and
creep
in
crystalline materials
Chap. 11
Mechanical Properties of Materials
Gauge
length
specimen
Result of a uniaxial tensile test
Ultimate
σ (Engineering stress) necking
tensile σUTS
strength Yield stic
pla
point
Yield σy
strength
elastic
break
STRENGTH Area = Toughness
STIFFNESS
Slope = Young’s
modulus (Y)
DUCTILITY
εf (strain to fracture)
ε (engineering strain)
If there is a smooth
transition from elastic
to plastic region (no
distinct yield point)
then 0.2 % offset proof
stress is used
During uniaxial tensile test the length of the specimen is
continually increasing and the cross-sectional area is
decreasing.
P
True stress σT = Ai = instantaneous area
Ai Eqn. 11.3
dL
True incremental strain dε T =
L
L
dL L
True strain εT = = ln Eqn. 11.4
L0
L L0
σT = Kε n
T Eqn. 11.5
K Strength coefficient
n work hardening exponent
What happens
during plastic • Externally, permanent shape change
deformation? begins at σy
• Internally, what happens?
What happens to crystal structure after
plastic deformation?
Plastic
Deformation
?
Some Possible answers
X-ray diffraction
EXPERIMENT 5
y
x
Tensile vs Shear Stress
N D: Slip direction
φ1 φ D
2
Φ1: angle between σ and N
N
φ1 φ D As = A cos φ1
2
FD F cos φ2
τ RSS = =
AS A
Area = As
cos φ1
F
= cos φ1 cos φ2
A
F τ RSS = σ cos φ1 cos φ2
F F
No resolved
shear stress
on planes
parallel or
perpendicular
to the stress
axis
F F
cos φ2 = 0 cos φ1 = 0
Plastic deformation recap
cos φ1 cos φ2
σy σ
1. τ CRSS changes.
2. σy changes
Schmid’s Law:
τ CRSS is a material constant.
Anisotropy of Yield Stress
τ crss
σy =
cos φ1cos φ2
τ CRSS
Slip system with
highest Schmid
factor is the
active slip system
cos φ1b cos φ 2b
σy σ
Shear stressτ
τ CRSS
b/2 b
d
Critical Resolved Shear Stress
1934
E. Orowan
Michael Polanyi
Geoffrey Ingram Taylor
Solution
From
W.D. Callister
Materials
Science
and Engineering
Minor Answer Scripts
Extra Class
Thursday 2nd. Nov. 10-11 am MS 702
• Slip dislocations
50
strain
Cu Whiskers tested in tension
The critical resolved shear stress to
move the dislocation depends upon
1.The width of dislocation
2.The Burgers vector
WIDTH of a DISLOCATION
brittle
2. Metallic crystal: Not in course
Weak and non directional bonds
wide dislocation
ductile
3. Ionic Crystal
Weak and non-directional bond but large b
brittle
Effect of temperature on dislocation motion
Higher temperature makes the dislocation motion easier
F
Yield stress W
e Al2
O3 S
i
18-8 ss
Eqn. 11.14
Ni
Fig. 11.8 11.15
Cu
11.16
11.17
0 T/Tm 0.7 11.18
Recipe for strength
Alternative:
Make the dislocation motion
DIFFICULT
Strengthening Mechanisms
• Strain hardening
• Grain refinement
• Precipitation hardening
Movement of an Edge Dislocation
A unit slip takes
place only when
the dislocation
comes out of the
crystal
During plastic deformation dislocation
density
of a crystal should go down
Experimental Result
Dislocation Density of a crystal actually goes up
Symposium
on
Plastic Deformation of Crystalline Solids
Pittsburgh, 1950
τ
P
A
b
B
τ
Q
b
http://zig.onera.fr/~douin/index.html
b
b
Fig. 11.9
http://zig.onera.fr/~douin/index.html
Problem 11.11
Strain Hardening or Work
hardening
σy
σy
Strain, ε
During plastic deformation dislocation density increases.
?
Strain Hardening
1
[10 1 ]
2 a2 a2 a2 Energetically
< +
1
[1 1 0] 2 2 2 favourable reaction
2
1
[0 1 1]
2
(001) not a favourable slip plane
Eqn. 11.20
⊥
(CRSS is high).
1
2
[1 1 0] The dislocation
1
2
[0 1 1] immobile or sessile.
1
[10 1 ] (1 1 1)
( 1 11) 2
⊥
(001) [110]
Fig. 11.10
Sessile dislocation a barrier to other
dislocations creating a dislocation pile-up
(1 1 1)
( 1 11)
Fig. 11.10
Piled up dislocations
Empirical relation for strain hardening or
work hardening
Weak Crystal
Difficult Difficult
Dislocation Motion Plastic Deformation
Strong Crystal
Grain Boundary
Grain 2
Grain1
Grain boundary
2-D Defect: Grain Boundaries
Slip plane
Disloca-
tion
Grain Boundary
Grain Boundary Strengthening
k
σ y = σ0 +
D
σy: yield strength
D: average grain diameter
σ0, k: constants
Hardness increases as as a function of time
hardness
As-quenched
hardness
time
Dislocation can
⊥ ⊥
before after
Fig 11.14 a, c
Dislocation bypassing the
precipitate
µb
τ=
L Fig. 11.14 b and d
Movement of one-
dimensional defects called
dislocations causes plastic
deformation
Distortion caused by a
Perfect Crystal
large interstitial atom
Substitutional Solid Solution
Zn (1.31)
50
0 10 20 30 40
Solute Concentration (Atom %)
Figure: Anandh
Subramaniam
Fig 11.13
What was one major natural causes of deaths
during Kargil war?
T > 0.4 Tm
Tm is the m.p. in K.
CREEP
Fig. 11.15
Creep Mechanisms of crystalline materials
Cross-slip
Dislocation climb
Creep
Vacancy diffusion
σ σ
Flow of vacancies
Grain boundary sliding
At low temperatures the grain boundaries are ‘stronger’ than the crystal
interior and impede the motion of dislocations
Being a higher energy region, the grain boundaries melt before the crystal
interior
Above the equicohesive temperature grain boundaries are weaker than
grain and slide past one another to cause plastic deformation
Creep Resistant Materials
Whiskers
Composite Materials
Various Crystal Defects
Substitu-
tional
solute
Stacking
fault
G-P zone
Disloca-
tions
nuclear structure
Structure Sensitive
vs
Structure Insensitive Properties
For true understanding comprehension
of detail is imperative. Since such
detail is well nigh infinite
our knowledge is always
superficial and
imperfect.
Duc Franccois de la Rochefoucald
(1613-1680)