby reducing the electric field and the
resulting coronadischarges.

8. Weather: Corona phenomena much worse in foul weather, highaltitude

9. New Conductor: New conductors can lead to poor corona performance for awhile.

10. By increasing the spacing between the conductors: Corona Discharge Effect can
be reduced by increasing the clearance spacing between the phases of the
transmission lines. However increase in the phase’s results in heavier metal
supports. Cost and Space requirementincreases.

Corona Detection

Light Ultraviolet radiation: Corona can be visible in the form of light, typically a purple
glow, as corona generally consists of micro arcs. Darkening the environment can help to
visualize thecorona.

Sound (hissing, or cracking as caused by explosive gas expansions): You canoften hear
corona hissing or crackingSound.

In addition, you can sometimes smell the presence of ozone that was produced by
thecorona.

Salts, sometimes seen as white powder deposits onConductor.

Mechanical erosion of surfaces by ion bombardment 

Heat (although generally very little, and primarily in the insulator)

Carbon deposits, thereby creating a path for severearcing

The corona discharges in insulation systems result in voltage transients. These pulses are
superimposed on the applied voltage and may be detected, which is precisely what corona
detection equipment looksfor.

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Power factor

Power Factor is defined in the fundamentals of electrical engineering as the cosine of the
phase angle between the voltage and the current. An inductive circuit is said to have a
lagging power factor, and a capacitive circuit is said to have a leading power factor
indicate, respectively, whether the current is lagging or leading the applied voltage.
(Stevenson Jr.)

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